OFPfiSg; 


36,52 


an  i)^t  p0lg  Striptitns  0f  t^c  #Itr  antr 


UNDER    THE    EDITORSHIP    OF 


The  Rev.  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS  BRIGGS,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Symbolics 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 


The  Rev.  SAMUEL  ROLLES  DRIVER,  D.D. 

Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew,  Oxford 

The  Rev.  ALFRED  PLUMMER,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Late  Master  of  University  College,  Durham 


n 


The  International 

Critical  Commentary 

On  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments 


EDITORS'    PREFACE 


THERE  are  now  before  the  public  many  Commentaries, 
written  by  British  and  American  divines,  of  a  popular 
or  homiletical  character.  The  Cambridge  Bible  for 
Schools,  the  Handbooks  for  Bible  Classes  and  Private  Students, 
The  Speaker's  Commentary,  The  Popular  Commentary  (Schaflf), 
The  Expositor's  Bible,  and  other  similar  series,  have  their 
special  place  and  importance.  But  they  do  not  enter  into  the 
field  of  Critical  Biblical  scholarship  occupied  by  such  series  of 
Commentaries  as  the  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch  zutn 
A.  T.  ;  De  Wette's  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch  zum 
N.  T. ;  Meyer's  Kritisch-exegetischer  Komtnentar ;  Keil  and 
Delitzsch's  Biblischer  Commentar  iiber  das  A.  T. ;  Lange's 
Theologisch-homiletisches  Bibelwerk ;  Nowack's  Handkommentar 
zum  A.  T.  ;  Holtzmann's  Handkommentar  zum  N.  T.  Several 
of  these  have  been  translated,  edited,  and  in  some  cases  enlarged 
and  adapted,  for  the  English-speaking  public  ;  others  are  in 
process  of  translation.  But  no  corresponding  series  by  British 
or  American  divines  has  hitherto  been  produced.  The  way  has 
been  prepared  by  special  Commentaries  by  Cheyne,  Ellicott, 
Kalisch,  Lightfoot,  Perowne,  Westcott,  and  others;  and  the 
time  has  come,  in  the  judgment  of  the  projectors  of  this  enter- 
prise, when  it  is  practicable  to  combine  British  and  American 
scholars  in  the  production  of  a  critical,  comprehensive 
Commentary  that  will  be  abreast  of  modern  biblical  scholarship, 
and  in  a  measure  lead  its  van. 


The  International  Critical  Commentary 

Messrs.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons  of  New  York,  and  Messrs. 
T.  &  T.  Clark  of  Edinburgh,  propose  to  publish  such  a  series 
of  Commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  under  the 
editorship  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Briggs,  D.D.,  D.Litt.,  in  America,  and 
of  Prof.  S.  R.  Driver,  D.D.,  D.Litt.,  for  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  Rev.  ALFRED  Plummer,  D.D.,  for  the  New  Testament,  in 
Great  Britain. 

The  Commentaries  will  be  international  and  inter-confessional, 
and  will  be  free  from  polemical  and  ecclesiastical  bias.  They 
will  be  based  upon  a  thorough  critical  study  of  the  original  texts 
of  the  Bible,  and  upon  critical  methods  of  interpretation.  They 
are  designed  chiefly  for  students  and  clergymen,  and  will  be 
written  in  a  compact  style.  Each  book  will  be  preceded  by  an 
Introduction,  stating  the  results  of  criticism  upon  it,  and  discuss- 
ing impartially  the  questions  still  remaining  open.  The  details 
of  criticism  will  appear  in  their  proper  place  in  the  body  of  the 
Commentary.  Each  section  of  the  Text  will  be  introduced 
with  a  paraphrase,  or  summary  of  contents.  Technical  details 
of  textual  and  philological  criticism  will,  as  a  rule,  be  kept 
distinct  from  matter  of  a  more  general  character  ;  and  in  the 
Old  Testament  the  exegetical  notes  will  be  arranged,  as  far  as 
possible,  so  as  to  be  serviceable  to  students  not  acquainted  with 
Hebrew.  The  History  of  Interpretation  of  the  Books  will  be 
dealt  with,  when  necessary,  in  the  Introductions,  with  critical 
notices  of  the  most  important  literature  of  the  subject.  Historical 
and  Archaeological  questions,  as  well  as  questions  of  Biblical 
Theology,  are  included  in  the  plan  of  the  Commentaries,  but 
not  Practical  or  Homiletical  Exegesis.  The  Volumes  will  con- 
stitute a  imiform  series. 


The  International  Critical  Commentary 


A    CRITICAL    AND 
EXEGETICAL    COMMENTARY 


ON 


MICAH,  ZEPHANIAH, 
NAHUM,  HABAKKUK, 
OBADIAH  AND  JOEL 


BY 


JOHN    MERLIN    POWIS    SMITH,    Ph.D. 

WILLIAM   HAYES   WARD,    D.D.,    LL.D. 

JULIUS  A.   BEWER,   Ph.D. 


NEW   YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

1911 


Copyright,  iqh,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


Published  November,  191 1 


PREFACE. 

IN  1890  the  late  Pres.  William  R.  Harper  agreed  to  write  a 
commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets  in  two  volumes  for  this 
series  of  commentaries.  But  later  on  this  was  found  to  be 
impracticable,  and  it  was  agreed  to  allow  him  three  volumes  for 
the  work.  The  first  volume,  containing  Amos  and  Hosea,  was 
published  in  1905.  Dr.  Harper  was  at  work  upon  the  second  volume 
when  he  was  taken  from  us  by  death.  His  pupil  and  associate, 
Prof.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith,  who  had  assisted  him  in  his  preliminary 
studies,  was  asked  to  complete  the  commentary  on  Micah  and 
now  assumes  the  entire  responsibility  for  that  work.  He  wishes 
to  make  grateful  acknowledgment  of  his  indebtedness  to  the  late 
Pres.  William  R.  Harper  for  invaluable  inspiration  and  much 
help  in  the  work  on  Micah,  and  to  Mrs.  William  R.  Harper  for 
the  free  use  of  Dr.  Harper's  papers  and  books  and  for  permis- 
sion to  incorporate  some  of  his  results  in  the  present  commentary. 
These  appear  chiefly  in  the  general  comments  on  Micah,  chs.  i 
and  2  and  6'"*. 

The  delay  in  the  preparation  of  the  volumes  was  so  great  that 
it  seemed  best  to  distribute  the  work  remaining  to  be  done  among 
several  scholars.  Accordingly,  Zephaniah  and  Nahum  were  un- 
dertaken by  Prof.  Charles  P.  Fagnani,  who,  however,  was  obliged 
after  some  years  to  give  them  up  on  account  of  ill  health,  when 
Prof.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith  kindly  assumed  the  task.  Habakkuk 
was  assigned  to  Dr.  W.  Hayes  Ward,  Obadiah  and  Joel  to  Prof. 
Julius  A.  Bewer.  These  six  prophets  are  published  in  this  vol- 
ume. The  remaining  prophets,  Haggai  and  Zechariah  by  Prof. 
Henry  G.  Mitchell,  Malachi  by  Prof.  J.  M.  Powis  Smith,  and 
Jonah  by  Prof.  Julius  A.  Bewer,  will  be  published  soon  in  a  third 
volume  completing  the  commentaries  on  the  Minor  Prophets. 


IV  PREFACE 

The  order  of  arrangement  of  the  Minor  Prophets  in  these  vol- 
umes dififers,  not  only  from  the  traditional  arrangement  found  in 
our  Bibles,  but  also  from  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Harper  in  his  orig- 
inal plan.  Dr.  Harper  departed  from  the  traditional  arrangement 
in  his  volume  by  placing  Amos  before  Hosea,  and  also  in  his  plan 
for  the  remaining  volumes  stated  in  the  preface  of  his  commentary. 
The  traditional  arrangement  was  not  a  chronological  one,  even 
from  the  point  of  view  of  traditional  theories  of  authorship,  and 
from  the  point  of  view  of  modem  criticism  it  has  little  if  any  pro- 
priety. It  would  be  exceedingly  difficult  and,  so  far  as  the  edi- 
tors are  concerned,  impracticable  to  insist  upon  any  chronological 
scheme,  especially  in  view  of  the  great  number  of  different  writ- 
ings of  different  dates  combined  under  the  names  of  these  Minor 
Prophets,  where  indeed  there  is  ample  room  for  differences  of 
opinion.  We  were  compelled  therefore  to  consider  the  views  of 
the  several  authors,  and  at  the  same  time  respect  the  traditional 
arrangement  wherever  practicable.  The  order  finally  agreed  upon 
in  this  commentary  is  not  therefore  an  ideal  one,  but  the  best  that 
we  could  make  under  all  the  circumstances. 

The  several  authors  have  their  own  special  preferences  in  doing 
their  work,  and  there  are  therefore  differences  in  these  commenta- 
ries such  as  would  have  been  avoided  if  any  one  author  had  com- 
posed them  all.  All  the  commentaries,  however,  conform  to  the 
general  plan  of  the  series. 

It  was  thought  best  to  publish  the  work  of  the  several  authors  un- 
der separate  sub-titles,  each  with  its  own  separate  pagination.  This 
volume  is  thus  really  composed  of  three  little  volumes  bound  in  one, 
each  author  being  responsible  only  for  his  own  work.  The  editors 
are  not  responsible  for  the  opinions  of  the  authors  or  for  the  details 
of  their  work,  but  only  for  the  choice  of  the  authors  and  such  gen- 
eral supervision  of  their  work  as  to  insure  its  conformity  to  the 
plan  of  the  series. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE iii-iv 

ABBREVIATIONS v-xvii 

INTRODUCTION   TO   MICAH 5-29 

§  I.     The  Book  of  Micah 5-16 

1.  The  Text 5-6 

2.  The  Style 6 

3.  Poetic  Form 6-8 

4.  Component  Parts 8-16 

5.  The  Formation  of  the  Book  of  Micah    .  16 
§  2.    The  Prophet  Micah 17-19 

1.  His  Name 17 

2.  His  Home 17-18 

3.  His  Character 18-19 

§  3.    The  Times  of  Micah 19-23 

1.  The  Date  of  His  Prophecies 19-21 

2.  The  Background  of  Chs.  1-3 21-23 

§  4.    The  Message  of  Micah 23-26 

§  5.     Recent  Literature  on  the  Book  of  Micah    .     .     .  26-29 

COMMENTARY   ON   MICAH 30-156 

INTRODUCTION   TO   ZEPHANIAH 159-181 

§  I.    From  the  Fall  of  Thebes  to  the  Fall  of  Nineveh  159-165 
§2.    Zephaniah  AND  His  Times 166-171 

1.  The  Man 166-167 

2.  The  Times 167-171 

§  3.    The  Book  of  Zephaniah 171-176 

1.  The  Contents 171-172 

2.  Later  Additions .  172-174 

3.  Poetic  Form 174-176 

§  4.    The  Message  of  Zephaniah 177-180 

§  5.    Literature  on  the  Book  of  Zephaniah 180-181 

V 


VI  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

COMMENTARY   ON  ZEPHANIAH 182-263 

INTRODUCTION  TO   NAHUM 267-283 

§  I.    The  Book  of  Nahum 267-274 

Its  Contents 267-268 

Its  Unity  268-270 

Its  Poetic  Form         270-274 

§  2.    The  Times  of  Nahum 274-279 

§  3.    The  Man  and  the  Message 279-282 

The  Man 279-280 

The  Message 280-282 

§  4.    Literature  on  the  Book  of  Nahum 282-283 

COMMENTARY   ON   NAHUM 284-360 

INDEXES   TO   MICAH,   ZEPHANIAH   AND   NAHUM   .     .  361-363 

I.     Index  of  Hebrew  Words 361 

II.    Index  of  Subjects 362-363 

INTRODUCTION   TO   HABAKKUK 3-7 

Authorship  and  Date 3-7 

Topical  Analysis 7 

COMMENTARY   ON   HABAKKUK 8-28 

INTRODUCTION   TO    OBADIAH 3-18 

§  I.    The  Composition  of  the  Book 3-5 

§  2.    The  Date  of  the  Book 6-9 

§  3.    The  Interpretation  of  the  Book 10-13 

§  4.    The  Prophet  and  His  Book 13-14 

§  5.     The  Text 15 

§  6,    The  Metre 15-17 

§  7.     Modern  Literature 17-18 

COMMENTARY   ON   OBADIAH 19-46 

INTRODUCTION  TO    JOEL 49-72 

§  I.    The  Composition  of  the  Book 49-56 

§  2.     The  Date  of  the  Book 56-62 

§  3.     The  Interpretation  of  the  Book 62-67 

§  4.    The  Prophet 67-68 

§  5.     The  Text  and  Metre 68-71 

§  6.    Modern  Literature 71-72 

COMMENTARY   ON    JOEL 73-144 

INDEXES   TO    OBADIAH   AND    JOEL 145-146 


ABBREVIATIONS 


I.     TEXTS   AND   VERSIONS 


A  =  Arabic  Version. 

Aq.         =  Aquila's  translation,  cited 
from   Field's   Hexapla. 
Arm.     =  Armenian  Version. 
AV.        =  Authorized  Version(i6ii). 

Bab.  Cod.  =  Prophetarum  posleri- 
orum  codex  Baby- 
lonicus  Petropoli- 
tanus.  Ed.  H.  L. 
Strack  (1876). 

E'  =  Origen's  Quinta. 

Eth.       =  Ethiopic  Version. 

C5  =  The    Septuagint,    in    the 

received  Greek  Ver- 
sion. 

^A         —  Codex  Ale.xandrinus. 

^Aid       =  Aldine  Text. 

(S^'         =  Codex  Sinaiticus. 

(gB         =  Codex  Vaticanus. 

(SQ  =  Codex  Marchalianus. 

(&^         =  Codex  Taurinensis. 

HP.  =  Texts  of  Holmes  and  Par- 
sons. 

3  =  Jerome's  Version. 

Kenn.  =  R.  Kennicott,  Veius  Tes- 
tamentum  Hebraicum 
cum  variis  lectionibus 
(1776-80). 

Kt.         =  Knhibh. 

21  =  The   Old    Latin   Text  of 

the     Minor     Prophets, 


Lu. 


cited    from    Oesterley's 
edition   in   the  Journal 
of  Theological  Studies, 
vol.  V  (1903). 
Luther's  Version. 


m 

=  The  Massoretic  Text. 

Mas. 

=  Masora. 

NT. 

=  New  Testament. 

OT. 

=  Old  Testament. 

Qr. 

=  Q^ri. 

RV. 

=  Revised  Version. 

RVm. 

=  Revised  Version,  margin 

g>  =  The  Peshitto,  cited  from 

the  Paris  Polyglot. 

^^         =  Syro  Hexaplar  text. 

Slav.      =  Slavic  Version. 

2  =  Symmachus's  translation, 

cited  from  Field's  Hex- 
apla. 

(3  =  The  Targum,  cited  from 

the  Paris  Polyglot. 

9  =  Theodotion's    translation, 

cited  from  Field's  Hex- 
apla. ■ 

TS  =  The  Vulgate,  cited  from 

Hetzenauer,  Biblia  Sa- 
cra Vulgalce  Editionis 
(1906). 

Vrss.      =  Versions. 


vu 


Vlll 


ABBREVIATIONS 


II.     BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 


Am. 

=  Amos. 

Jos. 
Ju. 

=  Joshua. 
=  Judges. 

BS. 

=  The  Wisdom  of 

Jesus 

Jud. 

=  Judith. 

Ben  Sira,  or  Eccle-   1 

I,  2   K. 

=  I,  2  Kings. 

siasticus. 

La. 

=  Lamentations. 

I,  2  Ch. 

=  I,  2  Chronicles. 

Lk. 

=  Luke. 

Col. 

=  Colossians. 

Lv. 

=  Leviticus. 

I,  2  Cor. 

=  I,  2  Corinthians. 

Ct. 

=  Canticles  =  The 

Song 

Mai. 

=  Malachi. 

of  Songs. 

I,  2  Mac. 

Mi. 

=  I,  2  Maccabees. 
=  Micah. 

Dn. 

=  Daniel. 

Mk. 

=  Mark. 

Dt. 

=  Deuteronomy. 

Mt. 

=  Matthew. 

Ec. 

=  Ecclesiastes. 

Na. 

=  Nahum. 

Eph. 

=  Ephesians. 

Ne. 

=  Nehemiah. 

I,  2  Esd. 

=  I,  2  Esdras. 

Nu. 

=  Numbers. 

Est. 

=  Esther. 

Ex. 

=  Exodus. 

Ob. 

=  Obadiah. 

Ez. 

=  Ezekiel. 

Phil. 

=  Philippians. 

Ezr. 

=  Ezra. 

Pr. 

=  Proverbs. 

Gal. 

=  Galatians. 

Ps. 

=  Psalms. 

Gn. 

=  Genesis. 

Rev. 

=  Revelation. 

Hb. 

=  Habakkuk. 

Rom. 

=  Romans. 

Heb. 

=  Hebrews. 

Ru. 

-=  Ruth. 

Hg. 

=  Haggai. 

1,2  S. 

=  I,  2  Samuel. 

Ho. 

=  Hosea. 

I,  2  Thes 

=  I,  2  Thessalonians. 

Is. 

=  Isaiah. 

1,  2  Tim. 

=  1,2  Timothy. 

Jb. 

=  Job. 

Tob. 

=  Tobit. 

Je. 

=  Jeremiah. 

Wisd. 

=  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 

Jn. 

=  John. 

Jo. 

=  Joel. 

Zc. 

=  Zechariah. 

Jon. 

=  Jonah. 

Zp. 

=  Ze  haniah. 

III.     AUTHORS 

AND  WRITINGS 

Abar. 

=  Rabbi      Izaak 

ben 

AE. 

=  Rabbi  Abraham  ben 

Juda    A  barb 

anel 

Meir  ibn    Ezra 

(ti5o8). 

(tii67) 

ABBREVL\TIONS 


IX 


AJSL. 

AJTh. 
A  OF. 

Am. 

Bach. 


Bae. 
Barth,  NB. 


Bart. 
BAS. 


Bauer 


BDB. 


=  American  Journal  of 
Semitic  Languages 
and  Literatures. 

=  American  Journal  of 
Theology. 

=  Altorientalische  For- 
schungen,  von  H. 
Winckler. 

=  W.  R.  Arnold,  The 
Coviposition  of 
Na.  I•-2^  ZAW., 
XXI,  225-65. 

=  J.  Bachmann,  Zur 
Text-Kritik  des 
Propheten  Zeph- 
anja,  in  SK.,  1894, 
pp.  641-55. 

=  F.  Baethgen. 

=  J.  Barth,  Die  Nom- 
inalbildung  in  den 
Semitischen  Spra- 
chen  (1889-91). 

=  G.  A.  Barton. 

:  Beitrdge  zur  Assyri- 
ologie  und  Semiti- 
schen Sprachwis- 
senschaft. 

■■  G.  L.  Bauer,  Die  klein- 
en  Propheten  iiber- 
setzt  u.s.w.  (1786). 

=  A  Hebrew  and  Eng- 
lish Lexicon  of 
the  Old  Testament, 
with  an  Appendix 
containing  the  Bib- 
lical A  ramaic, 
based  on  the  Lexi- 
con of  William  Ge- 
senius  as  trans- 
lated by  Edward 
Robinson,  edited  by 
Francis  Brown, 
with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  S.  R.  Driver 
and  Charles  A. 
Briggs(i89i-i9o6). 


Beer 

=  Article  Zephanja,  in 

PRE} 

Bew. 

=  J.  A.  Bewer. 

Bick. 

=  G.    Bickell,   Beitrdge 

zur    semit.    Metrik 

(1894). 

Bick.» 

=  Idem,    in    ZDMG., 

XXXI  V(  1880),  559 

ff.  or  Carmina  Vet. 

Test.Metrice{i&82), 

212  f. 

Boch. 

=  S.  Bochart. 

Bo. 

=  F.  Bottcher. 

Br. 

=  Breiteneicher,  Ninive 

und  Nahum  (1861). 

Brd. 

=  C.  J.  Bredenkamp. 

Bu. 

=  K.  Budde. 

Bu.Gesch. 

=  Idem,  Geschichte  der 

althebrdischen    Lit- 

ter atur  (1906). 

Cal. 


Casp. 


CB. 


Che. 


CIS. 

Con. 
Cor. 


Calvin's  Commenta- 
ries on  the  Twelve 
Minor  Prophets. 

Caspari,  Der  Prophet 
Obadja,  1842; 
Ueber  Micha  den 
Morasthiten  und 
seine  prophetische 
Schrift  (1852). 

Critica  Biblica,  Part 
II :  Ezekiel  and 
Minor  Prophets,  by 
T.    K.    Cheyne 

(1903)- 
T.  K.  Cheyne,  Micah 

[Cambridge    Bible, 

1882]. 
Corpus  Inscriptionum 

Semiticarum. 
R.  P.  Condamin. 
C.  H.  Cornill,  Einlei- 

tung  in  die  kanon- 

ischen   Biicher   des 

Alten     Testaments 


ABBREVLVTIONS 


Cor. — Continued. 

(6th  ed.,  1908; 
Eng.  txansl.  of  the 
5th  ed.  =  Intro- 
duction to  the  Ca- 
nonical Books  of 
the  Old  Testament, 
1907). 

COT.  =  Cuneiform      Inscrip- 

tions and  the  OT. 
(Eng.     trans. 
KAT.-). 
=  K.  A.  Credner. 


Cred. 
Dathe 


Dav. 
DB. 


De. 
dcR. 


deW. 
Dl. 

Dl.Prol. 


=  J.  A.  Dathe,  Proph- 
etcB  minores  ex  re- 
censione  text  us  He- 
braei  et  versionum 
antiquarum  .  .  .  il- 
lustrati  (1773). 

=  A.  B.  Davidson. 

=  A  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  edited  by 
James  Hastings, 
4  vols.  (1898- 1 902) 
and  an  "Extra 
Volume"  (1904), 
cited  here  as  vol.  V. 

=  Franz  Delitzsch. 

=  J.  B.  de  Rossi,  Varia 
lectiones  Veteris 
Testamenli,  etc., 
vol.  Ill  (1786); 
and  Scholia  critica 
in  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenli libros 
(1798). 

=  W.  M.  L.  de  Wcttc. 

=  Friedrich     Delitzsch. 

=  Idem,  Prolegomena 
eines  neuen  He- 
hr  disch-  Aramdis- 
chen  Worterbuch s 
zum  A  hen  Testa- 
ments (1SS6). 


131.HWB 


Dr. 


Dr.^ 


Dr.Intr. 


Dru. 


Du. 


EB. 


Ehr. 
Eich. 
Einl. 

Elh. 


Idem,  A  ssyrisches 
Hajidworterbuch. 

S.  R.  Driver,  The 
Mi  nor  Prophets: 
Nahum,  Habak- 
kuk ,  Zephaniah, 
Haggai,  Zechari- 
ah,  Malachi.  In- 
troductions, Re- 
vised Version,  with 
Notes,  Index,  and 
Map  [The  Cen- 
tury Bible,  1906]. 
Idem,  A  Treatise  on 
the  Use  of  the 
Tenses  in  Hebrew 
(1874;  3d  ed., 
1892). 

•  Idem,  An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Litera- 
ture of  the  Old 
Testament  (Revised 
ed.,  1910). 

=  Drusius,  CommetUary 
on  Minor  Prophets, 
in  Critki  Sacri,  etc. 
(1660). 

=  B.  Duhm,  Die  zwolf 
Prophcten  in  den 
Versmassen  d  e  r 
Urschrifl  iibersetzt 
(1910). 

:  ErKyclopmdia     Bibli- 

ca,  ed.   by  T.   K. 

Cheyne    and    J. 

Sutherland    Black, 

4vols.  (1899-1903). 
=  A.  B.  Ehrlich. 
=  J.  G.  Eichhorn. 
=  Einleitung     in      das 

Alte  Testament. 
--  II.     J.    Elhorst,    De 

propJietie  van  Mi- 

cha  (1891). 


ABBREVL\TIONS 


XI 


Enc.  Brit. 

=  Encyclopedia     Bri- 

Gie. 

=  F.  Giesebrecht 

tannica    (9th   ed.). 

Gr. 

=  H.  Graetz,  Emenda- 

Eus. 

=  Eusebius. 

tiones  in  plerosque 

Ew. 

=  H.  Ewald,  Die  Proph- 

Sacra      Scriptural 

elen  des  Alien  Bun- 

Veteris   Testamenti 

des  (1840;  2d  ed., 

libros,  etc.    (1893). 

1867;     transl.     as 

Gray 

=  G.  B.  Gray. 

Commentary  on  the 

Gre. 

=  E.  J.  Greve,  Vaticinia 

Prophets  of  the  Old 

Nahumi    et  Hab., 

Testament;  5  vols., 

editio    me  trie  a 

1875-81)- 

(1793)- 

Ew.5 

=  Idem,    Ausfiihrliches 

Grimm 

=  K.  J.  Grimm,  EupJie- 

Lehrbuch  der  He- 

mistic    Liturgical 

brdischen    Sprache 

Appendices  in  the 

des   Allen    Bundes 

Old    Testament 

(8th  ed.,  1870). 

(1901). 

Exp. 

=  The  Expositor,  ed.  by 

Grotius 

=  Annotata  ad  Vet.  Test., 

W.  R.  Nicoll. 

vol.  II  (1644). 

Expos.  T. 

=  The  Expository  Times. 

Gu. 

=  H.  Guthe,  Der  Pro- 

Fag. 

=  C.  P.   Fagnani,  Tlie 

phet  Micha,  in 

Structure    of   the 

Kautzsch,   Heilige 

Text  of  the  Book  of 

Schrift     (3d     ed.. 

Zephaniah,  in  Old 

1909). 

Testament  attd  Sem- 

Gunk. 

=  H.   Gunkel,     Schop- 

itic    Studies    in 

fung  u.   Chaos  in 

Memory  of  W.  R. 

Urzeit    u.    Endzeit 

Harper,  II,  260-77. 

(1895). 

GASm. 

=  George  Adam  Smith, 

H.5 

=  W.  R.  Harper,  Ele- 

The    Book    of  the 

ments    of   Hebrew 

Twelve  Prophets 

Syntax  (1888;  5th 

(1897-98). 

ed.,  1899). 

Geb. 

=  Gebhard,  Criindliche 

H.AH 

=  Idem,  Cotnmentary  on 

Einleitung    in    die 

Amos   and  Hosea, 

zwolf    kleinen 

ICC,  1905. 

Propheten  (1737). 

Hal. 

=  J.    Halevy,     Recher- 

Ges. 

=  Wilhelm  Gesenius. 

ches  bibliques :   Le 

Ges.* 

=  Wilhelm    Gesenius's 

livre  de  Michee; 

Hebrdische   Gram- 

Le    livre    d'    Oba- 

matik,    vollig   um- 

dia,   in  Revue  Sc- 

gearbeitet   von    E. 

mitique,  vols.  XII 

Kautzsch  (1909-'). 

and  XIII  (1904/.). 

English    trans,    by 

Le   Livre    de    Na- 

Collins   and   Cow- 

hum,    ibid.,     vol. 

ley,  1910^. 

XIII;  Le  livre  de 

Xll 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Hal. — Continued. 

Sophonie,  ibid.,  vol. 
XIII. 

=  O.  Happel,  Das  Buck 
d.  Proph.  Nahum 
(1902). 

=  Micha  neu  ilhersetzt 
und  erldutert{\  800) . 

=  Kurzer  H  andcom- 
mentar  zum  AT. 

—  E.  Henderson,  The 
Book  of  the  Twelve 
M  inor  Prophets 
translated,  etc. 
(1868). 

=  Herodotus. 
Hesselberg   =  Die     zwolf     kleinen 
Propheten      ausge- 
legt  (1838). 

=  F.  Hitzig,  Die  zwolj 
kleinen  Propheten 
(1838;  4th  ed.  by 
Steiner,  1881). 

=  H.  Holzinger. 

=  C.  F.    Houbigant, 
Biblia    Hebraica 
cum  notis    criticis, 
etc.,  4  vols.  (1753). 
Hpt.  =  (i)  Paul    Haupt, 

Notes  on  Micah,  in 
American  Journal  of 
Semitic  Languages 
and  Literatures, 
July  and  Oct.,  19 10. 

=  (2)  The  Book  of  Na- 
hum, in  JBL., 
XXVI  (1907),  1-53- 
HWB.^^  =  Gesenius's  Hebr.  und 
aram.  Handwbrter- 
buch  iiber  das  AT., 
ed.  F.  Buhl. 

ICC.  =  I  nternaiional      Criti- 

cal Commentary, 
edited    by    C.    A. 


Hap. 


Hartmann 


HC. 


Hd. 


Hdt. 


Hi. 


Holz. 
Houb. 


B  r  i  g  g  s  ,    S.   R. 

Driver,   and   A. 

Plummer. 

7.1 05. 

=  Journal  of  the  Ameri- 

can Oriental  Soci- 

ety. 

JBL. 

=  Journal    of    Biblical 

Literature. 

JE. 

=  Jewish      EncyclopcB- 

dia. 

Jer. 

=  Jerome  (t42o). 

JMPS. 

=  J.  M.  Powis  Smith. 

Jos. 

=  Fl.  Josephus. 

JOS.A"' 

=  Idem,  Antiquities. 

JOS.B' 

=  Idem,  Bell.  Jud. 

JQR. 

=  Jewish  Quarterly  Re- 

view. 

JRAS. 

=  Jourtml  of  the  Royal 

Asiatic  Society. 

Jrm. 

=  A.  Jeremias,  in  BAS., 

III. 

JTS. 

=  Journal  of  Theologi- 

cal Studies. 

Jus. 

=  K.  W.  Justi,  Micha 

neu   ilbersetzt    und 

erldutert  (1799;  2d 

ed.,  1820). 

Kalinsky 

=  Valicinia  Habacuci  et 

Nahumi,     etc. 

(1748). 

KAT.^ 

=  Die     Keilinschriften 

und  das  Alte  Testa- 

ment,  von   Eb. 

Schrader.       Dritte 

Auflage    .   .   .   neu 

bearbeitet  von   H. 

Zimmern    und    H. 

Winckler  (1902). 

Kau. 

=  E.  Kautzsch,  Die  hei- 

lige     Schrift     d. 

AT.^ 

KB. 

=  Keilinschrifttiche  Bib- 

liothek. 

ABBREVIATIONS 


XIll 


Ke.  =  C.  F.  Keil,  Commen- 

tary on  the  Minor 
Prophets  in  Keil 
und  Delitzsch, 
Bibl.  Kommentar, 
vol.  IV  (1866; 
transl.  1880). 

Kent  =  C.  F.  Kent,  The  Ser- 

mons, Epistles  and 
Apocalypses  of  Is- 
rael's Prophets,  etc. 
[Student's  Old 
Testament,    1910]. 

Ki.  =  Rabbi    David    Kim- 

chi  (ti23o). 

Kirk.  =  A.  F.  Kirkpatrick. 

Kit.  =  R.  Kittel. 

Kl.  =  Paul  Kleinert,  Com- 

mentaries on  Mi- 
cah,  Nahum,  and 
Zephaniah  in  Lan- 
ge's  Bibelwer  k 
(1868;  Eng.  transl. 
1874). 

Knabenbauer  =  Com.    in    pro  ph. 
minor es  (1886). 

K6  =  Ed.     K5nig,     His- 

torisch-kritisches 
Lehrgebdude  der  He- 
brdischen  Sprache, 
vols.  I-III  (1881- 
97) ;  reference  is 
made  to  the  Syn- 
tax (vol.  Ill,  1897) 
unless  otherwise  in- 
dicated. 

Kol.  =  A.  Kolmodin,  Profeten 

Nahum,  Ofversdtt- 
ning  och  Utldgg- 
ning  (1898). 

Kre.  =  E.  Kreenen,  Nahumi 

Vaticinium  phi- 
lolog.  et  crit.  Exposi- 
tum  (1808). 


Kue. 

Lag. 
Lohr 


Marg. 


Marti 


Mau. 


Me. 
Mich 


=  Abraham  Kuenen. 

=  P.  de  Lagarde. 

=  Max  Lohr,  Zwei 
Beispiele  von  Kehr- 
vers  in  den  Proph- 
etenschriften  des 
Allen  Testaments, 
in  ZDMG.,  LXI 
(1907),  pp.  3-6. 


Max  L.  Margolis, 
Micah  [The  Holy 
Scriptures  with 
Commentary, 
1908]. 

K.  Marti,  Dodeka- 
propheton  [Kurzer 
Handcommentar 
zum  Allen  Testa- 
ment, 1903]. 

Maurer,  Commenta- 
rius  grammaticus 
historicus  criticus 
in  prophetas  mi- 
nor es  (1840). 

A.  Merx. 

J.  D.  Michaelis, 
Deutsche  Ueberset- 
zung  des  Allen  Tes- 
taments u.s.w. 
(1782). 
Mich.,  C.  B.=  C.  B.  Michaelis,  on 
Obadiah  and  Mi- 
cah, in  J.  H.  Mi- 
chaelis's  Biblia  He- 
braica  cum  A  nnott. 
(1720). 

J.  B.  Michaelis. 

J.  H.  Michaelis, 
Biblia  Hebraica, 
etc. 

Mittheilungen  der 
Vorderasiat  isch  en 
Gesell.chaft. 


Mich.,  J.  B. 
Mich.,  J.  H. 


MVAG. 


XIV 


ABBT^EVIATIONS 


NCB.  =  New  Century   Bible. 

New.  =  Newcome,    An    At- 

tempt towards  an 
Improved  Version, 
Metrical  Arrange- 
ment and  Explana- 
tion of  tlie  Twelve 
Minor  Prophets 
(18^6). 

No.  =  Theodor  Noldeke. 

Now.  =  W.     Nowack,      Die 

kleinen  Propheten 
iibersetzt  und  er- 
kldrt  [Handkom- 
mentar  zum  Alten 
Testament,  1897; 
2d  ed.,  1903]. 

Now.K  =  Idem,  Duodecim  Pro- 

pIietce/mR.K'itteVs 
Biblia  Hebraica 
(1906). 


Ols. 

=  J.  Olshausen. 

OLZ. 

=  Orientalistische     Lit- 

eratur-Zeitung. 

Onom. 

=  Onomastica  Sacra, 

ed.  Lagarde. 

OortEn>- 

=  H.  Oort,  Textus  He- 

hraici      Emendati- 

ones,  etc.  (1900). 

Or. 

=  C.    von    Orelli,    Die 

zwolf    kleinen 

Propheten     ausge- 

legt  (1888;  3d  ed., 

1908;  Engl,  transl., 

1893). 

Os. 

=  Osiander,      Ezechiel, 

Daniel,  Osee,  Joel, 

Amos,    etc.,    juxta 

veterem  sen  Vulga- 

tam     tramlationem 

ad  Hebrceam  veri- 

tatem  emendati,  etc. 

(1579)- 

Pet. 
Pont 


PRE. 


PSBA. 


Pu. 


Perles  =  F.  Perles,  Analekten 

2ur  Textkritik  des 
Alten      Testaments 

(1895). 

=  Norbert  Peters. 

«=•  J.  W.  Pont,  Micha- 
Studien,  in  Theolo- 
gi  s  c  he  Studi'en 
(1888-89,  1892). 

=  Herzog's  Realency- 
clopddie  fUr  protes- 
tantische  Theologie 
und  Kirche.^ 

=  Proceedings  0/  the  So- 
ciety of  Biblical 
Archaeology. 

=  E.  B.  Pusey,  The 
Minor  Prophets, 
with  a  Commen- 
tary (1865  /.). 

Ra.  =  Rashi  (Jarchi  fiios). 

RB.  =  Revue  biblique. 

Reinke  =  (i)  Der  Prophet  Ze- 

phanja  (1S68). 
=  (2)  Ziir    Kritik    der 
alter  en  Versionen 
des  Proph.  Nahum 
(1867). 

Reuss  =  Das  Alte    Testament 

iibersetzt,  eingelei- 
tet  und  erldutert. 
Band  II:  Die 
Propheten  (1892). 

Ri,  =  E.  Riehm,  Handwor- 

terbuch  d.  bibl.  Al- 
terthums. 

Ro.  =  T.  Roorda,  Commen- 

tarius  in  Vaticini- 
um  Michae  (1869). 

Rosenm.  =  C.  F.  K.  Rosenmiiller, 
Scholia  in  prophe- 
tas  minores  (1836). 

Roth.  =J.   W.   Rothstein, 

Translation    of 


ABBREVIATIONS 


XV 


Roth. — Continued. 

Zephaniah  with 
notes,  in  Kautzsch's 
Heilige  Schrift? 

Rub.  —  P.     Ruben,     Critical 

Remarks  upon 
Sortie  Passages  of 
the  Old  Testament 
(1896). 

Ry.  =  V.  Ryssel,  Untersuch- 

ungen  iib  er  die 
Textgestalt  und  die 
Echtheit  des  Buches 
Micha.  Ein  krit- 
ischer  Kommentar 
zu  Micha  (1887). 


Sanctius 

Say. 
Schegg 


Schleus. 


Schnurrer 


Schw. 


Seb. 


=  Com.  in  pro  ph.  mi- 
nores  (1621). 

=  A.  H.  Sayce. 

=  P.  Schegg,  Die  klei- 
nen  Propheten 
ubersetzt  und  er- 
kldrt  (1854/.)- 

=  J.  F.  Schleusner, 
Opuscula  critica  ad 
versiones  Gracas 
Veteris  Testantenti 
pertinentia  (18 12). 

=  A  nimadversiones 
philologicce  criticcB 
ad  vaticinium  Mi- 
chae  (1798). 

=  F.  Schwally,  Das 
Buch  Ssefanyd, 
eine  historisch- 
kritische  U  nter- 
suchung,  in  ZAW., 
X  (1890),  165-240. 

—  M.  Sebok,  Die  Syr- 
ische  Uebersetzung 
der  zwolf  kleinen 
Propheten  u.  s.  w. 
C1887). 


Siev. 


Sm. 


SS. 


Sta. 
Sta.GVT 


Sta.^ 


Stei. 


Stek. 


Stk. 


Ed.  Sievers,  Metrische 
Studien;  Alttesta- 
mentliche  Mis- 
cellen:  6.  Zu  Joel; 
7.  Zu  Obadia;  8. 
Zu  Zephanja.  10. 
Zu  Micha  [Berichte 
iiber  die  Verhand- 
lungett  der  Konig- 
lichen  Sdchsischen 
Gesellschaft  der 
Wissenschaften  zu 
Leipzig.  Philolo- 
gisch  -  historische 
Klasse,  Band  LIX, 
1907]. 

R.  Smend,  Lehrbuch 
der  AUtestament- 
lichen  Religionsge- 
schichte  (1893;  2d 
ed.,  1899). 

C.  Siegfried  und  B. 
Stade,  Hebrdisches 
Wdrterbuch  zum 
Alten    Testamente 

(1893). 
B.  Stade  (ti9o6). 
Idem,  Geschichte  des 

Volkes     Israel 

(18S7). 
Idem,    Lehrbuch    der 

Hebr.     Grammatik 

(1879). 
H.  Steiner  (see  s.  v. 

Hi.). 
Schuurmans    S  t  e  k  - 

hoven,     De    Alex- 

andrijnsche    V  er- 

taling  van  het  Do- 

dekapro  pheton 

(1887). 
(i)    W.    Staerk,   Das 

Assyrische      WcU- 

reich  im  Urteil  der 


XVI 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Stk. — Continued 

Propheten  (1908). 
For  reff.  in  Micah. 
(2)  Idem,  Ausge- 
w  a  kite  poetische 
Texte  des  Alien 
Testaments  in  me- 
trischer  und  slro- 
phischer  Gliederung 
zum  Gebrauch  in 
Vorlesungen  und  in 
Seminarilbungen 
und  zum  Selbststu- 
dium.  Heft  2: 
Amos,  Na hum, 
Habakkuk  (1908). 

Strauss  =  Nahumi    de    Nino 

Vaticinium  (1853). 

Struensee  =  Neue  Uebersetzung 
der  Weissagungen 
Jesaias,  Joel,  A  mas, 
Obadja  und  Micha 
nach  dem  Ebrd- 
ischen  Text  mit  Zu- 
ziehung  der  griech- 
ischen  Version 
(1773)- 

Taylor  =  John     Taylor,     The 

Massoretic  Text 
andthe  Ancient  Ver- 
sions of  the  Book 
of  Micah  (1891). 

Theiner  =  Die  zwblf  kleinen 
Propheten  (1828). 

ThLZ.  =  Theologische  Litter a- 

tur-Zeitung. 

ThStk.  =  Theologische  Studien 

und  Kritiken. 

ThT.  =  Theologisch     Tijd- 

schrift. 

Um.  =  Umbreit,  Praktischer 

Commentar  iiber  die 
kleinen  Propheten 
(1844). 


van  H. 


Vern. 

Vol. 


Volz 


A.  van  Ploonacker, 
Les  douze  petits 
propheies  (1908). 

M.  Vernes. 

K.  VoUers,  Das  Do- 
dekapropheton  der 
Alexandriner,  in 
ZAW.,  IV  (1884). 

Die  vorexilische  Jah- 
■weprophetie  und 
der  Messias  (1897). 


We. 

=  J.    Wellhausen,    Die 

kleinen    Propheten 

iiber setzt    und    er- 

kldrt  (1892;  3d  ed., 

1898). 

Wkl. 

=  H.  Winckler. 

Wkl.Unt. 

=  Idem,    Alttestament- 

liche  Untersuchun- 

gen  (1892). 

WRS. 

=  W.  Robertson  Smith, 

The    Prophets     of 

Israel   (1882;   new 

ed.,  with  Introduc- 

tion    by     T.     K. 

Cheyne,  1895). 

WRS.R"'- 

=  Idem,  Lectures  on  the 

Religion  of  the  Sem- 

ites (2d  ed.,  1894). 

Wii. 

=  A.  Wiinsche. 

ZA. 

=  Zeitschrift  fur  Assyr- 

iologie. 

ZA  W.;  ZA  TW.  =  Zeitschriftfur  die 

A  Ittestamentliche 

Wissenschaft. 

ZDMG. 

=  Zeitschrift    der    deiit- 

schen    morgenldndi- 

schen  Gesellschaft. 

Zim, 

=  H.  Zimmern. 

Z6. 

=  Otto  Zockler. 

ZwTh. 

=  Zeitschrift   fiir     ivis- 

senschaflliche  The- 

ologie. 

ABBREVIATIONS 


XVII 


IV.     GENERAL,   ESPECIALLY   GRAMMATICAL 


abs. 

=  absolute. 

crit. 

=  critical,  criticism. 

abstr. 

=  abstract. 

cstr. 

=  construct. 

ace. 

=  accusative. 

d.  f. 

=  daghesh  forte. 

ace.  cog. 

=  cognate  ace. 

def. 

=  defective. 

ace.  pers. 

=  ace.  of  person. 

del. 

=  dele,  strike  out. 

ace.  rei. 

=  ace.  of  thing. 

difif. 

=  different,  difference. 

ace.  to 

=  according  to. 

dittog. 

=  dittography. 

act. 

=  active. 

dub. 

=  dubious,  doubtful. 

add. 

=  added,  addition,  ad- 

ditional. 

ed. 

=  edition,    editor,    edi- 

adj. 

=  adjective. 

torial. 

ad  loc. 

=  ad  locum. 

eg- 

=  for  example. 

adv. 

=  adverb,  adverbial. 

elsw. 

=  elsewhere. 

aTT. 

=  S.ira^  \ey6fj.evov,  word 

esp. 

=  especially. 

or  phr.  used  once. 

etal. 

=  et    aliter,    and    else- 

alw. 

=  always. 

where,   or   et   alii. 

apod. 

=  apodosis. 

and  others. 

Ar. 

=  Arabic. 

Eth. 

=  Ethiopia. 

Aram. 

=  Aramaic,  Aramean. 

exc. 

=  except. 

art. 

=  article. 

/•,/• 

=  and  following. 

Assy. 

=  Assyria,  Assyrian. 

fem. 

=  feminine. 

Bab. 

=  Babylonian. 

fig. 

=  figurative. 

b.  Aram. 

=  biblical  Aramaic. 

f.  n. 

=  foot-note. 

bibl. 

=  biblical. 

foil. 

=  following. 

freq. 

=  frequentative. 

ch.,  chs. 

=  chapter,  chapters. 

fut. 

=  future. 

c. 

=  circa,  about. 

caus. 

=  causative. 

gen. 

=  genitive. 

cent. 

=  century. 

gent. 

=  gentilic. 

cf. 

=  confer,  compare. 

Gk. 

=  Greek. 

cod.,  codd. 

=  codex,  codices. 

gram. 

=  grammatical. 

cog. 
cohort. 

=  cognate. 
=  cohortative. 

haplo. 
Heb. 

=  haplography. 
=  Hebrew. 

coll. 

=  collective. 

Hiph. 

=  Hiphil  of  verb. 

com. 

=  commentary,    com- 

hist. 

=  historical. 

mentators. 

Hithp. 

=  Hithpael  of  verb. 

concr. 

=  concrete. 

conj. 

=  conjunction. 

id. 

=  idem,  the  same. 

cons. 

=  consonantal. 

i.  e. 

=  id  est,  that  is. 

consec. 

=  consecutive. 

impf. 

=  imperfect. 

constr. 

=  construction. 

imv. 

=  imperative. 

cp. 

=  compare. 

indef. 

=  indefinite. 

XVlll 


ABBREVIATIONS 


inf. 

=  infinitive. 

pron. 

=  pronoun. 

ins. 

=  inscription,      inscrip- 

proph. 

=  prophet,  prophetic. 

tions. 

prtc. 

=^  participle. 

intrans. 

=  intransitive. 

Pu. 

=  Pual  of  verb. 

Intro. 

=  Introduction,      intro- 

ductory. 

q.  V. 

=  quod  vide,  which  see. 

rd. 

=  read. 

juss. 

=  jussive. 

refl. 

=  reflexive. 

1.,  11. 

=  line,  lines. 

rel. 

=  relative. 

Lc. 

=  loco    citato,     in     the 

rm. 

=  remark. 

place  before  cited. 

S. 

=  South,  southern. 

Ut. 

=  literal,  literally. 

Sab. 

=  Sabean. 

marg. 
masc. 

=  margin,  marginal. 
=  masculine. 

sf. 
sg- 

=  sufEx. 
=  singular. 

metr. 

=  metrical. 

sq. 

=  followed  by. 

St. 

=  state. 

mod. 

=  modern. 

str. 

=  strophe,  strophical. 

ms.,  mss. 

=  manuscript,    manu- 
scripts. 

subj. 

=  subject. 

subst. 

=  substantive. 

mt. 

=  mount  (ain). 

mtr.  cs. 

=  melrica    causa,    be- 

Syr. 

=  Syriac. 

cause  of  the  metie. 

S.  V. 

=  sub  voce. 

t. 

=  times     (following     a 

N. 

=  North,  northern. 

number). 

n. 

=  note. 

tr. 

=  transpose. 

NH. 

=  New  Hebrew. 

trans. 

=  transitive. 

Niph. 

=  Niphal  of  verb. 

transl. 

=  translate,  translation. 

obj. 

=  object. 

text. 

=  textual. 

oft. 

=  often. 

v.,  vv. 

=  verse,  verses. 

cm. 

=  omit. 

V. 

=  vide,  see. 

orig. 

=  original. 

vb. 

=  verb. 

p.,  pp. 

=  page,  pages. 

V.  i. 

=  vide  infra,  see  below 

part. 

=  particle. 

(usually     textual 

parall. 

=  parallelism. 

note    on    same 

pass. 

=  passive. 

verse) . 

pers. 

=  person. 

viz. 

=  videlicet,    namely,    to 

perh. 

=  perhaps. 

wit. 

pf. 

=  perfect. 

voc. 

=  vocative. 

Pi. 

=  Piel  of  verb. 

vul. 

=  volume. 

pi. 

=  plural. 

vs. 

=  versus,  against. 

pred. 

=  predicate. 

V.  s. 

=  vide  supra,  see  above 

preg. 

=  pregnant. 

(usually  general  rc- 

prep. 

=  j)rej)Osition. 

mark     on    same 

prob. 

=  probable,  proI)al)ly. 

verse). 

ABBREVIATIONS 


XIX 


V.     OTHER  SIGNS 


V 


indicates  all  passages  cited. 

parallel,  of  words  or  clauses 
chiefly  synonymous. 

equivalent,  equals. 

plus,  denotes  that  other  pas- 
sages might  be  cited. 

=  the  root,  or  stem. 

=  sign  of  abbreviation  in  He- 
brew words. 

=  iDui,  and  so  forth. 

=  Yahweh. 


*  indicates  that  Massoretic  text 

has  not  been  followed,  but 
cither  Vrss.  or  conjectural 
emendations. 

Biblical  passages  are  cited  accord- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  enumeration  of 
chapters  and  verses:  where  this  dif- 
fers in  the  English,  the  reference  to  the 
latter  has  usually  (except  in  textual 
notes)  been  added  in  parentheses. 


A 

CRITICAL   AND    EXEGETICAL 
COMMENTARY 

ON  THE  BOOKS  OF 

MICAH,  ZEPHANIAH 
AND  NAHUM 

BY 

JOHN  MERLIN  POWIS  SMITH,  Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF   SEMITIC   LANGUAGES    AND   LITERATURES 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


A  CRITICAL  AND  EXEGETICAL 
COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  MICAH 


INTRODUCTION  TO  MICAH. 

§  I.    THE  BOOK  OF  MICAH. 


I. 


The  Text. 


The  book  of  Micah  stands  sixth  in  the  list  of  the  Minor  Prophets 
as  given  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  but  third  as  found  in  (^.  The  text 
has  come  down  to  us  in  a  bad  state  of  corruption.  Of  the  Minor 
Prophets,  Hosea  alone  has  a  worse  text.  In  the  following  com- 
mentary, it  has  been  found  necessary  to  make  more  than  eighty 
corrections  of  the  text  as  fovmd  in  M,  in  order  to  secure  satis- 
factory sense.  Almost  half  of  the  errors  are  in  chs.  i  and  2,  while 
chs.  4  and  5  are  remarkably  free  from  them. 

In  the  correction  of  M.,  (^  is  of  the  most  value.  It  offers  a 
larger  number  of  textual  variants  than  all  of  the  remaining  ver- 
sions combined.  In  many  cases  the  text  presupposed  by  (g's 
rendering  is  superior  to  iH.  More  than  one-third  of  the  emenda- 
tions here  adopted  are  based  upon  ®.  ^  affords  relatively  little 
help,  being  chiefly  dependent  upon  ^.  Only  seven  corrections  are 
made  on  the  basis  of  ^,  apart  from  ($.  H  and  Aq.  furnish  one 
each.  The  characteristics  of  the  various  versions  of  Micah  are  in 
general  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  Amos  and  Hosea.  Cf.  H.-*^-, 
clxxiii-clxxvi.  Certainly  (ii's  rendering  of  the  Minor  Prophets  as 
a  whole  seems  to  be  the  work  of  one  translator  throughout. 

The  errors  of  m  are  those  which  commonly  appear  in  the  trans- 
mission of  texts,  viz.,  wrong  division  of  words,  e.  g.,  2^"  6^;  dit- 
tography,  e.  g.,  2'  5^  6'°;  haplography,  e.  g.,  5^-  *  f;  wrong 
pointing,  e.  g.,  i^-  °  3^°  5^;  confusion  of  similar  consonants,  e.  g., 
jU.  12  ^4  ^4.  transposition  of  words  or  phrases,  e.  g.,  2*  4^;  con- 
fusion of  suffixes,  e.  g.,  2°  7^^;  and  deliberate  theological  change, 
e.  g.,  i^.     But  the  source  of  some  corruptions  is  inexplicable, 

S 


6  MICAH 

e.  g.,  7^.  The  preponderance  of  errors  in  chs.  1-3  is  due  partly 
to  the  large  number  of  proper  names  in  this  material,  partly  to 
the  greater  age  of  this  portion  of  the  prophecy  and  probably 
also  in  part  to  the  denunciatory  character  of  the  message  which 
later  editors  sought  to  soften. 

2.     The  Style. 

The  style  of  Micah,  as  revealed  in  chs.  1-3,  is  direct  and  force- 
ful. It  is  characterised  by  rapidity  of  movement,  picturesque 
phraseology,  vivid  description  and  boldness  of  utterance.  It  re- 
flects clearness  of  vision,  keen  insight  and  profound  feeling.  At 
first  sight,  this  seems  inconsistent  with  the  indulgence  in  parono- 
masia found  in  i'"  ^- ;  but  the  Hebrew  prophets  were  able  to  couch 
their  most  biting  denunciations  in  this  form.     Cf.  Is.  3'^^'. 

The  logical  development  within  each  prophecy  in  chs.  1-3  is  also 
admirable.  Not  only  so,  but  there  is  an  evident  logical  progress 
in  the  succession  of  the  various  prophecies  constituting  these 
chapters. 

Upon  leaving  this  section  of  the  book,  the  atmosphere  changes. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  style  becomes  less  forceful  and  direct. 
It  loses  in  vividness  and  passion.  The  contrast  is  something  like 
that  existing  between  Isaiah,  chs.  40 jf.,  and  the  genuine  utterances 
of  Isaiah.  The  movement  is  calm  and  placid  and  the  tone  reflec- 
tive rather  than  denunciatory.  But  there  is  greater  variety  and 
unevenness  of  style  in  chs.  4-6  than  in  chs.  1-3. 

3.    Poetic  Form. 

That  the  book  of  Micah  is  in  poetic  form  is  indisputable.  Yet 
relatively  little  attention  has  been  bestowed  upon  this  phase  of  its 
study. 

Ewald  (1840)  contributed  a  strophical  analysis  of  the  book.  Francis 
Brown  {JBL.,  1890,  pp.  71-82)  used  Micah,  chs.  1-3  and  711-20^  to 
illustrate  the  value  of  poetic  form  as  a  consideration  in  the  determi- 
nation of  the  composite  character  of  a  writing.  In  1891,  Elhorst  pre- 
sented a  strophic  reorganisation  of  the  prophecy  involving  revolution- 


POETIC  FORM  7 

ary  transpositions  and  intended  as  a  defence  of  the  unity  of  the  book. 
D.  H.  Miiller,  in  Die  Propheten  in  ihrer  urspriinglichen  Form  (1896), 
treated  chs.  3,  5«-'^  and  7  to  an  application  of  his  compUcated  theory  of 
strophe,  antistrophe,  responsion,  inclusion,  concatenation,  etc..  Sievers 
included  ch.  i  in  his  Studien  zur  hebrdischen  Metrik  (1901),  where  he 
showed  too  great  respect  toward  UJ.  Francois  Ladame  reconstructed 
chs.  4  and  5,  according  to  the  theory  of  Miiller  and  Zenner,  in  the  Revue 
de  theologie  et  de  philosophic  for  1902.  Condamin,  belonging  to  the 
same  school  of  metricists,  would  place  2^--  '^  after  4^;  see  RB.,  XI 
(1902),  383-6.  Duhm,  in  EB.,  Ill  (1902),  3800,  arranged  3'-'2  poeti- 
cally. Marti  makes  the  poetic  and  strophic  form  the  basis  of  his  com- 
mentary (1904).  Lohr  presents  3'-<-  '-'^  as  a  literary  and  poetic  unit  in 
ZDMG.,  LXI  (1907),  3-6.  Sievers,  in  his  AUtestamentliche  Miscellen, 
published  in  Berichte  ilher  die  Verhandlungen  der  Konigl.  Sdchsischen 
Gesellschqft  zu  Wissenschaften,  LIX  (1907),  76-109,  applies  his  metrical 
system  to  the  whole  book  of  Micah.  Here  he  casts  veneration  for  M  to 
the  winds  and,  on  the  basis  of  Marti's  critical  conclusions,  reconstructs 
the  text  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  his  system.  The  con- 
clusions concerning  the  poetic  form  of  Micah  which  are  incorporated 
in  the  following  commentary  have  already  appeared  in  J.  M.  P. 
Smith's  Strophic  Structure  of  the  Book  0/ Micah,  published  in  Old  Testa- 
ment and  Semitic  Studies  in  Memory  of  William  Rainey  Harper,  II 
(1908),  415-438,  and  also  in  AJSL.,  XXIV  (1908),  187-208.  Since 
that  publication  there  has  appeared  P.  Haupt's  Critical  Notes  on  Micah, 
AJSL.,  July  and  October,  1910,  containing  a  strophical  reconstruction 
of  the  text.  But  Haupt's  rearrangement  is  so  subjective  and  arbitrary 
as  almost  to  warrant  the  suspicion  that  he  regards  the  book  of  Micah 
as  a  quarry  from  which  stones  may  be  hewed  for  any  kind  of  a  build- 
ing. B.  Duhm  has  also  published  a  poetical  version  of  Micah  in  Die 
zwolf  Propheten  in  den  Versmassen  der  Urschrift  ubersetzt  (19 10);  in  this 
too  much  insistence  is  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  four-lined  strs.. 

No  attempt  is  made  here  to  stretch  the  text  of  Micah  upon  the 
Procrustaean  bed  of  a  metrical  system.  Neither  Bickell,  Grimme, 
Sievers  nor  Rothstein  seems  as  yet  to  have  evolved  a  system  that 
does  not  do  violence  to  the  text.  In  the  present  stage  of  metrical 
study,  certainly  no  existing  system  can  be  accepted  as  a  safe  guide 
to  the  nature  and  form  of  Hebrew  poetry.  The  reconstruction 
here  presented  aims  to  follow  the  guidance  of  the  parallelism  and 
the  logic.  On  the  basis  of  the  former,  lines  are  discovered  which 
are  of  approximately  equal  length,  measured  by  the  number  of 
tones,  or  accents,  in  the  line.    The  same  length  of  line  persists 


8  MICAH 

in  general  throughout  a  given  piece.  The  constantly  recurring 
measures  are  trimeter,  tetrameter  and  pentameter,  with  frequent 
dimeters.  There  is  less  evenness  and  regularity  in  the  length  of 
lines  than  in  Amos,  but  close  affinity  with  Hosea  in  this  respect. 
There  is  no  marked  difference  in  metre  between  the  three  main 
sections  of  the  book. 

The  logical  development  of  the  thought  within  a  given  piece 
resolves  itself  into  a  number  of  thought-groups,  i.  e.,  strophes,  each 
with  a  given  number  of  lines.  The  four-line  strophe  prevails  in 
the  greater  part  of  the  book,  in  chs.  1-3  there  being  only  three 
strophes  of  different  length,  and  in  chs.  6  and  7  only  one.  In 
chs.  4  and  5  the  six-line  strophe  prevails.  There  are  in  all  nine 
strophes  of  six  lines  each,  three  of  eight  lines  each  and  one  of 
ten  lines.  The  poetic  form  will  be  found  frequently  to  have 
added  another  argument  in  favour  of  critical  conclusions  already 
arrived  at  upon  the  basis  of  other  considerations.  Only  rarely 
has  it  been  used  in  this  commentary  as  an  argument  sufficient  in 
itself  to  determine  the  source  of  a  passage  or  phrase. 

4.     Component  Parts. 

The  book  of  Micah  falls  naturally  into  three  parts,  the  existence 
of  which  has  long  been  recognised.  They  are  chs.  1-3,  chs.  4  and 
5  and  chs.  6  and  7.  They  are  differentiated  from  each  other  by 
their  contents,  tone  and  point  of  view  and  to  some  extent  by  their 
poetic  form  {v.  s.).  Chs.  1-3  contain  almost  exclusively  denuncia- 
tions of  sin  and  proclamations  of  approaching  punishment;  chs. 
4  and  5  are  devoted  almost  as  exclusively  to  words  of  hope  and 
cheer;  while  chs.  5  and  6  combine  these  two  elements.  But  within 
these  three  main  divisions  the  point  of  view  and  background  change 
frequently;  consequently  many  scholars  have  denied  the  unity  of 
the  book.  Chs.  1-3,  with  the  exception  of  i^-  "  and  2^^-  "  (q.  v.), 
constitute  the  nucleus  of  the  book  and  furnish  a  touchstone  by 
which  the  genuineness  of  the  remaining  chapters  may  be  tested. 
Stade  and  others  have  sought  to  athetize  i"*,  but,  as  it  seems, 
without  sufficient  reason;  see  in  loc. 

The  situation  with  reference  to  chs.  4-7  is  quite  different.     The 


HISTORY   OF  CRITICISM  9 

general  condition  here  may  be  suggested  by  the  following  words 
from  Halevy,  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  unity  of  the  book ;  his 
statement  is  particularly  applicable  to  chs.  4-6:  "The  book  of 
Micah  has  reached  us  in  a  critical  state  even  worse  than  that  of 
the  books  of  Hosea  and  Amos.  To  say  nothing  of  internal  cor- 
ruptions of  words,  many  verses,  and  even  groups  of  verses,  have 
been  torn  from  their  context  and  inserted  haphazard  in  passages 
which  have  no  sort  of  suitable  connection  with  their  subject-mat- 
ter." *  This  hypothesis  of  Halevy's,  however,  does  not  solve 
the  problem.  A  bird's-eye  view  of  the  history  of  the  criticism  of 
these  chapters  will  place  the  difficulty  squarely  before  us.  For 
the  sake  of  clearness  and  convenience,  the  two  groups,  chs.  3-4 
and  5-6,  will  be  treated  separately. 

The  criticism  of  chs.  4-5. — Chs.  4  and  5  were  first  brought  into  prom- 
inence by  Ew.  who,  on  the  basis  of  differences  of  style  between  them  and 
chs.  1-3,  for  a  time  regarded  them  as  belonging  to  some  prophet  con- 
temporary with  Micah.  Later,  however,  Ew.  returned  to  the  defence 
of  Micah's  authorship,  urging  similarities  of  form,  thought  and  diction, 
and  especially  the  fact  that  the  denial  of  chs.  4  and  5  to  Micah  (as  well 
as  chs.  6  and  7)  would  remove  all  the  Messianic  element  from  Micah's 
utterance.  Casp.  followed  with  a  detailed  defence  of  the  unity.  In 
1871,  Oort  {ThT.,  V,  501-512)  characterised  4*-'-  "-"  as  an  insertion 
by  some  pious  reader  who  considered  Micah  a  false  prophet  and  tried 
to  correct  his  errors.  The  ground  for  this  was  the  fact  that  with  the  re- 
moval of  these  verses  the  connection  becomes  smooth  and  the  improba- 
bility that  Micah  would  have  inserted  a  message  of  hope  in  the  midst  of 
an  unfinished  call  to  repentance  and  a  threat  of  punishment.  To  this 
Kue.  replied  {ThT.,  VI,  45-66),  defending  the  connection  of  4'-',  on  the 
ground  that  the  prophet  here  transports  himself  in  imagination  to  the 
last  days,  and  acknowledging  that  4"-'5  describes  existing  conditions  and 
cannot  therefore  stand  where  it  does,  notwithstanding  that  it  belongs 
to  Micah.  De  Goeje  {ThT.,  VI,  279-284)  then  proffered  a  weak  de- 
fence of  the  connection  of  4"".  Kue.,  in  a  second  article  {ThT.,  VI, 
285-302),  suggested  that  some  of  the  differences  between  chs.  1-3  and 
chs.  4-5  were  due  to  the  fact  that  the  former  deal  with  the  godless  lead- 
ers while  the  latter  are  addressed  to  the  people  as  a  whole  who  have 
some  claim  to  pardon.  He  also  emphasised  the  mobility  and  vivacity  of 
Micah's  style,  to  which  De  Goeje  had  referred,  as  exempting  him  from 
submission  to  strict  logical  requirements.     We.,  also,  called  attention 

*  Revue  simitique,  XIII  (1905),  2. 


lO  MIC  AH 

(Bleek's  Einl.,  4th  ed.,  p.  425)  to  the  contradiction  between  4'  '• 
and  4". 

In  1881  appeared  Sta.'s  epoch-making  article  (ZAIV.,  I,  161-172), 
in  which  he  denied  Micah's  authorship  of  chs.  4-5  in  toto.  The  follow- 
ing considerations  are  urged  in  support  of  this  view.  It  is  improbable 
that  Micah  would  have  weakened  the  effect  of  his  utterances  in  chs.  1-3 
by  introducing  a  message  of  directly  opposite  import  in  chs.  4-5.  The 
content  of  this  section  departs  widely  from  the  ideas  of  Isaiah,  while 
chs.  1-3  show  close  affinity  to  them;  chs.  4-5  are,  indeed,  in  full  accord 
with  Joel,  Deutero-Isaiah  and  Zechariah,  chs.  12-14.  The  section  is 
full  of  postexilic  conditions;  e.g.,  4'-  '"  presupposes  the  Exile  as  having 
occurred;  s'-'  gives  an  indefinite,  apocalyptic  vision  of  the  Messianic  age, 
while  pre-exilic  ideas  of  the  Messiah  spring  immediately  out  of  the  ex- 
isting historical  situation.  The  inconsistency  and  lack  of  connection 
within  the  chapters  point  to  composite  origin;  e.  g.,  4"-5'  is  wholly  in- 
consistent with  4'"',  but  it  connects  well  with  4'-<  and  is  continued  in 
5«-'<.  These  three  passages  constitute  the  contribution  of  a  later  writer 
who  desired  to  brighten  the  dark  picture  left  by  Micah;  into  this  addition 
a  later  writer,  thinking  it  to  be  a  part  of  Micah's  prophecy,  inserted  4'-"' 
5<-  "  in  order  to  harmonise  it  with  the  actual  course  of  events  and  with 
the  development  of  prophecy. 

Sta.'s  discussion  has  greatly  influenced  all  later  scholarship.  Giese- 
brecht  {ThLZ.,  1881,  p.  443)  followed  him  in  rejecting  ch.  4,  but  held  to 
the  genuineness  of  ch.  5  on  the  ground  that  without  it  Micah's  prophecy 
would  be  too  one-sided.  W.  R.  Smith,  in  1882  (Proph.,  2d  ed.,  pp. 
430/.),  followed  Oort  in  rejecting  4"■'^  but  refused  to  go  further.  In 
1883,  Sta.  {ZAW.,  Ill,  1-16)  gave  further  arguments  in  support  of  his 
view,  e.  g.,  that  Bethlehem  and  Ephratha  (5')  are  never  identified  except 
in  postexilic  literature.  Cor.,  in  1884  {ZAW.,  IV.,  89),  was  the  first 
to  place  himself  unreservedly  on  Sta.'s  side.  Now.,  in  the  same  year 
(ZAW.,  IV,  277-290),  yielded  4'-'  ""  to  the  interpolator,  but  rejected 
Sta.'s  claim  that  chs.  4-5  as  a  whole  were  inconsistent  with  pre-exilic 
prophecy,  citing  Is.  18'  19"  ii'"  s-  as  parallels  to  the  description  of  the 
coming  of  "many  peoples  "  to  Jerusalem,  and  Is.  11*  "•  9'-  •  as  parallels 
to  the  picture  of  idyllic  peace  in  4'*.  As  parallel  to  the  fact  that  these 
chapters  oppose  masseboth  and  asherim,  to  which  Isaiah  made  no  objec- 
tion. Now.  cites  3"  and  the  well-known  attitude  of  Isaiah  toward  Jeru- 
salem. Wildeboer,  in  1884  {De  Project  Micha;  so  also  in  Lelterkunde  des 
Ouden  Verbonds,  3d  ed.,  1903,  145/.),  grants  that  Sta.'s  objections 
might  apply  to  the  spoken  word,  but  declares  them  inapplicable  to  the 
written  word.  Che.,  in  his  commentary  (1885),  rejects  4'"'  5''  on 
grounds  of  logic.  Ry.  discussed  these  chapters  fully  in  his  commentary 
(1887),  gathering  up  and  reinforcing  the  arguments  of  his  predecessors 
in  favour  of  unity.     He  explained  the  difficulties  of  the  section  as  due 


HISTORY   OF   CRITICISM  II 

to  a  redactor  who  arranged  scattered  utterances  of  Micah  in  an  order  of 
his  own  which  is  to  us  no  order  at  all.  He  also  urged  the  general  con- 
siderations that  our  knowledge  of  Hebrew  history  is  too  defective  to 
enable  us  to  determine  whether  a  given  thought  was  or  was  not  possible 
at  a  certain  time,  and  that  the  mere  fact  that  a  thought  is  much  empha- 
sised in  some  particular  period  does  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  its 
having  been  uttered  previously.  In  1889,  Pont  {Theol.  Studien,  VII, 
439-453)  reaffirmed  the  unity,  reiterating  the  old  arguments.  In  the 
same  year,  Kue.  again  {EM.,  II,  360-3)  expressed  himself  upon  these 
chapters,  declaring  it  improbable  that  3'^  was  Micah's  last  word.  Hence 
the  authenticity  of  the  following  promises  was  probable.  But  inconcis- 
tencies,  the  lack  of  logical  sequence  and  the  presence  of  undoubtedly 
pre-exilic  utterances  alongside  of  others  presupposing  Judah's  captivity 
made  it  probable  that  ^^-^^  "  "  were  postexilic,  while  5'-'<  had  under- 
gone a  thorough  working  over  at  a  late  day. 

In  1891,  Elh.  put  forth  an  ingenious  but  fanciful  theory  in  defence  of 
the  unity  of  the  entire  book.  In  accordance  with  this,  chs.  4-5  should 
follow  chs.  6-7  and  should  be  rearranged  thus:  4'-8  5'-'  49'*  58-14.  How- 
ever, even  thus,  4^  is  treated  as  a  gloss  and  4'-'^  5*  as  postexilic  additions. 
We.,  in  his  commentary  (1892;  3d  ed.,  1898),  finds  possible  remnants  of 
genuine  utterances  of  Micah  in  4'-  '"•  '<  59-'3.  He  emphasises  the  use  of 
n^^N-i'  (47)  as  a  technical  eschatological  term,  the  mutually  exclusive  con- 
ceptions of  4'-  '0  and  4"",  and  the  allusion  in  5\to  Is.  7'^  which  has  ap- 
parently become  a  classic.  In  1893,  Kosters  {ThT.,  XXVII,  249-274) 
aligned  himself  with  Sta.,  making  the  two  chapters  postexilic.  He  re- 
garded 5*-8  as  the  continuation  of  4^-8.  He  suggested  also  that  the  pres- 
ent book  of  Micah  was  a  result  of  two  independent  recensions  of  the 
original.  The  one  consisted  of  chs.  1-3  +  chs.  4-5;  the  other  contained 
chs.  1-3  +  6-7;  later  these  two  were  combined.  In  the  same  year,  We. 
{Kleine  Propheten,  2d  ed.)  surrendered  all  but  49-  '"■  ^*  ^^-^^.  In  1896, 
GASm.  rejected  only  52^.  7-9  as  inconsistent  with  Micah's  times.  In 
1897,  Volz  {Die  vorexilische  Jahweprophetie,  63-67),  following  We., 
granted  to  Micah  49-10"  •  14  ^a-u^  and  ^*-^  as  a  badly  distorted  fragment. 
2 12  £.46  f.  lOb- 13  ^6-8  are  assigned  to  a  later  editor,  while  48  51. 3.  <a  belong 
to  another  hand  and  are  probably  later  than  4^-*,  which  may  be  from  the 
time  of  Deutero-Isaiah.  Now.'s  commentary  (1897;  2ded.,  1903)  agrees 
with  We.  and  Volz  and  adds  little.  Dr.,  in  his  well-known  Introduction, 
with  characteristic  caution  declines  to  commit  himself  to  an  opinion  on 
this  question.  Che.  {EB.,  art.  Micah;  cf.  in  Introd.  to  WRS.,  Proph., 
2d  ed.)  follows  Sta.,  Cor.  and  Kosters  in  assigning  these  chapters  to  a 
postexilic  date.  Marti's  commentary  (1904)  arrives  at  the  same  result, 
but  assigns  the  chapters  to  a  larger  number  of  sources  than  any  of  its 
predecessors  had  employed.  Bu.  {Gesch.,  1906,  p.  89)  and  Du.  {Zwolf 
Propheten,  1910)  also  agree  with  Sta. 


12  MICAH 

Reference  may  be  made  to  the  following  commentary  for  de- 
tailed statements  of  the  position  assumed  here  with  reference  to 
chs.  4-5.  It  suffices  to  say  in  this  connection  that  the  arguments  of 
Stade  against  Micah's  authorship  seem  irrefutable,  except  possibly 
in  the  case  of  4"  5*"'^.  Nothing  short  of  a  complete  reversal  of 
current  views  concerning  Hebrew  eschatology,  such  as  that  pro- 
posed by  Gressmann,*  could  make  these  chapters  intelligible  for 
the  age  of  Micah.  Furthermore,  as  the  foregoing  history  of  crit- 
icism shows,  it  is  impossible  to  regard  the  chapters  as  a  unit  in 
themselves;  the  attitude  toward  the  heathen  world,  e.  g.,  is  wholly 
different  in  4"-  ^^  from  that  in  4*"*,  nor  is  the  view  of  the  Messianic 
age  in  5^-  ^  consistent  with  that  in  s*"^.  But  Stade's  division  of  the 
material  between  two  sources  cannot  stand.  Glosses  are  repre- 
sented by  4^-  ^  5^-  ^^-  ";  4^"^  stands  alone;  4"^^^  and  5*"^  reflect  the 
same  background  and  breathe  the  same  spirit;  the  remaining 
sections  have  no  close  affinity  with  any  of  the  preceding  or  with 
one  another.  The  chapters  thus  seem  to  contain  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  fragments  gathered  up  from  various  sources,  and 
having  little  in  common  other  than  a  hopeful  outlook  for  the 
future. 

Criticism  of  chs.  6-7. — The  story  of  the  critical  study  of  chs.  6-7  also 
begins  with  Ew.  (1867).  His  argument  in  brief  was:  (1)  chs.  1-5  are 
so  complete  in  themselves  that  nothing  additional  is  needed.  (2)  The 
style  is  quite  different;  there  is  nothing  of  the  elevated  force  still  met  with 
in  chs.  1-5;  the  tone  is  more  like  that  of  Jeremiah;  and  the  peculiarities 
of  language  characteristic  of  chs.  1-5  are  lacking  here.  (3)  The  artistic 
form  is  quite  different;  this  section  has  a  purely  dramatic  plan  and  exe- 
cution; it  is  not  the  utterance  of  a  speaker  but  that  of  an  artist.  "The 
entire  piece  proceeds  amid  changing  voices;  and  there  are  not  fewer  than 
ten  voices  that  are  heard  one  after  the  other.  But  since  the  prophet  still 
retains  the  ancient  artistic  form  of  the  str.,  the  whole  falls  into  five  strs., 
which  are  also  five  acts,  thus  completing  all  that  has  to  be  said  and  giving 
it  a  perfectly  rounded  form."  (Ew.'s  strs.  or  "acts"  are  6'-'  6'-'«  7'-« 
7'-"  7K-20).  (4)  The  historical  background  is  wholly  different.  There 
is  no  trace  of  the  stirring  and  elevated  times  of  Isaiah's  activity.  The 
nation  seems  to  be  very  small  and  faint-hearted  (6«  '•  7"  '•);  the  selfish- 
ness and  faithlessness  of  individuals  is  greater  (6'"  '•  7'-'');  the  idolatrous 
tendencies  encouraged  by  Manasseh  had  long  prevailed  (6");  and  the 

•  Der  Ur sprung  d.  Israel.- jUd.  Eschalologie  (1905). 


HISTORY   OF   CRITICISM  13 

more  religious  hardly  ventured  to  name  the  king  openly.  The  reign  of 
Manasseh  best  complies  with  these  conditions. 

The  next  important  contribution  to  the  discussion  was  made  by  We. 
(Bleek's  Einl.,  4th  ed.,  1878,  pp.  425/.).  He  follows  Ew.  in  assigning 
6'-7«  to  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  but  concludes  that  7'-^"  was  added  dur- 
ing the  Exile.  He  summarises  his  argument  as  follows:  "Thus  the  situ- 
ation in  7^-20  is  quite  different  from  that  in  7'-^  What  was  present  there, 
viz.,  moral  disorder  and  confusion  in  the  existing  Jewish  state,  is  here 
past;  what  is  there  future,  viz.,  the  retribution  of  v.  *^,  has  here  come  to 
pass  and  has  been  continuing  for  some  time.  What  in  vv.  '-^  was  still 
unthought  of,  viz.,  the  consolation  of  the  people,  tempted  in  their  trouble 
to  mistrust  Yahweh,  is  in  w.  '-^''  the  main  theme.  Between  v.  '  and  v.  ' 
there  yawns  a  century.  On  the  other  hand,  there  prevails  a  remarkable 
similarity  between  vv.  '-20  and  Isaiah,  chs.  40-66."  (Quoted  from  Dr.'""-, 
p.  S33-)  Ew.'s  view,  as  modified  by  We.,  has  been  accepted  fully,  or  with 
but  slight  variations,  by  Sta.  (ZAW.,  I,  1881,  161/.),  WRS.  (Enc. 
Brit.,  art.  Micah),  Che.,  Kue.  {Einl.,  II,  363  /.),  Cor.  {Einl.,  1891, 
183-6),  Pont  {Theol.  Studien,  1892,  p.  340.),  Ko.  {Einl.,  1893,  pp.  329/.), 
Dr.  {Intr.,  pp.  2>2>2>f-)  ^"d  Du.  {Zwolf  Propheten,  1910).  Cor.,  however, 
for  a  time  maintained  the  authenticity  of  these  chapters  {ZAW.,  IV, 
1884,  89  /.;  so  also  Kirk.,  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets,  1892,  pp.  229/.; 
and  van  H.,  1908),  urging  (i)  that  everything  which  may  be  brought 
forward  in  support  of  their  origin  in  Manasseh's  day  applies  equally 
well  to  the  time  of  Ahaz  (2  K.  16';  cf.  Mi.  6').  (2)  That  the  origin  of  the 
book  would  be  inexplicable  if  Micah's  work  ceased  with  ch.  3,  for  chs. 
4-5  are  enough  to  offset  the  gloomy  tone  of  chs.  1-3 — why  then  should 
there  be  added  a  section  from  the  time  of  Manasseh  having  no  inner  con- 
nection with  chs.  4-5  ?  On  the  hypothesis  of  the  late  origin  of  chs.  6-7, 
they  should  immediately  follow  chs.  1-3,  since  they  give  reasons  for  the 
drastic  punishment  there  threatened.  (3)  That  6'-7°  shows  traces  of 
the  author  of  chs.  1-3,  having  perfect  parallels  in  them  {e.  g.,  i'-  •'  =  6") 
as  well  as  in  the  addresses  of  Isaiah  from  the  reign  of  Ahaz.  (4)  That 
a  late  working  over  of  7 '-2°  must  be  granted. 

Now.  at  once  replied  {ZAW.,  IV,  288/.)  to  Cor.  (i)  that  chs.  6-7 
contain  no  thought  not  expressed  in  chs.  1-3  which  could  serve  as  a 
reason  for  the  threat  in  3'=;  reasons  enough  are  stated  in  chs.  1-3;  any- 
thing further  would  be  superfluous;  (2)  that  ch.  6  cannot  be  regarded  as 
a  continuation  of  3'^  since  the  representation  in  6'  "•  is  wholly  different 
from  that  in  i'  s-  and  scarcely  consistent  with  it;  (3)  that  the  judgment 
in  3'^  comes  because  of  the  sins  of  the  leaders,  priests  and  prophets, 
whereas  in  6-7  the  charge  is  quite  general  (7^)  and  against  no  special 
classes ;  (4)  that  if  chs.  6-7  come  from  the  time  of  Ahaz,  as  Cor.  declares, 
■they  can  hardly  state  the  grounds  for  the  judgment  in  chs.  1-3,  uttered 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (Je.  26'*);  (5)  that  the  prophet  who  so  sharply 


14  MICAH 

antagonises  the  wicked  leaders  in  the  time  of  the  comparatively  good 
king,  Hezekiah,  would  not  be  likely  to  let  them  pass  almost  unnoticed 
in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  an  exceedingly  wicked  king;  (6)  that  "my  people  " 
is  the  object  of  the  prophet's  compassion  in  chs.  1-3,  but  in  chs.  6-7  it  is 
the  object  of  his  wrath. 

Wildeboer,  in  1884  {De  Profeet  Micha,  p.  57),  adheres  to  Micah's 
authorship,  stating  (i)  that  differences  in  artistic  structure  and  manner 
of  presentation  do  not  necessarily  involve  different  authorship;  (2)  that 
as  there  was  human  sacrifice  under  Ahaz  and  also  under  Manasseh,  it  is 
quite  probable  that  there  were  some  who  practised  it,  at  least  in  secret, 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah;  (3)  that  in  7'  the  words  "prince,"  "judge," 
"great  one"  are  used  collectively  and  thus  disprove  the  charge  that 
the  leaders  are  not  denounced  in  these  chapters.  In  1887,  Ry.  defended 
the  authenticity  of  this  material  on  the  following  grounds.  The  chapters 
were  written  in  the  beginning  of  Hezekiah's  reign  when  conditions  were 
essentially  the  same  as  under  Ahaz.  The  religious  formalism  alluded 
to  in  6^-  '•  '"-'^  is  wholly  out  of  keeping  with  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  7'-' 
is  an  independent  section  and  the  immorality  there  described  was  possi- 
ble in  Hezekiah's  day;  but  if  it  must  be  interpreted  literally,  it  is  intelligi- 
ble neither  as  coming  from  Hezekiah's  reign  nor  from  that  of  Manasseh. 
The  hope  of  return  from  Assyria  and  Egypt  is  indicative  of  pre-exilic 
origin;  in  Deutero-Isaiah  the  place  of  exile  is  always  Babylon  and  Chal- 
daea.  But  if  the  chapters  must  be  assigned  to  Manasseh's  reign,  it  is 
still  reasonable  to  assign  them  to  Micah,  who  may  have  been  still  living. 

In  1887  also,  Sta.  {Geschichte  d.  Volkes  Israel,  I,  634),  expressed  his 
conviction  of  the  postexilic  origin  of  ch.  6.  In  1890,  Gie.  {Beitrdge  zur 
Jesaiakritik,  216/.)  declared  himself  with  Ew.  as  to  6'-7«,  but  assigned 
^7-20  to  postexilic  times.  Elh.  (1891),  on  the  other  hand,  endorses  the 
arguments  of  Cor.  and  Ry.  in  behalf  of  authenticity  and  attempts  to  ease 
all  difficulties  of  connection  by  placing  chs.  6-7  immediately  after  chs. 
1-3  and  by  rearranging  the  text  in  this  order:  6'-'  7'-'  6'-'^  7"  7'-"  7X-20. 
In  1892,  We.  again  puts  himself  on  record  {Kleine  Proph.,  2d  ed.),  stiU 
maintaining  the  possibility  of  Micah's  authorship,  even  in  the  age  of 
Manasseh,  for  6'-',  declaring  6'-'«  independent  of  its  context  and  without 
indications  of  definite  date,  assigning  7'-«  to  the  period  of  Malachi,  and 
following  Gie.  with  reference  to  7 '-*<".  In  1893,  Kosters,  in  connection 
with  a  searching  review  of  Elh.'s  commentary  {ThT.,  XXVII,  249-274), 
suggested  the  postexilic  origin  of  these  chapters,  citing  many  words  and 
phrases  as  characteristic  of  postexilic  language  and  thought.  These 
chapters  were  written  to  explain  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  as  due  to  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  generation  contemporary  with  that  disaster,  it  being  no 
longer  believed  that  the  children  are  punished  for  the  sins  of  the  father. 
The  position  of  GASm.  (1896)  is  near  to  that  of  We.,  for  he  holds  to 
Micah's  authorship  of  6'*,  is  undecided  as  to  6»-"  and  7'-"  and  regards 


HISTORY  OF  CRITICISM  15 

yi-io  as  a  psalm  composed  of  fragments  from  various  dates,  of  which 
jH-n  points  to  the  eighth  century  B.C.  by  its  geographical  references,  and 
7"  to  the  period  between  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  its  rebuilding. 

Now.,  in  his  commentary  (1897;  2d  ed.,  1905),  considers  the  reign  of 
Manasseh  a  possible  date  for  6^-7^,  but  denies  Micah's  authorship  even 
were  he  then  alive.  He  would  locate  7 '-2°  in  the  period  between  the 
decree  of  Cyrus  and  the  journey  of  Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem.  Dr.'""'- 
is  inclined  to  agree  with  Ew.  and  to  deny  the  necessity  of  separating 
7 '-20  and  assigning  it  to  a  later  age.  Che.  (EB.,  art.  Micah),  makes 
both  chapters  postexilic  and  finds  them  concerned  with  the  ubiquitous 
Jerahmeelites.  Sta.  gives  a  long  list  (ZAW.,  XXIII,  1903,  164-171), 
of  postexilic  parallels  to  y''-'^"  and  assigns  the  whole  of  6-7  to  the  post- 
exilic  age  (in  Bibl.  Theol.  d.  Alt.  Test.,  1905,  p.  230). 

Marti  (1904)  calls  chs.  6-7  "a  conglomerate,  held  together  by  the  con- 
viction that  deliverance  must  finally  come,  though  the  sins  of  the  present 
demand  the  continuance  of  God's  wrath."  Of  this  conglomerate  6'-^  is 
editorial  expansion;  6*-'  belongs  probably  to  the  fifth  century,  possibly 
to  the  sixth;  and  ch.  7  to  the  second  century  B.C.  Bu.  also  resolves  the 
two  chapters  into  fragments  and  places  them  all  in  the  postexilic  age 
{Gesch.,  1906).  The  last  commentator,  van  H.  (1908),  insists  upon  the 
unity  of  the  chapters  and  upon  Micah's  authorship,  basing  it  all  upon 
the  hypothesis  that  the  two  chapters  are  concerned  with  Samaria,  not 
Jerusalem,  and  finding  it  necessary  to  transpose  7"i>-i3  ^  follow  7^  (see 
ad  loc). 

Hpt.  (1910)  allows  Micah  only  2i2,\  lines  of  text  in  chs.  1-3.  Chs.  4-7 
are  assigned  to  the  Maccabaean  period  (170-100  B.C.),  while  i'-'  is  a 
poem  written  in  celebration  of  the  destruction  of  Samaria  by  John  Hyr- 
canus  in  107  B.C.  This  represents  a  step  beyond  the  conclusions  of  the 
foregoing  critics,  in  that  Hpt.  leaves  Micah  less  than  any  previous  scholar 
and  is  confident  in  his  assignment  of  the  non-Micah  material  to  the 
Maccabaean  period  and  even  to  the  specific  years  to  which  the  several 
poems  belong.  Unfortunately,  this  confidence  cannot  be  shared  by 
scholars  at  large  until  more  definite  and  convincing  considerations  are 
forthcoming. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  in  the  following  commentary  may 
be  briefly  summarised.  There  is  no  logical  unity  within  chs.  6 
and  7 ;  they  resolve  themselves  into  seven  sections,  no  one  of  which 
connects  closely  with  either  its  preceding  or  its  following  sections. 
The  possibility  of  Micah's  authorship  remains  open  for  d*"'*  and 
7^"®,  but  is  wholly  excluded  for  the  remainder.  These  two  sections, 
together  with  6^'^,  might  be  placed  in  any  period  of  Hebrew  history 
subsequent  to  the  appearance  of  the  great  prophets.     6^^  seems 


l6  MICAH 

to  reflect  the  wisdom  of  the  sages  and  to  belong  in  the  earlier  half 
of  the  postexilic  age.  7^*'°  and  7""^"  come  apparently  both  out  of 
the  same  conditions;  Israel  is  suffering  but  hoping,  looking  back 
with  longing  upon  the  good  old  days  and  praying  for  vengeance; 
they  are  best  located  in  the  later  postexilic  period,  after  the  work 
of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra.  7"''',  however,  is  wholly  detached  from 
its  context  and  is  to  be  explained  as  coming  from  the  period  after 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  but  before  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  walls. 
The  two  chapters  thus  seem  to  be  a  collection  of  miscellaneous 
fragments,  coming  from  widely  scattered  periods  and  from  at  least 
four  different  authors. 

5.     The  Formation  of  the  Book  of  Micah. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  trace  the  growth  of  the  book 
of  Micah,  starting  from  chs.  1-3,  its  original  nucleus.  The  views 
of  Kosters  and  Elhorst  have  been  already  mentioned.  Marti  con- 
siders 4^"^  and  6""^,  joined  together  by  4'^  the  first  addition  to  chs. 
1-3 ;  since  they  reveal  the  closest  sympathy  with  the  ethical  tone  of 
Micah.  This  constituted  the  book  as  it  existed  in  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  Somewhere  between  this  period  and  the  second  century  B.C., 
by  various  unknown  stages,  4^-5"  and  6^-7^  were  incorporated. 
Finally,  in  order  that  the  prophecy  might  not  end  with  denuncia- 
tion, the  Maccabaean  psalms  in  7^''"  were  added.  Cornill  {Einl.) 
follows  Kosters  in  part,  making  6^-7^  the  first  addition  to  chs.  1-3. 
This  combined  product  imderwent  two  revisions,  first  receiving 
as  insertions  4'"*-  "*"  5*'^-  ^",  and  being  completed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  2*2 •  "  4^-1"  5^-  ^  f-^\  from  the  hand  of  the  final  redactor. 
Sievers,  however,  finds  the  growth  of  the  book  connected  with  the 
length  of  the  various  poems  which  constitute  it.  In  chs.  4-7,  as 
rearranged  by  Sievers,  it  happens  that  the  longest  poem  comes 
first  in  each  chapter,  and  the  succeeding  ones  are  added  in  the 
order  of  their  length.  It  is  quite  evident  that  all  attempts  of  this 
sort  are  futile,  and  that  in  the  absence  of  any  definite  data  it  is 
impossible  to  secure  general  acceptance  of  any  scheme,  however 
ingenious.  This  portion  of  the  history  of  the  book  is  lost  beyond 
recovery. 


THE  PROPHET  MICAH  I7 

§  2.    THE  PROPHET  MICAH. 

1.  His  Name. 

Little  is  known  of  the  man  Micah.  Our  sources  of  information 
regarding  him  are  very  limited,  being  confined  to  chs.  1-3  and  Je. 
26^*.  The  name  Micah  was  doubtless  common  among  the  He- 
brews; more  than  a  dozen  individuals  bear  it,  in  one  form  or  an- 
other, in  the  Old  Testament.  The  possession  of  this  name,  mean- 
ing "  Who  is  like  Yahweh  ?",  is  no  indication  of  any  unusual  degree 
of  religious  fervour  on  the  part  of  the  prophet's  parents  or  family; 
names  containing  the  name  of  a  deity  are  very  common  in  all 
Semitic  literature,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  are  not  infrequently 
borne  by  individuals  whose  parents  were  not  noted  for  religious 
zeal;  e.  g.,  the  children  of  Ahab  and  Ahaz,  to- wit,  Hezekiah. 
No  allusion  to  his  family  is  made  in  the  superscription  or  elsewhere, 
a  fact  which  may  argue  for  his  humble  origin  as  a  man  of  the  people, 
like  Amos;  or  may  merely  be  another  indication  of  the  self-efifacing 
character  of  the  prophets.  Concerning  the  lineage  of  no  less  than 
six  of  the  prophets  nothing  is  recorded. 

2.  His  Home. 

The  appellation  "Morashtite"  (i^  Je.  26^^)  is  applied  to  Micah 
to  distinguish  him  from  the  many  other  bearers  of  his  name ;  and 
particularly  from  his  predecessor,  Micaiah  ben  Imlah,  with  whom 
he  is  confused  in  i  K.  22^^,  where  a  phrase  from  his  book  is  ascribed 
to  the  earlier  Micaiah.  This  descriptive  term  apparently  identi- 
fies his  home  with  Moresheth-Gath  (i").  This  name  implies  a 
location  in  the  low  hills  bordering  upon  Philistine  territory.  The 
list  of  towns  in  i^"^-  over  which  the  prophet  pours  out  his  grief 
seems  to  have  been  selected  from  the  same  region  and  so  to 
confirm  this  location  of  Moresheth.  Furthermore,  in  the  Ono- 
masticon  and  in  Jerome's  preface  to  Micah,  Moresheth  is  declared 
to  be  a  small  village  to  the  east  of  Eleutheropolis,  the  modem 
Beit-Jibrin. 


l8  MICAH 

This  region  and  its  significance  in  the  training  of  our  prophet  are  thus 
beautifully  described  by  GASm.:  "It  is  the  opposite  exposure  from  the 
wilderness  of  Tekoa,  some  seventeen  miles  away  across  the  watershed. 
As  the  home  of  Amos  is  bare  and  desert,  so  the  home  of  Micah  is  fair  and 
fertile.  The  irregular  chalk  hills  are  separated  by  broad  glens,  in  which 
the  soil  is  alluvial  and  red,  with  room  for  cornfields  on  either  side  of  the 
perennial  or  almost  perennial  streams.  The  olive  groves  on  the  braes 
are  finer  than  either  those  of  the  plain  below  or  of  the  Judean  table-land 
above.  There  is  herbage  for  cattle.  Bees  murmur  everywhere,  larks 
are  singing,  and  although  to-day  you  may  wander  in  the  maze  of  the 
hills  for  hours  without  meeting  a  man  or  seeing  a  house,  you  are  never 
out  of  sight  of  the  traces  of  ancient  habitation,  and  seldom  beyond  sound 
of  the  human  voice — shepherds  and  ploughmen  calling  to  their  flocks 
and  to  each  other  across  the  glens.  There  are  none  of  the  conditions 
or  the  occasions  of  a  large  town.  But,  like  the  south  of  England,  the 
country  is  one  of  villages  and  homesteads  breeding  good  yeomen — men 
satisfied  and  in  love  with  their  soil,  yet  borderers  with  a  far  outlook  and  a 
keen  vigilance  and  sensibility.  The  Shephelah  is  sufficiently  detached 
from  the  capital  and  body  of  the  land  to  beget  in  her  sons  an  indepen- 
dence of  mind  and  feeling,  but  so  much  upon  the  edge  of  the  open  world 
as  to  endue  them  at  the  same  time  with  that  sense  of  the  responsibilities 
of  warfare,  which  the  national  statesmen,  aloof  and  at  ease  in  Zion,  could 
not  possibly  have  shared." 

3.    His  Character. 

A  man  of  the  countryside,  like  Amos,  Micah  was  gifted  with 
clearness  of  vision  and  time  for  thought.  The  simplicity  and  se- 
clusion of  his  rustic  Ufe  were  conducive  to  "plain  Uving  and  high 
thinking."  He  was  not  misled  by  false  standards  of  value  to  place 
too  high  an  estimate  upon  those  things  which  perish  with  the  using. 
He  had  Amos's  passion  for  justice  and  Hosea's  heart  of  love. 
Knowing  his  fellow-coimtrymen  intimately,  and  sympathising  pro- 
foimdly  with  their  sufiferings  and  wrongs,  his  spirit  burned  with  in- 
dignation as  he  beheld  the  injustice  and  tyranny  of  their  rich  op- 
pressors. He  was  pre-eminently  the  prophet  of  the  poor.  He  was 
absolutely  fearless  as  their  champion.  He  would  denoimce  wick- 
edness in  high  places  even  though  it  cost  him  his  life.  The  fear- 
lessness and  force  of  his  character  and  message  deeply  impressed 
his  contemporaries,  so  that  even  a  century  later  his  e.xample  was 
cited  as  establishing  a  precedent  for  Jeremiah's  freedom  of  speech 


THE  TIMES   OF  MICAH  1 9 

(Je.  26*^).  A  man  of  this  type  must  necessarily  go  his  own  way;  he 
cannot  slavishly  follow  where  others  lead.  Breaking  away  from 
the  prophets  of  the  day  who  promise  only  blessings  from  Yahweh, 
he  dares  to  "declare  to  Jacob  his  transgression  and  to  Israel  his 
sin,"  and  to  point  out  the  inevitable  connection  between  sin  and 
punishment.  To  the  citizens  of  Jerusalem,  proud  of  their  capital 
and  blindly  confident  of  Yahweh's  protection,  he  unflinchingly 
announces  the  overthrow  of  their  city.  Completely  dominated  by 
a  vivid  consciousness  of  God  and  a  fervid  devotion  to  the  highest 
interests  of  his  country,  he  goes  forth  to  his  task  unshrinking  and 
invincible.  To  this  man  of  keen  perception  and  sensitive  soul, 
the  voice  of  duty  was  the  voice  of  God.  As  with  Amos  and 
Hosea,  neither  angel  nor  vision  was  necessary  to  arouse  in  him 
the  prophetic  spirit;  he  found  his  divine  call  in  the  cry  of  human 
need. 


§  3.    THE  TIMES   OF  MICAH. 
I.     The  Date  of  His  Prophecies. 

The  superscription  of  the  book  places  Micah  "in  the  days  of 
Jotham,  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah."  This  would  make  him  a  younger 
contemporary  of  both  Hosea  and  Isaiah.  But  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  superscriptions  of  all  three  of  these  books,  in  their 
present  form  at  least,  are  due  to  the  hand  of  an  editor.  The  super- 
scription of  Micah  is  supported  in  part  by  Je.  26^^,  which  declares, 
"Micah  the  Morashtite  was  prophesying  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah, 
king  of  Judah."  This  agrees  admirably  with  the  content  of  some 
of  his  utterances,  e.  g.,  i*""^^  which  seems  to  sketch  the  course  of 
Sennacherib's  army.  But  the  question  arises  whether  or  not  Micah 
prophesied  in  the  reigns  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz.  His  total  silence 
concerning  the  Syro-Ephraimitish  war,  the  appeal  of  Ahaz  to 
Assyria  and  the  subsequent  deportation  of  the  inhabitants  of  "all 
the  land  of  Naphtali"  to  Assyria  (2  K.  15^^),  makes  it  improbable 
that  he  prophesied  contemporaneously  with  these  events  of  such 
momentous  interest  to  both  kingdoms.  This  confines  his  prophetic 
activity  to  the  period  following  734  B.C.,  i.  e.,  the  reigns  of  Ahaz 


20  MICAH 

and  Hezekiah.  His  first  prophecy  (i^"^)  concerns  itself  with  the 
approaching  destruction  of  Samaria,  with  which  is  coupled  immi- 
nent danger  to  Jerusalem.  There  is  no  evidence  in  either  Assyrian 
or  biblical  records  that  Jerusalem  and  Judah  were  jeopardised  in 
721  B.C.,  when  Sargon  overthrew  Samaria.  Nor  does  Isaiah  seem 
to  have  anticipated  any  immediate  danger  to  Judah  in  connection 
with  that  event.  Indeed,  Judah  was  at  that  time  paying  its  regu- 
lar tribute*  to  Assyria  and  hence  safe  from  harm.  But  the  men- 
tion of  Samaria  as  still  standing  and  doomed  to  destruction  does 
not  confine  us  to  the  period  prior  to  721  for  the  date  of  this  first 
prophecy.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  kind  of  destruction  threatened  by 
the  prophet  in  i^  was  not  experienced  in  721  by  Samaria.  Neither 
the  biblical  (2  K.  17^)  nor  the  Assyrian  records  speak  of  any  de- 
struction of  the  city  (Sargon 's  ^n»a/^,  11.  I'i.ff-).  Indeed,  the  latter 
distinctly  says,  "the  city  I  restored  and  more  than  before  I  caused 
it  to  be  inhabited."  But  Sargon 's  kindness  was  but  poorly  repaid, 
for  in  720  B.C.  Samaria  joined  a  coalition  of  Syrian  states,  viz., 
Hamath,  Arpad,  Simirra  and  Damascus  in  one  more  effort  to  shake 
off  the  yoke  of  Assyria.f  In  715,  Sargon  settled  Arabian  tribes  in 
Samaria;!  the  process  of  repopulating  and  thereby  thoroughly  sub- 
duing Samaria  was  continued  by  Esarhaddon  and  Ashurbanipal, 
according  to  Ezra  4^-  ^-  ^°.  An  Assyrian  governor  was  resident  in 
Samaria  as  late  as  645  b.c.§  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  Micah's 
prophecy  was  spoken  after  721  b.c.  and  in  the  light  of  the  rebel- 
lious attitude  of  Samaria  up  to  and  after  that  date.  The  specific 
occasion  of  the  discourse  may  have  been  the  conspiracy  that  called 
Sargon  to  Ashdod  in  7 13-7 11  b.c,  or  perhaps  better,  that  which 

*  This  is  practically  certain  in  \ncw  of  the  fact  that  Ahaz  paid  tribute  in  734  B.C.,  while  Sargon 
{Prism-Fragment,  II.  29  jf.)  enumerates  Judah  with  Philistia,  Edom  and  Moab  as  peoples 
under  obligation  to  pay  tribute  who  united  with  Ashdod  in  revolt  in  713.  The  reference  in  Sar- 
gon's  Nimrud-Insrr.,  1.  8,  to  his  subjection  of  Ja-u-du  is  best  explained  of  the  northern  Ja'udi, 
rather  than  of  Judah,  since  the  statement  is  made  in  immediate  connection  with  an  account  of 
the  overthrow  of  Hamath  and  other  regions  in  northern  Syria.  Were  the  reference  to  Judah, 
it  must  have  been  in  connection  with  the  revolt  of  Hanno  of  Gaza  in  720,  for  the  Nimrud-lnscr. 
belongs  to  the  year  717  B.C.  and  Sargon  was  engaged  in  other  parts  of  his  empire  from  719-717. 
But  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  Judah  only  should  have  been  selected  for  mention,  when  Gaza  was 
also  involved  in  the  revolt  and  evidently  played  a  more  prominent  part.  C/.  KAT.*,  pp.  67  /., 
271. 

t  Sargon's  Annals,  1.  2$,  and  K.  1340,  II.  17  ff.\  see  AOF.,  I,  403.  and  KAT.*,  66. 

t  Annals,  11.  95  ff. 

t  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  Assyrian  Deeds  and  Documents,  II,  137;  III,  108. 


THE   TIMES   OF  MICAH  21 

resulted  in  the  campaign  of  Sennacherib,  704-701  B.C.  It  is  more 
than  probable,  in  view  of  the  previous  history  of  Samaria,  that  she 
was  involved  in  both  attempts  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Assyria.  In 
either  case,  the  prophet  is  talking  of  a  destruction  of  Samaria  that 
is  in  the  future,  which  he  sees  to  be  a  prelude  to  the  overthrow  of 
Jerusalem.  This  is  more  in  consonance  with  the  language  of  i^  ^• 
than  the  view  that  the  prophet  looks  back  upon  the  events  of  721 
B.C.  and  makes  passing  allusion  to  them  in  order  to  give  weight  to 
his  denimciation  of  Jerusalem.*  The  whole  of  the  genuine  mate- 
rial in  chs.  1-3  belongs  to  one  period  and  that  of  short  duration; 
it  may  have  been  the  product  of  a  few  weeks  or  months  at  a  time 
of  great  crisis,  such  as  that  of  Sennacherib's  invasion. 

2.     The  Background  of  Chs.  1-3. 

The  situation  in  Judah  in  the  period  from  715  to  701  B.C.  was 
one  of  absorbing  interest.  The  air  was  full  of  plots  and  counter- 
plots. Syria  was  the  bone  of  contention  between  Assyria  and 
Egypt,  the  rivals  for  world-dominion.  Assyria  was  in  possession; 
Syria  was  restless  under  her  heavy  yoke;  Egypt  was  alert  to  foment 
dissatisfaction  and  aid  in  freeing  Syria  from  her  burden,  hoping 
thereby  to  supplant  Assyria.  Jerusalem  was  naturally  a  hotbed  of 
intrigue.  Political  feeling  ran  high.  A  pro-Assyrian  and  a  pro- 
Egyptian  party  fought  for  pre-eminence  in  the  councils  of  the  weak 
king,  Hezekiah.  Success  attended  the  adherents  of  Egypt,  and 
revolt  against  Assyria  was  organised  in  713  and  again  in  705  B.C. 
But  the  result  on  both  occasions  was  but  to  weld  the  bonds  of  As- 
syria more  tightly  upon  Judah.  Isaiah,  resident  in  Jerusalem  and 
probably  related  to  the  leading  families,  was  deeply  concerned  in 
all  this  political  turmoil  and  an  active  participant  in  much  that 
was  going  on  at  court.  Cf.  e.  g.,  Is.  20^  ^-  18^  ^-  30*  ^-  31^  ^-  10^  ^•. 
Micah,  however  much  he  may  have  been  stirred  by  these  events, 
eschews  politics  in  his  public  utterance,  and  confines  himself  to 
distinctively  religious  and  ethical  considerations. 

Micah  portrays  a  social  and  economic  situation  in  Judah  very 
similar  to  that  of  Samaria  as  described  by  Amos  in  the  years  im- 

♦  So  e.  g.,  Wc,  and  Smend,  Rel.^,  237  /. 


22  MICAH 

mediately  preceding  the  overthrow  of  the  northern  kingdom.     Cf, 
H/^",  p.  ciii. 

There  is  the  same  luxury  and  indulgence  engendered  by  the  possession 
of  great  riches.  The  plunder  carried  away  by  Sennacherib  after  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  in  701  B.C.  is  tabulated  by  him  as  follows  (Taylor- 
Cylinder,  col.  3,  11.  34-40):  "Thirty  talents  of  gold,  eight  hundred 
talents  of  silver,  precious  stones,  .  .  .  large  lapis  lazuli,  couches  of 
ivory,  thrones  of  elephant  skin  and  ivory,  ivory,  ushu  and  urkarinu  woods 
of  every  kind,  and  his  daughters,  his  palace-women,  male  and  female 
singers,  to  Nineveh,  my  royal  city,  I  caused  to  be  brought  after  me." 

A  degenerate  aristocracy,  mastered  by  greed  and  fattening  upon 
tyranny,  makes  life  unbearable  for  the  tiller  of  the  soil  and  the 
wage-earner.  The  possession  of  wealth  is  looked  upon  as  the 
summum  bonum;  nothing  may  stand  in  the  way  of  its  attainment. 
The  ordinary  demands  of  justice  and  righteousness  are  trampled 
underfoot.  The  quality  of  mercy  is  swallowed  up  in  avarice.  The 
custodians  and  administrators  of  law  abuse  their  powers.  Jus- 
tice is  for  sale  to  the  highest  bidder  (3").  Under  due  process  of 
law  widows  and  orphans  are  expelled  from  their  ancestral  homes, 
that  a  few  acres  may  be  added  to  the  estate  of  the  neighbouring 
landlord  (2^-  ®).  In  the  lust  for  wealth,  the  substance  and  sus- 
tenance of  the  poor  are  devoured,  so  that  they  are  reduced  to  the 
lowest  depths  of  misery  and  degradation  (3*"^).  Even  the  sacra- 
ments and  consolations  of  religion  are  on  the  market;  priests  and 
prophets  cater  to  the  rich  and  browbeat  the  poor  (3^^'  ").  Simi- 
lar conditions  are  exposed  in  contemporary  utterances  of  Isaiah 
(e.  g.,  i'«  f-  28^  f-  292"  '■). 

Making  all  necessary  allowances  for  the  prophetic  point  of  view, 
it  still  remains  true  that  affairs  in  Judah  were  on  the  down  grade. 
Intimate  contact  with  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  civilisations  in  com- 
merce and  politics  had  brought  in  new  standards  of  living  and 
changed  ideals.  Secularisation  of  life  was  making  rapid  progress. 
Commercial  ideals  were  supplanting  those  of  ethical  and  spiritual 
origin.  Appearances  were  becoming  more  important  than  real- 
ities. Character  was  of  less  repute  than  power.  The  fatal  vac- 
illation which  led  Judah  into  a  practical  distrust  of  Yahweh  and 
made  her  fate  the  shuttlecock  of  conflicting  political  parties  was 


THE   MESSAGE   OF  MICAH  23 

also  sapping  the  moral  strength  of  the  nation.  Loyalty  to  the  old 
Hebrew  ideals  which  had  obtained  in  dealings  between  man  and 
man  was  crumbling  rapidly  away  before  the  desire  to  ape  the 
splendour  of  foreign  courts  and  live  the  life  of  sensuous  ease.  At 
such  a  time  there  was  dire  need  of  the  prophetic  cry  calling  men 
back  to  God  and  duty. 

§  4.    THE  MESSAGE   OF  MICAH. 

The  prophet  Micah  marks  no  great  epoch  in  the  history  of  proph- 
ecy. He  is  not  the  apostle  of  any  new  teaching;  he  does  but  reit- 
erate the  great  truths  proclaimed  by  his  predecessors.  But  he  is 
no  mere  imitator;  he  has  forged  his  message  in  the  passion  of  his 
own  soul,  and  stamped  upon  it  the  impress  of  his  own  personality. 
Working  amid  conditions  similar  to  those  which  confronted  Amos, 
his  message  is  necessarily  also  similar.  But  the  preaching  of  Amos 
lacks  the  personal  touch  so  distinctly  felt  in  that  of  Micah,  whose 
message  quivers  with  feeling.  Micah  knows  by  experience  whereof 
he  speaks;  he  has  been  a  victim  of  the  circumstances  against  which 
he  protests.  Himself  a  peasant,  he  becomes  the  spokesman  of 
peasants. 

Micah's  task  was  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  blind  and  to  unstop  the 
ears  of  the  deaf.  But  none  are  so  blind  as  those  that  will  not  see. 
In  spite  of  the  preaching  of  Amos  and  Hosea,  Israel  persisted  in 
cherishing  an  illusion.  The  key  to  the  situation  is  furnished  by 
Mi.  3".  A  wrong  conception  of  God  held  sway  over  the  minds 
of  the  people.  "Yahweh  is  in  the  midst  of  us;  therefore  disaster 
cannot  befall  us."  This  was  to  look  upon  the  relation  of  Yahweh 
to  his  people  as  necessary,  and  not  voluntary  on  his  part.  It  was 
to  conceive  of  that  relation,  moreover,  as  vmconditioned  by  any 
high  demands.  There  was  no  essential  difference  between  this 
conception  of  God  and  that  common  to  the  nations  surrounding 
Israel.  The  language  of  3"  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  taken  as  liter- 
ally exact.  Israel  had  experienced  too  many  chastisements  at  the 
hands  of  Yahweh  to  suppose  that  it  possessed  any  guarantee  against 
further  afflictions.  Yahweh  might  become  angry  at  his  land  and 
vent  his  wrath  upon  his  people  for  some  real  or  fancied  slight,  even 


24  MICAH 

as  Chemosh  executed  his  anger  upon  Moab  {Mesha  Inscription, 
1.  5).  But  he  would  not  definitely  abandon  his  people  to  destruc- 
tion ;  he  could  not  remain  obdurate  and  insensible  to  holocausts  of 
oxen  and  rivers  of  oil.  On  his  great  day,  the  day  of  Yahweh,  he 
would  repent  himself  of  his  anger  and  manifest  himself  on  behalf 
of  his  people  in  destructive  might  against  their  foes  and  his.  Cf. 
Am.  5*^.  For  people  so  minded,  sacrifice  and  oflFering  were  the 
substance  of  religion.  Let  the  ritual  be  exact  and  gorgeous  and 
the  sacrificial  gifts  numerous  and  costly  and  Yahweh  could 
desire  little  more.     Cf.  Is.  i"  ^•. 

Against  this  whole  attitude  toward  God,  the  prophets  of  the 
eighth  century  set  themselves  resolutely.  Micah  joined  with  Amos- 
Hosea  and  Isaiah  in  an  effort  to  purify  religion  by  elevating  the 
popular  conception  of  God.  This  he  does  by  emphasising  the 
true  nature  of  Yahweh's  demands  upon  his  people.  He  seeks 
justice  and  mercy,  not  oxen  and  sheep.  He  desires  right  character 
rather  than  right  ritual.  Herein  lies  Micah's  whole  interest;  he 
plays  the  changes  upon  this  single  string.  He  does  not  suppose 
himself  to  be  announcing  anything  new  to  the  people,  nor  indeed 
was  he  so  doing.  Israel  had  long  credited  Yahweh  with  ethical 
interests.  But  they  we/e  given  only  secondary  significance,  where- 
as Micah  would  make  them  the  supremely  important  element 
in  the  divine  character  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  men.  Divine  favour 
consequently  at  once  ceases  to  be  an  affair  of  purchase  at  any  price, 
and  becomes  a  matter  of  striving  after  the  attainment  of  divine 
ideals  of  righteousness  and  justice. 

Micah's  message  naturally  assumes  the  form  of  denunciation 
of  sin  and  threatening  of  punishment.  Yahweh  being  just  and 
righteous  requires  the  same  quaUties  from  his  people.  But  they 
have  not  yielded  them;  hence  punishment  must  be  inflicted  upon 
them.  The  sins  are  charged  primarily  against  the  ruling  classes 
in  Jerusalem.  They  have  been  guilty  of  injustice  and  cruelty 
toward  the  poor;  they  have  bought  and  sold  the  rights  of  men ;  they 
have  violated  the  moral  law  as  laid  down  by  Yahweh  himself. 
Even  the  religious  leaders  have  not  escaped  the  general  corrup- 
tion. They  have  dared  to  prostitute  their  high  calling  for  the  sake 
of  gain.    They  make  a  mockery  of  religion  by  allying  themselves 


THE  MESSAGE   OF  MICAH  2$ 

with  the  rich  and  powerful  in  the  oppression  of  the  poor.  They 
whose  duty  it  is  to  expose  sin  cast  over  it  the  cloak  of  religion, 
and  wax  rich.  This  attitude  on  Micah's  part  toward  the  prophets 
of  his  day  reveals  the  same  cleavage  in  prophecy  that  had  become 
evident  in  the  days  of  his  predecessor,  Micaiah  ben  Imlah  (i  K.  22), 
is  alluded  to  by  Amos  (7'^^^),  placed  Jeremiah  in  peril  of  his  Hfe 
(26'° ^•)  and  continued  to  the  last  days  of  prophecy  (Zc.  13^"®). 
Micah,  standing  almost  alone  and  in  an  unpopular  cause,  dared 
to  denounce  all  the  vested  interests  of  his  day. 

Apparently,  Micah  entertained  no  hope  of  repentance  on  the 
part  of  those  whom  he  upbraided.  He  sees  nothing  ahead  of  them 
but  punishment.  Samaria  and  Jerusalem  alike  are  to  be  de- 
stroyed, and  that  utterly.  The  cities  are  the  scene  of  destruction, 
being  the  home  of  the  ruling  classes.  Micah  is  the  first  of  the 
prophets  to  threaten  Jerusalem  with  total  destruction.  A  pro- 
nunciamento  of  this  kind  is  indisputable  evidence  of  the  prophet's 
initiative  and  courage.  That  Yahweh's  splendid  temple,  which 
had  stood  as  the  visible  reminder  of  his  presence  since  the  days 
of  Solomon,  should  pass  into  the  hands  of  a  pagan  nation  to  be 
desecrated  and  destroyed  was  a  statement  altogether  incredible 
to  the  citizens  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  which  only  absolute  and 
unswerving  loyalty  to  Yahweh  and  his  will  could  possibly  have 
enabled  Micah  to  make. 

Not  a  word  of  Micah's  is  preserved  for  us  concerning  hopes  for 
Israel's  future.  Yet  that  he  should  have  had  no  such  hopes  is 
psychologically  and  religiously  unintelligible.  His  conception  of 
Yahweh,  even  though  as  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth  and  able  to 
move  the  nations  at  his  will  (i^-  *•  ^''-i^),  never  for  a  moment  in- 
cluded the  possibility  of  Yahweh  transferring  his  love  to  another 
nation.  Were  Israel  as  a  whole  to  perish,  Yahweh  would  be  left 
without  a  representative  among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  But 
while  Micah  saw  the  scourge  of  an  invading  army  prostrate  the 
countryside  and  destroy  the  capital,  there  is  no  evidence  that  he 
looked  for  the  annihilation  of  the  nation  as  such.*  Living  apart 
from  the  glamour  and  power  of  the  capital,  he  did  not  identify  the 
fate  of  the  nation  with  that  of  Jerusalem.    He  may  have  given  over 

*  Cj.  Sm.,  Rd.h  2o7  /. 


26  MICAH 

the  corrupt  capital  to  destruction  without  a  moment's  hesitation  as 
to  Israel's  future,  believing  it  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  simple-minded 
country  folk  rather  than  with  the  degenerate  leaders  of  church, 
state  and  society  in  Jerusalem.  Furthermore,  Yahweh  was  great 
enough  to  win  glory  for  himself  apart  from  the  temple  and  the  cap- 
ital. He  was  not  shut  up  to  one  way  of  manifesting  himself  among 
his  people.  He  in  whose  presence  the  mountains  quake  and  dis- 
solve is  surely  able  to  vindicate  himself  in  the  sight  of  the  world 
even  though  Jerusalem  fall. 

What  the  immediate  effect  of  Micah's  preaching  was  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing.  True,  Je.  26**-  ^^  preserves  a  tradition  that 
Hezekiah's  reformation  was  due  to  the  influence  of  Micah.  But 
however  true  that  may  be,  neither  the  record  of  Je.  26*^-  *^  nor  the 
accoimt  of  Hezekiah's  reform  accords  closely  with  the  contents  of 
Micah's  message  as  known  to  us.  For  Micah  seems  to  have  de- 
nounced the  nobles  and  councillors  of  the  king  rather  than  the  king 
himself  as  the  face  of  the  narrative  in  Jeremiah  would  imply;  and 
his  preaching  was  concerned  primarily  with  social  wrongs  rather 
than  with  idolatry  and  cultus  as  in  2  K.  18^  ^•.  In  any  case  his 
words  were  cherished  among  the  people  of  the  land  for  whom  he 
laboured  and  his  example  of  sturdy  independence  and  freedom  of 
speech  in  the  name  of  Yahweh  established  a  precedent  that  was 
of  good  service  to  Jeremiah,  the  bearer  of  a  similar  message. 


§  5.    RECENT  LITERATURE   ON  THE   BOOK 
OF  MICAH. 

For  discussions  of  the  poetical  form  of  Micah,  see  §  i.  Only 
the  more  important  literature  can  be  mentioned  here. 

I.     On  the  Text. 

K.  Vollers,  Das  Dodekapropheton  der  Alexandriner,  ZAW., 
IV  (1884),  1-12.  V.  Ryssel,  Die  arahische  Uebersetzung  des 
Micha  in  der  Pariser  tmd  Londoner  Polyglolte,  ZAW.,  V  (1885), 
102-38.  Idem.,  Untersiichiingen  fiber  die  Textgestalt  und  die 
Echtheit  des  Bitches  Micha.     Ein  kritischer  Kommentar  zu  Micha 


LITERATURE   ON   MICAH  27 

(1887).  M.  Sebok,  Die  Syrische  Uebersetzung  der  zwolf  kleinen 
Propheten  und  ihr  Verhaltniss  zu  dem  Massoretischen  Text  und  zu 
den  dlteren  Uebersetzungen  namentlich  den  LXX  und  dem  Targuni 
(1887).  Schuurmans  Stekhoven,  De  Alex.  Vertaling  van  hel  Do- 
dekapropheton  (1887).  H.  P.  Smith,  The  Text  of  Micah,  in  He- 
braica,  IV  (1888),  75-81.  J.  Taylor,  The  Massoretic  Text  and 
the  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Book  of  Micah  (1891).  H.  Graetz, 
Emendationes  in  plerosque  Sacrae  Scripfurae  Veteris  Testamenti 
libros,  etc.  (1893).  P.  Ruben,  Critical  Remarks  upon  Some  Pas- 
sages of  the  Old  Testament  (1896).  H.  Oort,  Textus  Hebraici 
Emendationes  quibus  in  Vetera  Testamento  Neerlandice  usi  sunt 
A .  Kuenen,  J.  Hooykaas,  W.  H.  Kosters,  H.  Oort;  edidit  H.  Oort 
(1900).  W.  O.  E.  Oesterley,  The  Old  Latin  Texts  of  the  Minor 
Prophets,  in  Journal  of  Theological  Studies,  V  (1903),  247-53. 
Idem.,  Codex  Taurinensis  (1908).  Agnes  Smith  Lewis,  Codex 
Climaci  Rescriptus  (Horae  Semiticae,  No.  VIII,  1909),  pp.  2  and 
22  (giving  a  Palestinian-Syriac  Version  of  Mi.  4^"^).  B.  Duhm, 
Anmerkungen  zu  den  zwolf  Propheten,  in  ZAW.,  XXXI  (191 1), 
81-93. 

2.    On  Introduction. 

All  the  standard  handbooks  of  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment have  sections  on  Micah.  Special  attention  may  be  called  to 
Driver  (new  ed.,  1910),  Konig  (1893),  Kuenen  (2d  ed.,  1885/.), 
Wildeboer  (3d  ed.,  1903),  Comill  (6th  ed.,  1908;  Engl.  transL, 
1907)  and  Budde,  Geschichte  der  Althebrdischen  Litteratur  (1906). 
Good  summaries  are  furnished  also  by  the  encyclopedia  articles,  viz., 
those  of  Cheyne,  in  Encyclopaedia  Biblica;  Nowack,  in  Hastings's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  and  Volck,  in  Protestantische  Realencyklo- 
padie  (3d  ed.).  To  these  must  be  added,  by  the  careful  student, 
Caspari,  Uber  Micha  den  Morasthiten  und  seine  prophetische 
Schrift  (1852).  Stade,  Bemerkungen  Uber  das  Buch  Micha, 
ZAW.,  I  (1881),  161-72.  Idem.,  Weitere  Bemerkungen  zu 
Micha,  IV-V,  ibid..  Ill  (1883),  1-16.  Nowack,  Bemerhmgen 
uber  das  Buch  Micha,  ibid.,  IV  (1884),  277-91.  Stade,  Bemer- 
kungen, on  Nowack's  article,  ibid.,  IV,  291-97.  Ryssel,  op.  cit. 
(1887).     Pont,  Micha-Studien,  in  Theologische  Studien,  1888,  pp 


28  MICAH 

235-46;  1889,  pp.  431-53 ;  1892,  pp.  329-60.  Kosters,  De  Samen- 
stelling  van  het  boek  Micha,  in  ThT.,  1893,  pp.  249-74.  Volz, 
Die  vorexilische  Jahweprophetie  und  der  Messias  (1897),  63-67. 
K.  J.  Grimm,  Euphemistic  Liturgical  Appendixes  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (1901),  78-81,  94/..  Stade,  in  ZAW.,  XXIII  (1903),  163- 
71,  on  Mi.  I-"*  and  7''^°.  See  also  the  literature  cited  in  §  i  of 
Introduction. 

3.     On  Interpretation. 

The  modem  movemeut  in  the  interpretation  of  Micah  began 
with  Ewald's  commentary  (1840;  2d  ed.,  1867).  Among  later 
commentators  may  be  mentioned  Roorda,  Commentarius  in  Vati- 
cinium  Michae  (1869),  a  keen  textual  critic.  Reinke,  Der  Prophet 
Micha  (1874).  Hitzig-Steiner,  Die  zwolf  kleinen  Propheten 
(1881).  Cheyne,  Micah,  with  Notes  and  Introduction  (1882). 
Orelli,  The  Twelve  Minor  Prophets  (1888;  3d  ed.,  1908;  Engl, 
transl.,  1893).  Elhorst,  De  Profetie  van  Micha  (1891).  Well- 
hausen.  Die  kleinen  Propheten  fiber setzt  und  erkldrt  (1892;  3d  ed., 
1898).  G.  A.  Smith,  The  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets  (1896). 
Nowack,  Die  kleinen  Propheten  ilber setzt  und  erkldrt  (1897;  2d  ed. 
1904).  Marti,  Dodekapropheton  erkldrt  (1904).  Halevy,  in  Revue 
semitique,  XII  and  XIII  (1904/.).  A.  van  Hoonacker,  Les  douze 
petits  prophUes  (1908).    Margolis,  Micah  (1908). 

Special  phases  and  passages  receive  consideration  in  the  follow- 
ing: H.  Oort,  Het  Beth-Efraat  van  Micha  V  :  i,  in  ThT.,  V 
(1871),  501-11.  Kuenen,  De  Koning  uit  Beth-Ephrat,  ibid.,  VI 
(1872),  45-66.  Oort,  Ter  verklaring  van  Micha  III-V.  Nog 
iets  over  Beth-Efraat  en  Migdal-Eder,  ibid.,  VI,  273-79.  M.  J. 
de  Goeje,  Ter  verklaring  van  Micha  III-V.  Proeve  van  verk- 
laring van  Micha  IV  :  i-V  :  2,  ibid.,  VI,  279-84.  Kuenen,  Ter 
verklaring  van  Micha  III-IV.  Nalezing,  ibid.,  VI,  285-302. 
Duhm,  Die  Theologie  der  Propheten  (1875),  pp.  178-93.  Wilde- 
boer,  De  profeet  Micha  en  zijne  beteekenis  voor  het  verstand  der 
profetie  onder  Israel  (1884).  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel 
and  Their  Place  in  History  (2d  ed.,  1895).  Guthe's  Translation 
and  Notes  in  Kautzsch's  Heilige  Schrift  des  Alten  Testaments  (3d 
ed.,  1909).     Kent's  Translation  and  Notes  in  Sermons,  Epistles 


LITERATURE   ON   MICAH  29 

and  Apocalypses  of  Israel's  Prophets  (19 10).  M.  Rahmer,  Die 
hebrdischen  Traditionen  in  den  Werken  des  Hieronymus.  Die 
Commentaru  zu  den  zivolf  kleinen  Propheten.  Heft  2,  Obadja, 
Jona,  Micha.      (1902). 


A  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK 
OF  MICAH. 

A.     CHAPTERS  1-3. 
§  I.     The  Superscription  (i*). 

This  states  the  authority  of  the  utterance  and  the  author's  name 
and  clan,  together  with  the  period  of  his  activity  and  the  subject- 
matter  of  his  writings. 

I.  The  word  of  Yahweh]  This  term  is  usually  employed  for 
the  work  of  the  prophet.  F.  H.'^",  201  /.. — Which  came  unto] 
This  use  of  the  verb  is  common  in  prophetic  utterance:  in  the 
superscriptions  of  Ho.,  Jo.,  Jon.,  Zp.,  Hg.,  Zc,  Je.,  and  also  Hg. 
2I.  10. 20  2c.  i7  48  510  ^4. 8  gi  js  2813  38^;  and  exceedingly  common  in 
the  books  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel.  It  is  part  of  a  larger  usage 
representing  the  meaning  come  into  existence,  become.  Cf.  Gn.  i^ 
and  Mi.  7*,  where  it  is  parallel  to  i^M2—Micah]  Little  is  known 
of  the  life  of  this  prophet,  except  that  he  was  of  rustic  origin, 
preached  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  and  made  so  profound  an  impres- 
sion as  to  be  still  remembered  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  nearly  a  cen- 
tury later  (Je.  26'^). — The  Morashtite]  Of  the  eight  men  named 
Micah,  or  Micaiah,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  two  leading  ones  are 
the  Micah  of  our  book  and  Micaiah  ben  Imlah  (i  K.  22*  *'•),  a  con- 
temporary of  Ahab.*  The  appellation  of  Morashtite,  distinguishing 
the  former  and  occurring  only  here  and  in  Je.  26'^,  is  a  gentilic 
adjective  derived  from  the  name  Moresheth  (i"),  which  in  all  prob- 
ability was  the  prophet's  home. — In  the  days  of  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah]  A  later  addition,!  for  the  substantial 
truth  of  which  evidence  is  furnished  by  Je.  26*^;  but  no  sufficient 
grounds  exist  for  believing  Micah  to  have  prophesied  in  the  days 
of  Jotham. — Which  he  perceived]    This  emphasises  the  character 

•  V.  H.^",  Iv,  Ivi.  t  V.  ».;  and  Introduction,  §  3. 

30 


I  31 

of  the  prophet's  message  as  a  divine  revelation. — Concerning  Sa- 
maria and  Jerusalem]  An  accurate  summary  of  the  contents  of 
Micah's  prophecies,  whether  the  destruction  of  Samaria  spoken  of 
in  i^"^  be  already  past  or  yet  to  come. 

The  superscription  seems  to  be  of  Judean  origin,  since  no  mention  is 
made  of  the  contemporary  kings  of  Israel.  But  it  cannot  in  its  present 
form  be  credited  to  Micah  himself,  for  none  of  the  contents  of  the  book 
can  be  assigned  to  so  early  a  date  as  the  reign  of  Jotham;  the  use  of  ntn 
in  the  sense  of  "utter"  or  "announce"  is  a  sign  of  late  origin  {cf. 
H.'^",  4;  Hoffman,  ZA  W.,  Ill,  95) ;  and  the  latter  part  of  the  superscrip- 
tion is  similar  to  the  editorial  additions  in  Ho.  i",  Is.  i'.  The  original 
legend,  therefore,  was.  The  word  of  Yahweh  which  came  to  Micah,  the 
Morashtite  (so  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Du.;  cf.  Che.,  in  CB.). 

1 .  H'ln  -itfN  nini  13-1]  (g,  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  (so  2,0,  A),  a  free 
rendering,  rather  than  a  different  text;  Jonah  is  the  only  prophetic  book 
beginning  '1  12T  ''nil,  though  isolated  oracles  are  not  infrequently  so  in- 
troduced, e.  g.,  Je.  I*  Ez.  3'5.  Some  codd.  of  (^  (87,  91,  228  and  ^")  re- 
produce M  literally. — riyn]  The  interpretation  of  this  name  as  mean- 
ing. Who  is  like  {this  child)?  (Gray,  Hebr.  Prop.  Names,  157;  cf. 
Kjip,  2  S.  9"),  is  hardly  probable,  for  such  a  name  leaves  too  much  to  be 
supplied  by  the  imagination.  It  is  better  taken  as  a  shorter  form  of 
n;rp  (so  Kt.,  Je.  26'8);  cf.  in;rp  (2  Ch.  17')  and  -iniri?  (i  K.  228) 
meaning.  Who  is  like  Yahu?  Cf.  v\^,  the  form  of  the  divine  name  in  the 
Assouan  Papyri  and  the  form  v  found  both  as  prefix  and  as  affix  on  the 
ostraca  recently  discovered  at  Samaria.  Analogous  forms  are  '^no'D, 
and  the  Assyrian  mannu-ki-ilu-rabu  =  who  is  like  the  great  God?  and 
mannu-ki-Adad  =  who  is  like  Adad  (Gray,  Hebr.  Prop.  Names,  157; 
Fried.  Delitzsch,  Prol.,  210).  The  longer  and  the  shorter  forms  are 
used  interchangeably  in  the  later  literature.  Cf.  (&,  'yieixalav;  Kt.  and 
Qr.  in  Je.  26'8  2  K.  22'2and2  Ch.  34";  and  Ju.  17'- <,  wherein  a  long  form 
appears,  while  the  short  form  prevails  in  the  rest  of  chs.  17  and  18;  in  17'-  < 
(S^  reproduces  the  long  form  of  M,  SI  has  the  long  form  in  v.  ',  but  the 
short  in  v.  <,  and  06'^  13  ^  have  the  short  form  in  both  verses.  There  is 
no  good  reason  to  suppose  that  this  equivalence  does  not  rest  upon  sound 
tradition. — ina'iD]  Cf.  i'*.  (&,  t6v  toO  MupaffOel,  treating  it  as  a  patro- 
nymic; in  Je.  26"  05  has  6  Mupadlrrji,  several  mss.  omit  the  <t  from  be- 
fore ^here;  this  is  due  to  the  similar  pronunciation  of  the  two  letters. 
®,  nE'-»3c;  similarly  &,  mistakenly  connecting  it  with  the  Mareshah  of 
i'5. — o.-iv]  2  mss.  of  de  R.  prefix  (Dnny. — niprni]  <B  "B  ^  prefix  conj.; 
hence,  and  because  asyndeton  is  uncommon  in  historical  prose,  Ro. 
emends  to  'ini;  but  cf.  Is.  i'  Ho.  i',  where  <S  again  inserts  Kal;  the  fact 
that  the  form  'rn^.  occurs  in  Chronicles  35  times,  while  the  shorter  form 


32  MICAH 

is  found  only  5  times,  likewise  argues  for  the  full  form  in  this  late  super- 
scription.— -y^'n]  (&,  virip  S)v,  a  rendering  made  necessary  by  the  literal 
translation  of  nrn  as  saw.  Cf.  ®,  which  renders  ntn,  he  prophesied. — jn-::'] 
V.  i.  on  w.  f  • ';  on  form,  cf.  Assy.,  Sa-me-ri-na. — oScn']  V.  H.'^",  47. 

§  2     The  Doom  of  Israel  (i^^). 

This  oracle  resolves  itself  into  six  strophes  of  four  lines  each, 
(i)  The  announcement  of  Yahweh's  appearance  in  judgment  (v.  ^). 
(2)  The  convulsions  of  nature  attendant  upon  his  coming  (vv.  ^• 
*'^'  ^)-  (3)  The  occasion  of  this  punitive  manifestation  is  the  sin 
of  Israel,  especially  as  represented  in  the  capital  cities  (v.  ^).  (4) 
Yahweh  states  that  Samaria  is  to  be  razed  to  the  ground  because  of 
her  sins  (v.  ®).  (5)  Therefore  does  the  prophet  break  forth  into 
inconsolable  lamentation  (v.  *).  (6)  For  the  destruction  is  irre- 
mediable and  will  extend  even  to  Jerusalem  (v.  ®). 

UEAR  ye,  peoples  all; 

Hearken,  O  earth,  and  her  fulness. 

Yahweh  will  become  a  witness  against  you, 

The  Lord  from  his  holy  temple. 
VEA,  see!     Yahweh  is  coming  forth  from  his  place; 

He  will  descend  upon  the  heights  of  the  earth; 

And  the  mountains  will  melt  under  him, 

And  the  valleys  be  cloven  asunder. 
T70R  the  transgression  of  Jacob  is  all  this. 

And  for  the  sin  of  the  house  of  Judah. 

What  is  Jacob's  transgression?     Is  it  not  Samaria? 

And  what  is  Judah's  sin?     Is  it  not  Jerusalem? 
nrHEREFORE  will  I  turn  Samaria  into  a  field, 

Into  a  planted  vineyard; 

And  I  will  pour  down  her  stones  into  the  valley, 

And  lay  bare  her  foundations. 
frOR  this,  let  me  lament  and  wail; 

Let  me  go  barefoot  and  stripped; 

Let  me  make  lamentation  like  the  jackals, 

And  mourning  like  the  daughters  of  the  desert. 
XrOR  her  stroke  is  incurable. 

Yea,  it  comes  even  to  Judah; 

It  reaches  unto  the  gate  of  my  people, 

Even  unto  Jerusalem. 

The  measure  of  this  poem  is  trimeter,  with  an  occasional  rise  to  a  te- 
trameter or  a  descent  to  dimeter  (in  v.  •,  where  the  elegiac  movement 
appears  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  contents  of  the  str.).   The  first  three 


I  "  33 

strs.  describe  the  coming  of  Yahweh  and  its  cause;  the  last  three  set 
forth  the  nature  of  the  punishment  and  its  effect.  This  arrangement  in- 
volves the  retention  of  w.  ^-^ »  as  genuine,  notwithstanding  the  objec- 
tions of  Sta.,  Now.,  Marti,  et  al.,  and  the  excision  of  w. « ••  d.  7  as  later 
accretions.  Now.  has  already  felt  the  difficulty  of  v.  ♦••  <J  and  attempted 
to  remedy  it  by  interchanging  the  positions  of  w.  *  ^  and  *  •.  But  *  •  and 
*  ^  belong  together;  the  expansion  of  a  thought  by  the  addition  of  a  com- 
parison is  no  uncommon  thing  (cf.  y^");  and  the  lines  **  ■  '^  burden  the 
str..  The  argument  against  v. '  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  breaks  the  close 
connection  between  v.  ^  and  v.  ^  (the  lamentation  of  v. '  is  certainly  not 
on  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  idols  in  v. ',  but  because  of  the  fall 
of  the  city  related  in  v.  ^) ;  its  indulgence  in  detail  is  likewise  quite  out  of 
harmony  with  the  swift,  powerful  strokes  employed  to  sketch  the  scene 
of  destruction.  Moreover,  Micah's  emphasis  was  not  upon  the  iniquity 
of  idolatry,  but  upon  that  of  crimes  against  the  social  order.  It  is  not 
likely,  therefore,  that  he  would  make  idolatry  the  sole  cause  of  the  threat- 
ened disaster,  as  is  done  if  v. '  be  retained.  The  two  great  cities  are  here 
singled  out  for  denunciation;  but  idolatry  was  no  more  rampant  in  the 
city  than  in  the  country.  These  facts,  together  with  the  marked  varia- 
tion from  the  strophic  norm  of  the  context,  in  that  it  constitutes  a  five-line 
strophe,  make  the  case  against  v. '  conclusive  (so  also  Marti,  Now."^, 
Siev.,  Gu.).  Objections  against  w.  2-5»  were  first  formulated  by  Sta., 
ZAW.,  XXIII,  163.  They  are  (i)  that  here  the  judgment  is  directed 
against  the  heathen,  with  whom  Micah  has  no  concern;  (2)  that  the  con- 
nection of  this  world-judgment  with  the  impending  calamity  of  Israel  is 
a  thought  characteristic  of  later  times;  (3)  that  the  conception  of  Yahweh 
as  abiding  in  the  heavens  is  of  late  origin;  and  (4)  that  in  w."-*  the 
movement  is  trimeter,  while  in  vv.  ^  b.  the  Qma-rhythm  prevails.  But 
it  is  by  no  means  so  certain  that  the  prophetic  eschatology  took  on  its 
universalistic  colouring  only  in  later  times.  The  first  two  chapters  of 
Amos  seem  to  indicate  an  early  connection  between  Yahweh's  judgment 
of  Israel  and  a  more  or  less  widely  extended  world-catastrophe.  Cf. 
also  Gressmann,  Der  Ursprung  d.  isr.-jud.  Eschatologie  (1905),  144/.. 
There  was  certainly  nothing  in  the  eighth-century  idea  of  God  that  pre- 
vented attributing  to  him  activities  of  world-wide  scope.  Cf.  Am.  9' 
and  Gn.  i-ii.  The  belief  that  Yahweh  enthrones  himself  in  the  heav- 
ens cannot  legitimately  be  made  of  late  origin  {contra  Kau.,  DB.,  V, 
646)  in  view  of  the  theophany  at  Sinai  (Ex.  19"-  •«  =  J);  of  the  occur- 
rence of  the  title  '  God  of  the  heavens'  in  the  indubitably  early  passage 
Gn.  24'  (J);  of  the  parallel  title  jr'^y  in  Nu.  24",  an  equally  early  pas- 
sage: and  of  the  mention  of  a  Phoenician  deity,  Baal-samen,  in  a  contract 
between  Esarhaddon  (681-668)  and  the  king  of  Tyre  {v.  KAT.^,  357). 
The  change  of  rhythm  in  vv.  '  '■  does  not  necessarily  involve  a  change  of 
authorship  {cf.  Siev.,  who  constructs  a  separate  oracle  in  Qina-rhythm  of 


34  MICAH 

w.  "•  »•  8);  similar  changes  occur  elsewhere  within  a  poem,  e.  g.,  2»  4'". 
Furthermore,  the  omission  of  vv.  '•' »  leaves  the  opening  of  the  oracle 
abrupt  and  brusque  to  a  degree  not  paralleled  elsewhere  in  Mi.  1-3. 

2.  oSa]  (6,  X67oi;j  =  Aram.,  s^bri,  a  familiar  term  to  the  translators;  3 
and  D  were  easily  confused  in  the  old  script.  Cf.  i"  5"-  "  7'"  (S,  Jb.  8* 
(where  'nn  >3  =  'nnp),  Zc.  2"'  (where  M,  j.'3-ind  =  (&,  'inc)  and  Mai. 
I'"  (where  :0  ip  =  (S  ':).  The  conjecture  of  Ry.  that  05  originally 
read  X67oi;s  irdm-as  is  without  any  support  and  is  unnecessary.  &  all  0/ 
yoM(soDu.);  but  in  Jb.  i7'o&  makes  the  same  change.  iS  is  substanti- 
ated by  I  K.  22'8b^  a  verbatim  quotation  of  this  phrase. — O'rpn]  In  codd. 
Kenn.  30,  96,  224,  13 — ;  in  the  same  codd.  and  in  4,  loi,  145,  150  (cf, 
C5  &  B)  'pni;  but  both  of  these  variations  are  due  to  scribal  correction. 
— hnSci]  (S  freely,  and  all  who  are  in  it;  &  with  her  fulness. — nirr"  >jin] 
Om.  'a  with  (55^  and  A;  it  is  superfluous  to  the  metre,  and  is  either  a  gloss 
on  nin>  or  a  dittog.  from  the  following  line  (so  also  Marti,  Now.*^,  Siev., 
Stk.,  Du.. — 1}''^]  <S,  els  napTdpiov,  abstract  for  concrete.— 3 .  11-11]  Om.  with 
(S,  as  a  dittog.  of  tim;  this  also  improves  the  rhythm;  Siev.,  Hpt.  om.  tim 
instead.  Du.  om.  either. — 4.  'ui  losji]  05,  transposing  the  vbs.,  and  shall 
be  shattered  the  mountains  under  him  and  the  valleys  melted. — o^pci'n] 
Codd.  229  (Kenn.)  and  224  (de  R.),  myajn. — 5.  niNBn3i]  Rd.  PNonai,  with 
(&  W  (but  cod.  Reuchl.  has  pi.)  and  codd.  211,  1257  (de  R.).  26  codd, 
of  Kenn.  have  defective  writing.  The  sg.  is  required  by  the  parallel 
ps'D,  and  by  05's  rendering  of  niC3  in  1.  4  (so  Ro.,  Taylor,  We.,  Pont,  Gu., 
Oort^""-,  Now.,  Marti,  Stk.,  Du.). — 'I'N-iS''']  Rd.  ^y^\  because  of  the  use 
of  the  latter  in  I.  4  (so  Seb.,  Now.,  We.,  Pont,  Gu.).  A  similar  inter- 
change of  names  occurs  in  Ho.  s'^-  ";  according  to  the  Massora  such  con- 
fusion of  names  was  not  infrequent  {v.  the  citation  in  Seb.  46,  note  3). — 
■•d]  Seb.  and  We.,  np. — nino]  Rd.  riNBn,  with  &  and  codd.  (Kenn.) 
201,  228,  on  margin  (so  Houb.,  Dathe,  Bauer,  Ro.,  Gort^™-,  Marti, 
Hal.,  Siev.,  Stk.,  Gu.,  Du.).  Cf.  <&,  v  aiiapria  ofKoi;;  so  (S,  C 
For  a  similar  insertion  of  roa  by  05,  see  many  codd.  HP.,  which  insert 
it  in  v.  6c  before  2py\  P^::2  is  a  gloss  which  succeeded  in  displacing 
the  original  text;  it  is  impossible  because  the  answer  Jerusalem  does 
not  fit;  nor  was  Jerusalem  noted  for  high-places,  the  temple  tak- 
ing their  place;  the  parallelism  is  against  it;  the  sin  of  Judah  as 
Micah  saw  it  consisted  in  oppression,  murder,  etc.,  rather  than  in 
worshipping  on  the  high-places;  and  the  Vrss.  all  testify  against  M. 
Kue.,  P>2  Pt<-£n  (so  H.  P.  Smith,  Seb.,  Taylor,  Elh.,  Pont,  Gr.,  Gu., 
GASm.,  Now.,  We.). — 6.  ntvn  ij,-'^]  Rd.  ^7,^'':',  omitting  '•■>*  (so  Marti, 
Siev.,  Gu.)  as  a  gloss.  05,  els  dirwpocpvXdKiov  dypov;  f^,for  a  house  of  the 
country,  the  field,  connecting  r\-\'Z'n  with  the  following  instead  of  the  pre- 
ceding context.  We.,  'tfn  lyS  (cf.  3"  Ez.  21';  so  Now.),  or  'r^  •^>yh  {cf. 
I  S.  27').  Hi.,  'c  n»jjS,  connecting  mi-  with  following  words  (r/.  &);  but 
n^y  would  be  air.. — ^3^]  Rd.  n'-jS  with  6  codd.  (Kenn.);   n  lost  through 


I"  35 

haplo,.  (5,  eli  x'^of-  "^y  Quasi  acervum  lapidum  in  agro.  Gr.  'n  SjS. — 
7.  ins"]  d,  KaTaK6\pov(n,  an  active  form  with  indefinite  subject,  equivalent 
to  the  passive.  Cf.  French  on,  German  man  (so  Ry.,  contra  Bauer,  Jus., 
Hi.,  Vol.,  who  posit  a  different  pointing  for  M). — ^^anti]^,  locationes.  We. 
nniTN  (so  Oort^™-,  Marti,  Gu.),  but  this  would  require  a  fem.  form  of  the 
vb.  (Hal.).  Hal.  n^jon. — nxap]  Rd.,  with  &  SI  Iff,  isap  to  conform  with 
ma''  and  requirements  of  grammar  (so  Dathe,  Ew.,  Taylor,  Elh.,  We., 
Pont,  Gr.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Hal.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.).  Cf.  05,  ffw^yayev. 
— 8.  05  places  all  vbs.  in  3d  pers.  sg.,  &  in  2d  pers.  sg.  fem.,  21  in  3d  pers. 
pi.  masc. — hdSin]  Qr.  and  some  codd.  of  Kenn.  noSs. — hh-'Of]  Qr.  and  31 
codd.  (Kenn.)  SSir. — :!»>;?{<]  05*,  Trotijo-erai  Kal  iroL-fiffaiTe. — n^jn^]  05,  ws 
dpaKdvTuv;  so  B.  Aq.,  aeip-^vuv.  0,  \ebvT03v,  #,  a  jackal.  Cod.  96 
(Kenn.)  pjns. — njp  nuj]  05,  dvyar^pwv  <reip-fivuv;  so  &. — 9.  nrus]  05, 
KaT€KpdT7jffev;  2  6,  ^lala;  "B,  desperata. — n^niDn]  Rd.  nnrn,  with  <&,  i] 
nX-fiytf  ayrijs,  and  in  agreement  with  the  sg.  of  the  vbs.;  so  &  13  SI  and  7 
codd.  of  de  R.  and  i  cod.  of  Kenn.  (so  We.,  Gr.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti, 
Hal.,  Siev.,  Stk.,  van  H.,  Marg.,  Gu.).  Du.  n;  nsD. — Vii\  Rd.  nyjj,  with  & 
21,  in  conformity  with  demands  of  grammar  (so  Taylor,  We.,  Now.,  Marti, 
Hal.,  Siev.,  Stk.,  van  H.,  Marg.,  Gu.,  Du.).  Elh.  yj:.— aWn^-ny]  We., 
Now.,  Stk.,  om.  as  gloss.     Marti,  'i"'  nnp. 

Str.  I  contains  the  call  for  attention. — 2.  Hear  ye,  peoples  all] 
The  prophet  addresses  the  nations  of  the  earth,*  rather  than  the 
tribes  of  Israel f  (although  D'^O^  is  sometimes  used  of  the  tribes;  cf. 
Gn.  49^"  Dt.  32^  2>^  Zc.  ii'"  Ho.  10"),  as  appears  from  the  parallel 
expression,  O  earth  and  her  fulness]  which  always  designates  the 
world  as  a  whole  and  never  any  special  portion.  Cf.  Dt.  t,?,^^  Ps. 
24\  The  nations  are  summoned  not  as  witnesses  {cf.  Am.  3^  Dt. 
^26  2^19  jg  j.2^^  1^^^  ^g  vitally  interested  auditors  whom  it  behooves 
to  consider  diligently  what  they  hear,  for  Israel's  case  is  part  and 
parcel  of  the  world's  case.  The  logical  object  of  the  verbs  hear  and 
hearken  is  the  whole  of  the  succeeding  oracle,  beginning,  Yahweh 
will  become  a  witness  against  you]  Not  among  you,X  for  Micah 
certainly  would  not  conceive  of  Yahweh  as  a  fellow-witness  with 
the  heathen  of  Israel's  calamities;  but  rather  of  these  calamities  as 
bringing  home  to  their  consciences  a  condemning  sense  of  their  own 
guilt  and  a  warning  to  flee  from  the  coming  wrath;  i.  e.,  Yahweh 
through  his  punishment  of  Israel  will  testify  against  the  nations, 

*  So  Rosenm.,  Ew.,  Ke.,  Casp.,  Hd.,  Pu.,  Or.,  Che.,  We.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti. 
t  So  Ki.,  Hi.,  Stei.,  Hal..  t  So  GASm.. 


36  MICAH 

who  are  even  more  guilty.— Ht^  holy  temple]  i.  e.,  his  dwelling  in  the 

heavens,*  not  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,!  as  the  language  of  vv.  ^-  * 

shows.     Cf.  Hb.  2^"  Zc.  2''  Is.  63'^  Ps.  11^.     For  similar  views  in 

early  times  regarding  Yahweh's  habitation,  cf.  Ex.  13"^  ^-  14*®-  -^ 
J  lib.  18.  20 

Str.  II  introduces  Yahweh  himself  upon  the  scene  of  action. — 
3.  Yea,  see!  Yahweh  is  coming  forth  from  his  place]  The  pic- 
ture becomes  more  vivid;  the  judgment  is  on  the  verge  of  execu- 
tion! The  place  is  the  heavenly  temple.  Cf.  Ho.  5^'^  Ps.  14^  Is.  i8\ 
— He  will  descend  upon  the  heights  of  the  earth]  For  the  omission 
of  the  phrase,  and  tread,  v.  s.  For  a  similar  thought,  cf.  Am.  4^^  (a 
late  passage). — 4.  And  the  mountains  will  melt,  etc.]  The  ima- 
gery here  is  based  upon  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes  or  volcanic 
eruptions  {cf.  Is.  24^^  Zc.  14^  Na.  i"),  and  is  not  descriptive  of  a 
thunderstorm;  the  description  of  the  rending  of  the  valleys  forbids 
the  latter  interpretation. — Like  wax  before  the  fre,  like  waters  poiired 
down  a  declivity]  A  later  addition  {v.  s.).  The  volcanic  stream 
of  lava  is  the  basis  of  this  comparison. 

Str.  Ill  states  the  cause  of  Yahweh's  fearful  wrath. — 5.  For  the 
transgression  of  Jacob  is  all  this]  Jacob  is  here  applied  to  the 
northern  kingdom,  as  appears  from  1.  3.  All  this  refers  to  the 
foregoing  cataclysm,  not  to  the  threats  of  v.  ^. — And  for  the  sin  of 
the  house  ofJudah]  The  prophet  couples  Israel  and  Judah  in  the 
bonds  of  iniquity.  The  coming  punishment  will  include  both. 
C/.  w.  ®-  ^. — What  is  Jacob's  transgression?  Is  it  not  Samaria?] 
The  name  of  the  capital,  the  centre  of  the  nation's  corrupt  and  li- 
centious life,  sums  up  the  offence  of  Israel. — And  what  is  Judah' s 
sin  ?  Is  it  not  Jerusalem  ?]  The  two  capitals  are  denounced  by 
the  prophet  of  the  countryside  not  only  for  their  ovm  inherent  sin, 
but  also  because  they  serve  as  sources  of  corruption  infecting  the 
whole  land. 

Str.  IV  presents  the  climax  of  the  oracle  in  the  clearly  marked 
dirge-rhythm.  The  total  destruction  of  Samaria  is  announced  in 
terrible  tones. — 6.  Therefore  will  I  turn  Samaria  into  afield]  M 
ruin  is  not  suited  to  the  following  word,  field,  nor  to  the  parallel 

♦Theiner,  Rosenm.,  Hi.,  Mau.   Hd.,  Ke.,  Che.,  Or.,  Now.,  G.\Sm.,  We.,  Marti. 
t  Os.,  Geb.,  Hal.,  el  al.. 


I'-'  37 

phrase,  a  planted  vineyard.  Now.'s  reading,  the  forest  of  the  field,  is 
too  far  removed  from  the  received  text  and  does  not  quite  meet  the 
demands  of  the  parallelism ;  the  term  forest  is  not  elsewhere  em- 
ployed to  denote  desolation.  Samaria  is  to  become  an  utter  waste, 
a  ploughed  field  {cf.  3^^,  a  vineyard  in  cultivation.  A  vineyard  is 
the  type  of  arable  land  less  easily  utilised  for  building  purposes  than 
any  other,  because  of  the  great  labour  and  loss  involved  in  the 
transplanting  of  the  vines  (so  Hal.).  The  hill  of  Samaria  was  very 
fertile  and  well  adapted  to  vine-culture. — And  I  will  pour  down  her 
stones,  etc.]  Cf.  i  K.  16^^.  On  the  destruction  of  Samaria  here 
foretold,  v.  i..  A  total  destruction  of  the  city  such  as  is  here  de- 
scribed was  effected  by  John  Hyrcanus  {v.  Jos.,  Ant.,  XIII,  10, 
§  3).  This,  however,  constitutes  no  valid  argument  for  transfer- 
ring this  section  of  Micah  to  the  Maccabaean  period  {contra  Hpt.). 
7.  This  verse  forms  a  five-line  strophe,  detailing  the  destruction 
of  idolatry  which  is  to  accompany  the  downfall  of  Samaria.  It  is 
an  expansion  of  Micah's  message  from  the  hand  of  a  later  scribe 
who  interpreted  the  fall  of  Samaria  as  a  judgment  upon  idolatry 
(y.  s.). — And  all  her  idols  will  he  shattered]  These  were  idols 
carved  from  stone  or  wood;  shattering  demonstrates  their  power- 
lessness.  Samaria  was  notorious  among  later  prophets  for  her 
idolatry.  Cf.  Is.  2^"  10^"  ^-  27^  ^-  30^^  31^. — And  all  her  images  will 
he  burnt  with  fire]  For  the  rendering  images,  v.  i..  The  usual 
rendering,  harlot-hires,  is  wholly  unsuited  here  to  the  vb.  hurnt  and 
to  the  demands  of  the  parallelism.  For  various  attempts  to  escape 
the  difficulty  by  changing  the  text,  v.  s.. — And  all  her  idols  I  will  lay 
desolate]  A  third  word  for  idol  appears  here ;  Hebrew  has  no  less 
than  twelve  words  for  this  conception. — For  from  the  hire  of  a  har- 
lot they  were  gathered],  i.  e.,  not  that  the  images  were  obtained  by 
means  of  the  gains  of  prostitutes,*  but  that  they  were  made  pos- 
sible through  the  material  prosperity  which  the  people  attributed  to 
the  favour  of  the  Baalim  {cf.  Ho.  2^).t — And  to  a  harlot's  hire  they 
will  return]  If  it  be  asked  how  these  idols  already  shattered  and 
burned  can  again  become  hire,  the  answer  is  that  we  must  not  con- 
fine a  poet  too  strictly  to  prosaic  fact.  He  evidently  here  is  thinking 
of  the  use  made  by  the  heathen  conqueror  of  the  trophies  of  war; 

*  So  Hal.,  et  al..  t  So  We.,  Or.,  Now.. 


38  MICAH 

these  are  presented  to  their  deities  in  acknowledgment  of  their 
favour  in  bestowal  of  victory,  and  thus  are  designated  by  the 
prophet  as  harlot's  hire. 

Str.  V  reveals  the  prophet's  anguish  as  he  contemplates  the  fate 
of  the  city.* — 8.  For  this]  Not  for  the  immediately  preceding  de- 
struction of  idols  certainly,  but  for  the  destruction  pictured  in  v.  ®, 
and  because  this  destruction  carries  with  it  injury  of  the  most  seri- 
ous character  to  the  southern  kingdom  in  which,  of  course,  the 
prophet  was  especially  interested.  Calamity  to  Samaria  means 
panic  in  Jerusalem. — Let  me  lament  and  wail]  This  dirge-like  ut- 
terance, with  its  many  terms  for  lamentation,  is  characteristically 
oriental  in  its  vigorous  and  concrete  expression  of  emotion ;  the 
repetitions  secure  emphasis  and  variety.  The  form  in  which  the 
vbs.  are  used  (with  H-r)  makes  the  lament  even  more  tender  and 
plaintive.  This  is  one  of  several  instances  in  which  the  man  as 
patriot  bewails  most  grievously  the  event  which  as  prophet  he  is 
bound  to  announce.  Cf.  Je.  9^^-. — Barefoot  and  stripped]  Not 
naked,  but  in  the  dress  of  one  in  sorrow  (2  S.  15^°) ;  here  and  else- 
where (Is.  20^^)  the  reference  is  to  a  symbolic  act  in  which  the  per- 
son thus  garbed  represents  a  captive. f  The  garment  discarded 
was  the  outer  cloak  or  tunic.  Cf.  Jb.  22®  Ex.  22^^  Am.  2^.— Like  the 
jackals]  The  wail  of  these  animals  is  a  long,  piteous  cry  (cf.  Is. 
13^^),  and  may  be  heard  almost  any  night  in  Palestine,  where  the 
jackal  is  now  the  most  common  beast  of  prey. — And  mourning  like 
tJie  daughters  of  the  desert]  The  comparison  is  to  the  noisy,  hid- 
eous screech  of  the  ostrich. 

Str.  VI  gives  the  justification  for  the  prophet's  grief  which  lies 
in  the  hopelessness  of  Samaria's  outlook  and  in  the  fact  that  the 
calamity  will  include  his  own  city,  Jerusalem. — 9.  For  her  stroke  is 
incurable]  The  reference  is  probably  to  the  fall  of  Samaria  in  721 
B.C.,  together  with  the  subsequent  calamities  which  had  befallen  the 
city  prior  to  the  prophet's  time  {v.  i.),  and  not  to  any  one  specific 
event. — Yea,  it  comes  even  to  Judah]    This  is  the  burden  of  the 

*  The  change  of  speaker  (from  Yahweh  to  the  prophet)  is  not  sufficient  reason  for  suspecting 
that  V.  «  is  foreign  to  this  context  {contra  Gu.)-  The  vivid  style  of  the  prophets  frequently 
leaps  from  one  speaker  to  another  without  warning. 

t  Yet  on  Assyrian  reliefs  male  captives  are  frequently  represented  as  totally  devoid  of  cloth- 
ing.    Sec,  e.  g.,  the  scenes  on  the  bronze  ornaments  of  the  gates  of  Balawat. 


I'-"  39 

patriot's  soul,  his  all-consuming  grief. — It  reaches  unto  the  gate  of 
my  people]  Jerusalem  is  so  designated  as  the  seat  of  the  central 
market-place  of  Judah  and  of  the  highest  judicial  tribunal,  the 
natural  gathering-point  of  Judah. — Even  unto  Jerusalem]  The 
situation  in  the  mind  of  the  prophet  is  evidently  that  arising  out  of 
the  campaign  of  Sennacherib*  {v.  i.),  not  that  in  connection  with 
Sargon's  expedition  against  Egypt  ending  in  the  battle  of  Raphia 
(719  B.C.)  .t 

The  historical  conditions  amid  which  this  oracle  (i'-')  was  spoken  are  in 
dispute.  Most  interpreters  have  assigned  it  to  the  days  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  fall  of  Samaria  in  722-721  B.C.;  so,  e.  g.,  Ew.,  Hi.,  Or.,  Dr.'""-, 
GASm.  (725-718  B.C.),  Hal.,  Now.  (who  thinks  that  the  denunciation  of 
Samaria  was  originally  uttered  prior  to  722  B.C.,  but  was  later  in  its  present 
form  incorporated  for  greater  effect  in  an  oracle  against  Judah  spoken 
in  connection  with  Sennacherib's  campaign).  Others  place  it  in  the 
period  of  Sennacherib's  invasion,  705-701  B.C.;  so,  e.  g.,  We.,  Sm.  (^Rel., 
237/.),  Cor.,  Marti.  The  narrative  certainly  looks  upon  the  chastisement 
of  Israel  and  Judah  as  something  yet  to  come;  there  is  no  hint  that  Sama- 
ria has  already  been  destroyed;  the  vbs.  in  v.  «  are  indisputably  future 
(contra  GASm.).  The  two  lands  are  indissolubly  linked  together  in  the 
coming  destruction;  their  fate  constitutes  two  acts  of  the  same  drama 
(Now.).  The  prophet  may  be  standing  on  the  verge  of  Samaria's  fall  in 
721  B.C.,  and  with  keen  insight  into  the  meaning  of  the  situation  pointing 
out  its  ultimate  significance  for  Judah,  the  fate  of  which  he  deems  immi- 
nent. B  ut  the  vividness  of  the  descriptton  ini '  ^  •  is  more  easily  accounted 
for  on  the  basis  of  calamities  actually  in  progress  in  Judah  than  of  events 
only  anticipated  in  imagination.  It  seems  better,  therefore,  to  locate  the 
prophecy  in  connection  with  the  campaign  of  705-701  B.C.,  and  to  sup- 
pose that  the  final  destruction  of  Samaria  occurred  in  connection  with 
that  event  (so  Cor.,  Marti).  The  desolation  here  described  is  not  the 
result  of  a  siege  and  deportation  such  as  occurred  in  721  B.C.,  but  stops 
short  of  nothing  less  than  total  destruction  such  as  did  not  take  place  till 
some  later  time.     For  further  discussion,  v.  Introd.,  pp.  18-19. 

2.  'iJi  ijjctr]  These  words  have  been  borrowed  by  the  editor  of  i  K. 
22"  as  appears  from  (i)  their  omission  in  OS's  rendering  of  i  K.  22'^,  (2) 
their  utter  lack  of  connection  there. — uhj]  For  other  cases  of  dSo  with 
2d  pers.,  V.  I  K.  222s  Jb.  17"'  2  Ch.  18";  for  very  common  lack  of  con- 
gruence of  persons  after  a  vocative,  v.  Ko.  ^  ^'  '• '"  f ;  cf.  No.,  Syr.  Cram.*, 
Msoc,  Ges.  ^  '"'  cites  "'nsoan,  and  nn^  as  parallel  cases  of  the  loss  of 
force  in  the  sf.;  but  Brockelmann,  ZA.,  XIV,  344/.  explains  nn''  by  refer- 
ence to  the  old  adverbial  ending  il;  while  '31  and  ''JIN  did  not  wholly  lose 

♦  So  We.,  Now.,  Marti;  contra  Hal.,  Stk„  t  G.\Sm.. 


40  MICAH 

the  force  of  the  sf.  in  classical  Heb..  The  possibility  remains  that  the 
process  was  hastened  in  the  case  of  a'r'j  and  its  transition  to  almost  ad- 
verbial usage  was  facilitated  by  the  similarity  to  the  common  adverbial 
ending  in  DJCN  ,D|-;n.,oSiN  DDiMDJn.  Cf.  Ko.  "-"si., — ,,-,,,]  j^ss,  in- 
stead of  impf.  for  rhythmical  reasons  (Ges.  ^ ""  •') ;  here  also  to  avoid  un- 
pleasant assonance  with  the  immediately  foil.  nin\ — 3.  icipcc]  Here 
parall.  with  Sain  (v.  2).  In  early  Semitic  and  Heb.  literature  'n  =  shrine, 
e.g.,  Gn.  28"  Je.  7'2  Is.  18'  2  K.  5"-  '»;  it  came  to  be  identified  with  the 
deity  himself  in  the  Mishna,  Tosefta,  Gemara,  and  Midrashic  literature. 
Its  application  to  Yahweh's  heavenly  temple  is  common  in  OT.,  e.  g.,  Ho. 
5"  Is.  26"  Hb.  2"  (so  J.  A.  Montgomery,  JBL.,  XXIV,  17-26).— 4. 
D'C3  .  .  .  Jjnr]  Use  of  generic  art.  in  comparison  in  '1:,  but  omitted 
in'Ds;  note  recurrence  of  d  in  *'^ — O'lJo]  dir..  Hoph.  of  ijj;  We.  sug- 
gests T>J  =  Assy,  gardru,  run,  flow  (so  Hal.),  while  Hpt.  connects  it  with 
ij:r,  to  fall,  as  Pu.  prtc.  with  initial  d  om.. — The  omission  of  <*=•  '^  {v.  s.) 
obviates  the  difScuIty  which  leads  Siev.  to  posit  the  omission  of  two  lines 
from  the  original  text  of  v.  '. — 5.  'c]  Used  for  nn  only  when  the  un- 
derlying thought  refers  to  persons  as  here,  Ges.  ^  •"  ».  Cf.  i  S.  18"  2  S. 
7'8. — 6.  TiDtt'i]  Of  future  action,  Ges.  i"^*. — ma  ^ptar]  Cf.  the  Assyrian 
phrase  ana  tilt  u  karmi  tUir  =  into  a  mound  and  a  ruin  I  turned  it. — 
7.  in?.'']  So-called  Aram.  Hoph.  (Ges.  ^"e);  rather  than  impf.  Qal. 
pass.  (Bottcher,  Ges.  ^  ""). — mjjnN]  A  S^dd  (Dt.  7^),  or  an  nii-N  (Dt. 
12'),  or  even  a  ns3  (2  K.  23 '5)  may  be  burned,  but  not  a  harlot's  hire; 
hence  the  suspicions  against  the  text  {v.  s.).  The  best  solution  of  the 
difficulty  is  to  assign  it  to  a  new  root,  ]jn  having  the  meaning  resemble,  be 
equal,  whence  come  for  jjns  the  signif.  image,  and  hire  (so  Halper, 
AJSL.,  XXIV,  366  jf.).  Satisfactory  evidence  for  such  a  root  is  fur- 
nished by  Arabic  tdnna  (III.  conj.  of  tanna),  he  measured,  made  comparison, 
and  the  noun  tinnun,  an  equal,  a  like.  Support  for  the  ascription  to 
]jnN  of  these  two  conceptions,  resemblance  and  compensation,  is  found 
in  the  usage  of  the  parallel  roots  hot  and  niK*;  Heb.  nnT  =  image,  like- 
ness; Syr.,  dmayd  =  value,  price;  in  Syr.,  Aram.,  and  Arab.,  r^vc;  =  was 
equal,  like,  worth.  Jjn  is  thus  closely  related  to  njc  =  repeat,  rather  than 
to  |nj.  From  this  point  of  view  the  use  of  \iT\n  here  is  seen  to  be  paro- 
nomasia, very  characteristic  of  Micah. — '"ixjip]  On-j.  for  -^,  v.  Ges.  %  "'. 
Cf.  Ew.  ^  ""d  (=  Pu.  with  Y  for  u);  but  the  Vrss.  and  the  syntax  require 
the  Pu'al  plural. — 8.  naS'N]  Fully  written  vowel  only  here,  Ez.  35' 
and  Ps.  72'*;  V.  Ges.  ^  «"'•  ■'°'°. — SS^r]  Kt.  SS'C*  is  ott.;  elsewhere  SS^b^ 
with  Qr.  (Jb.  12"-  ");  cf.  analogous  formations,  ^^^i;  and  aav^';  the  Kt. 
finds  no  certain  analogies  in  Heb.,  though  they  are  numerous  in  Arab. 
Cf.  Barth,  NB,  p.  54.  The  "<—.  here  is  probably  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  two  preceding  forms. — mj33  .  .  .  D^jna]  On  pi.  in  comparisons, 
Ko.  ^  "<  >>. — 9.  n\-ii3n]  On  pi.  here,  cf.  Ko.  *»!»<'. — PJJ]  On  sg.  masc.  with 
fem.  pi.  subject  as  in  iO,  cf.  Ko.  ^  ><'  <•. 


41 


§  3-    Lamentation  Over  Israel's  Doom  (i*°"^"). 

In  four  strs.  of  four  lines  each,  the  prophet  pictures  desolation 
as  it  sweeps  across  the  countryside  with  the  march  of  an  invading 
army.  Wherever  the  blow  falls,  the  piercing  note  of  the  dirge 
arises,  (i)  A  call  to  some  of  the  more  northern  towns  to  give  them- 
selves to  mourning.  (2)  Disaster  sent  by  Yahweh  will  smite  the 
cities  of  Judah.  (3)  Let  the  inhabitants  of  Lachish  and  its  en- 
virons flee  in  hot  haste  before  the  impending  judgment.  (4)  Is- 
rael's territory  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  foe,  and  her  inhabitants 
will  be  carried  into  exile. 

•yELL  it  not  in  Gath; 

In  Baca,  weep  bitterly; 

In  Beth-ophrah,  roll  yourselves  in  the  dust; 

Pass  ye  over  from  Shaphir  in  nakedness. 
"yHE  inhabitant  of  Zaanan  comes  not  forth  from  her  fortress; 

Beth-ezel  is  taken  from  its  site. 

How  has  the  inhabitant  of  Maroth  hoped  for  good! 

For  calamity  has  come  down  from  Yahweh  to  the  gates  of  Jerusalem. 
"DIND  the  chariot  to  the  steed,  O  inhabitant  of  Lachish; 

For  in  thee  are  found  the  transgressions  of  Israel. 

Therefore  thou  givest  a  parting  gift  to  Moresheth-Gath. 

Beth  Achzib  has  become  a  snare  to  the  kings  of  Israel. 
T  WILL  yet  bring  the  conqueror  to  thee,  O  inhabitant  of  Mareshah. 

Forever  is  Israel's  glory  to  perish. 

Make  thyself  bald  and  shave  thee  for  thy  darlings; 

Enlarge  thy  baldness  like  the  vulture's,  for  they  will  go  into  exile  from  thee. 

This  piece  is  the  most  remarkable,  as  well  as  most  difficult  and  obscure 
of  Micah's  oracles.  It  is  a  dirge,  the  characteristic  measure  of  which 
does  not  appear  until  Str.  II,  nor  is  it  then  perfectly  sustained.  On  ac- 
count of  the  uncertain  state  of  the  text,  any  attempt  at  reconstruction  is 
extremely  hazardous;  hence  this  arrangement  is  presented  with  much 
hesitation.  The  only  material  excluded  is  v.  •"',  a  gloss  which  inter- 
rupts the  connection  between  "»  and  ""=,  in  both  of  which  direct  address 
is  employed.  The  arrangement  by  Siev.  in  seven  strs.  of  two  lines  each, 
in  perfect  Qina  measure,  is  attractive,  but  it  omits  material  arbitrarily 
and  handles  the  text  too  roughly.  The  poem  as  a  whole  is  denied  to 
Micah  by  Marti  (whom  Siev.  follows)  on  three  grounds:  (i)  that  it  shows 
reflection  upon  the  events  it  describes  such  as  is  inconsistent  with  stirring 
and  painful  times  like  the  days  of  Micah;  (2)  that  the  use  of  the  name 
Israel  as  including  Judah  is  late;  (3)  that  v.  "  contradicts  v. '  *>.    But  the 


42  MICAH 

puns  of  the  passage  furnish  no  occasion  for  questioning  the  deep  feeling 
of  the  author,  since  such  usage  was  not  inconsistent  with  great  grief  and 
was  the  furthest  possible  remove  from  any  suggestion  of  humor.  Its  aim 
was  rather  to  strike  forcibly  the  attention  of  the  listener.  Similar  usage 
in  Am.  5'  and  Is.  lo"-"  bears  witness  to  this,  for  Marti's  rejection  of 
these  two  passages  as  late  rests  solely  upon  the  fact  that  they  contain 
paronomasia,  an  insufficient  basis.  Cf.  Is.  5'  6"  7'  Gn.  49'  '•  '•  "•  ". 
Westphal  well  says  {Jahve's  Wohnstdtten,  1908,  p.  174):  "For  the 
ancients  the  word,  the  name,  had  a  wholly  different  significance  than  for 
us.  Puns  were  not  for  them  mere  plays  upon  words;  but  just  as  the  name 
had  a  connection  with  the  thing  named  so  intimate  as  to  transcend  our 
perception,  in  like  manner  there  was  in  the  similarity  of  sound  between 
two  words  a  mystical  connection  of  the  things  themselves;  nomen  et  omen 
is  a  conception  that  developed  upon  the  soil  of  antiquity."  The  name 
Israel  as  applied  to  Judah  is  characteristic  of  Micah  (7;.  3'-  '•  ').  The 
supposed  contradiction  between  v.  "  and  v.  « is  only  such  as  is  due  to  the 
free  impetuous  utterance  of  the  poet-prophet,  which  is  not  to  be  re- 
strained within  geometrically  defined  limits.  In  any  case  the  exact  sig- 
nificance of  v.  "  eludes  us. 

10.  n>jn  Sn  nja]  <S,  m?)  Me7aXi5»'eo'^e  =»  ■i'^''"'.Jn.  &,  i©»-»»-^  =  i^'J-7  (un- 
less &  is  to  be  corrected  with  Seb.  to  ^oOimZ).  Elh.,  iSun  Sk  '?j'^j3 
(so  Wkl.U"S  185  /.).  Che.  {JQR.,  X,  573)  and  Hal.,  iS>jn  Sn  nSj2. 
But  M  seems  established  by  the  duplicate  in  2  S.  i^". — wan  Sn  132] 
Rd.,  loan  133  **???>  dropping  Sx  as  dittog.  from  prec.  line.  CS,  ol 
iv  'Ak€Ih  (&",  codd.  Q  marg.,  87,  91,  310,  Aldine  ed.,  iv  /Sa/ceZ/u) 
fi.r]  dfoiKodoneire.  Some  codd.  ^v  'AKfcapei/i.  Comp.  iv  ^clkuv.  But 
iv  ' AKel/x,  as  (S's  reading,  is  supported  by  C,  in  Acim,  and  A.  (6's 
fvaKiiix  recalls  its  rendering  of  a^pj;'  in  Dt.  2"'-  "•  "  Jos.  14"-  »  ii"-  " 
as  Che.,  EB.,  1646,  suggests.  In  support  of  the  emendation  N323  may  be 
urged  (a)  the  reading  iv  ^aKein,  the  last  letter  of  which  is  a  dittograph; 
(b)  the  pun  thereby  recovered;  (c)  the  location  of  Baca  in  the  region 
with  which  Micah  is  dealing;  (d)  the  ease  with  which  it  might  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  Hebrew  text.  Reland,  Pal.,  'ui  13>13  (so  Zunz,  Ew., 
Hi.,  Kl.,  Ro.,  Che.,  Taylor,  Gu.,  GASm.,  van  H.).  In  support  of  this 
are  urged  the  analogies,  nptt-j  =  nyp-^j,  Am.  8';  ^3  =  ^'3;  nSo  =  n^y3, 
Jos.  19'  15";  ^dS  =  iDj;'?,  Ps.  28';  and  the  probability  that  the  last  letter 
of  (&,  iv ' AKef/i,  is  a  dittog.  from  following  /xi).  Against  this  Ry.  well  argues 
(i)  that  in  the  analogies  cited  the  essential  portion  of  the  word  has  not 
been  lost  as  here,  except  in  '3,  a  much-used  particle  whose  position  at  the 
beginning  of  its  clause  assures  its  proper  recognition;  (2)  the  remaining 
puns  involve  not  merely  the  sounds  of  the  words  played  upon,  but  also 
their  sense;  (3)  the  location  of  Acco,  north  of  Carmel,  is  outside  of  the 
region  with  which  Micah  is  immediately  concerned,  viz.,  the  western 
slope   of  Judah.     Mich.,  ovJa:  (c/.  Ju.  a'-  »;  so  Vol.,  Elh.,  Wkl.^""-, 


i86;  Che.,  JQR.,  X,  573;  We.,  Now.,  Oort.^^"-,  Du.);  Elh.  and  We.  also 
om.  ^x,  while  We.  changes  the  impf.  to  an  imv.  122.  Gr.,  ri'^j?  a'Nsaa 
'n.  Hal.,  usn  Sn  -133  xj^?.  For  133,  18  mss.  of  Kenn.  noa. — 
13;'  mD;S  n''33]  Rd.,  with  ^,  -\y;  mp^;  noa.  Cf.  Q,  'Ocppd.  (g,  i^  otKov 
Karay^KuTa  yTJv,  which  seems  to  reflect  some  form  of  -ion.  Cf.  Kar^yeX- 
ao'^Tja-oi'Tai  =  nsmin  3^  "Z,  drinking-bowls.  Elh., 'j?  n^DjjS  nia3;  so  van 
H..  Pont, 'ui  piap;  so  van  H..  Oort^"'-,  i3>'3  may  n'^j.  Gr.,  Vx-n-'aa 
r\-Miy\  Wkl.,  AOF.,  I,  103,  nc;;  SN-n''33,  om.  mDy  as  dittog.. — 
>na''?Dnn]  Rd.  iB'Sann,  with  (&,  Karairaffaffde;  so  &  B,  Hartmann,  Ro., 
Elh.,  We.,  Pont,  Wkl.,  Gu.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Gu..  Qr,,  12 
codd.  of  Kenn.  and  several  of  de  R.,  ''li'Sspn  (so  Schnurrer,  Bauer,  Tay- 
lor, Gr.).  The  pi.  is  demanded  by  the  parallel  vbs.  of  v.  •"  and  by  C3^, 
v.". — 11.  ddS  >->3>]  Rd.  "^  n3>:,  with  some  Heb.  codd.,  13 ®,Aq.,S,  Hal.. 
<g,  Karay^wra  vfiQv;  cf.  the  rendering  of  niayS,  v. '".  21,  super  derisum 
vestrum.  &,  Serve  for  thyself  =  T*  nay.  Elh.,  ds'Vj;  i3J?  nS.  Pont, 
ddV  n-\3j?  nS.  Che.  (/<2i2.,  X,  573)  -\3;;,  om.  nj"?,  Marti,  ^S  n.3>:; 
cf.  &.  Siev.  n*;"  n'^ps;  so  Gu.. — Tot:'  D2'iff'<]  Rd.  "I'SE'n,  om.  nstyi  as 
dittog.  from  foil,  line;  the  loss  of  D  from  M  was  due  to  its  occurrence  in 
immediately  preceding  o^'^.  05,  KaToiKovcra  koXcDs.  H,  habitalio  pulchra. 
Hal.,  'i:*  n33'rD. — Pi:'3  rT'iy]  Om.  ruo,  with  05,  as  gloss  upon  n''-\;';  so 
Ges.  ^"i^.  C/".  Siev.  05,  tois  iriXets  ayr^s.  0,  ■^  ir6\is  ai/TTj  atVxi^*''?-  "&,  con- 
fuse ignominia.  Elh.,  Pttbn  >nv';  so  Pont,  van  H..  Hal.,  nc'3-i  nin;?,  Siev. 
and  Gu.  om.  n';'3  as  dittog.  of  n3S'>  and  rd.  n!>!-\;  for  nnp.  Marti,  n>3;; 
nB'3  =  uei/eJ  in  shame.  Che.  {JQR.,  X,  573)  conjectures  for  the  line: 
'Dir  '"^^  ITl??*  ^?v'?  "*?JJ- — ?J**^]  ®>  Sej/vadp;  some  codd.  Sevvd*/;  others 
Satvvd;'.  Aq.,  Savawv.  0,  Zavuhv.  2,  ey^rjj/oCfro.  B,  inexitu.  il,  inaelam. 
&  =  Zoan.  2  codd.  of  Kenn.  and  4  of  de  R.,  i:n:u>;  cf.  2.  Van  H., 
jns. — -tEDc]  Rd.  n^pD?:.  (6,  Ko^paffOai..  H,  planctum.  Van  H.,  ip:j^ 
or  HQC. — SxNH  no]  (6,  oTkov  ix°l^^''°''  i'^'T'^s.  21,  domum  juxta  earn. 
2,  e^^s.  B,  domus  vicina.  B  S  om.  art.  n.  ^  treats  'nh  '3  'oa  as  sub- 
ject of  the  clause.  Elh.,  Pont,  Sxsn  n>3;  c/.  Zc.  14*. — np>]  Gr.,  n,?;. — 
irnay  c;"]  Rd.  t^cvm,  3  being  due  to  confusion  with  s  (c/.  on  i^) 
and  dittog..  (&,  i^  iifiGiv  vXrjyrjv  ddvvi]^;  2  codd.  irXrjv  68ijv7]s.  H,  ex  vobis 
plagam  doloris.  U,  ex  vobis  quae  stetit  sibimet.  &  renders  'cj?  ==  its  blow, 
the  rendering  of  &  for  nra  in  v.  '.  One  cod.  of  de  R.,  inicn;  so  21, 
Stei..  Ro.,  foil.  Bauer,  in^n  a3D,  correcting  05  to  ir\i]y^v airiii  (so  Taylor). 
We.,  n^iro  p^d,  regarding  i^  iifidv  as  a  doublet  in  ®.  Gr.,  apnirn  D3n,  using 
'3  of  v. ''.  Oort^™  •,  nnir:;.'D  nn;?';,  for  the  last  three  words  of  iSI.  Cf.  Hal., 
nnn  nj  D3DT|-5''.  Che.  {JQR.,  X,  573)  restores  lines  i  and  2  of  Str.  II 
thus: — vS'XN  UDD  ini^S  'nh  n>33  iddd  jjns  nsa"  jj-'sn  aS^;'^.  Siev. 
conjectures: — ''mDj;.  '?XN.r''?  '^^  ^''^.^  '^5'?'?  '^*  '''^''  ^^Vt  ^'^  ^HT,- — 
12.  nSn  13]  Rd.  n^n«a;  cf.  (6,  rls  i^p^aro  =  nSnn  >a;  for  confusion  of  3 
and  D,  V.  on  I*.  S,  6rt  ivbiuffev.  0,  dva/i^vouo-a.   Aq.,  -n^ptiffrriffev.  B,  gu»o 


44  MICAH 

infirmata  est;  similarly  &.  Taylor,  nS^nn.  Cf.  Pont,  n'^inn.  Oort'^"-, 
^^P'  J^p.  We.,  Now.,  and  Marti,  rhr\\  13.  Siev.  and  Gu.,  nSni.  n-ic. 
Che.  {JQR.,  X,  573)  nn';'n  ^o.— 3iqS]  Gr.,  naioS.  Houb.,  nic';';  so  Che. 
(/.  c).  Hal.,  310  {<*?. — pnc]  (JJ,  dUva^.  9,  e^  Pfos  =  mci.  2,  ■^ 
irapairiKpalvovaa.  Aq.,  Mapato^.  0,  Z7j^o,  confusing  1  and  "i.  B,  m 
amaritudinibus.  d,  n]?"in  nets'.  Gr.  and  Che.  (/.  c),  mm'';  c/".  Jos. 
15". — TT'  ■'o]  Siev.  om.  ■'o. — iptf'?]  Rd.  '•njnrS  with  <g  9  01,  and  codd. 
29s,  380,  789  of  de  R.;  so  Ro.,  Gu.,  Che.  (/.  c),  Oort^™-,  Now., 
Marti,  Siev..  &  joins  last  two  words  of  v.  "  to  v.  ". — 13.  'n  dpi]  Rd. 
ohn,  inf.  abs.  with  force  of  imv.  (so  Marti).  (5,  ^6<po%  apixdruv.  H,  tu- 
multus  quadrigae.  &  =  'id  '"inni;  so  also  Ro..  Ru.,  'on  pon.  Gr.,  pr\-\ 
or  pn-5.  Oort^™-,  ^am.  Hal.,  npnn.  Che.  (/.  c),  'id  ncs.  ifW^B.", 
T^"^  (?);  c/".  21,  nzin-j  =  wagon. — tyaiS]  C5,  Ka2  iinrevbvTuv,  connecting 
with  V. »» up  to  this  point.  ]|,  stuporis  =  B'j;iS  (Ry.,  Taylor).  Ru.,  i:'''3n'7. 
Che.  (/.  c),  D>3ni.  Siev.  and  Gu.,  nj^-iD*?  on")  K'a";!. — coS  n3::"i]  ®  # 
treat  as  subj.  of  foil,  clause. — •■yis'D]  Hal.,  "'jx'ij. — 14.  ^jnn]  C5  H  = 
in\  S,  r"!ic*n.  Ro.,  Oort^™-,  ^j.nn.  Marti,  unr;  so  Now.^^,  Siev., 
Gu.. — ainiSe']  (§,  i^airoffreWon^vovs.  H,  emissarios.  ®  Aq.,  2  0  =  gifts. 
— Vjr]  Marti,  i^Sj;;  so  Now.'^. — ntf -nn.  (5  ]3  &  3  =  possession  or  iw- 
heritance.  Gr.,  n-^nsn,  or  dittog.  from  v.  ".  Hal.,  transposing  (■S!<=) 
Sy  niyniD.  Che.  (/.  c),  p^x  pj  'ipniDS — Tia]  Rd.  no,  with  Che. 
(/.  c). — 2V2t<]  05  B  &  =  (iece/i  or  vanity.  Q,  i^  avdyKTjs  =  iras 
(Ry.).— aroxS]  Ro.,  arpsS.— >dSdS]  Gr.,  "iSd^;  so  Che.  (/.  c),  Now. 
—15.  ij']  (6,  ?ws=  13;;  so  We.,  Che.  (£x/>.  1897,  p.  368),  Now.,  Elh., 
Siev.,  Gu.. — B'-\vn]  Che.  (Exp.),  ty^Np, — 7^  '3n]  <S,  dydywffiv;  but  cod. 
Q  marg.,  dydyu  aoi.  S,  d|w;  so  9  &.  Ten  mss.  of  de  R.,  n''2n.  Elh., 
■l'::''3s;  so  Pont,  Che.  (/.  c),  Oort^m.,  Siev.,  Gu.. — n2z»]  C5  adds 
coS  (by  dittog.  of  ']h  and  the  first  two  letters  of  P2B''')  and  makes  n-^rnn 
the  subject  of  the  following  t<n\ — oSiy]  Rd.  oS^y,  with  &,  v^VvV;  so 
Seb.,  Gr.,  Che.  (l.  c),  and  Siev.,  who  also  restores  o^yjo  after  nu'  (so 
Gu.).  Mss.  112,  126  of  de  R.,  oSny.  Elh.,  aSj?.  Ry.  restores  ah-\y  iy 
d'?j?  ng.  Marti,  Du.,  oiS-ij;  c/.  Che.  (CB.).  Van  H.,  oS'g. — aw]  Rd.  13n"i, 
with  Che.  (£Ar/>.,  1897,  p.  368),  Siev.,  Gu..  Gr.,So^(?).  Hal.,Di3\  Elh., 
after  '2\  inserts  oS-ig.  nac',  carrying  '•>  '33  over  to  v.  '«  (so  also  Ro.). 
— 16.  inmp]  C5,  XVP^O'"  =  widowhood,  probably  an  error  for  Kovpdv 
(so  Schnurrer,  Schleus.,  Ry.)- — '''^■']  Gr.,  I'^J'. 

Str.  I  issues  a  general  call  to  lamentation. — 10.  Tell  it  not  in 
Gath]  A  vivid  appeal  to  those  fleeing  from  before  the  invading 
army  not  to  humiliate  their  native  land  by  making  its  ruin  known 
to  their  hostile  neighbours.  These  words,  freely  quoted  from  the 
elegy  on  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  S.  i^''),  at  once  indicate  the  char- 


acter  of  the  oracle  and  constitute  an  appropriate  opening  of  this 
dirge.    There  is  no  sufficient  reason  for  omitting  them  as  a  margi- 
nal note,  either  by  Micah  himself  *  or  by  later  readers,t  intended 
to  call  attention  to  the  parallel  between  this  and  the  earlier  lament. 
The  resemblance  between  the  two  is  hardly  close  enough  to  have 
suggested  such  a  parallel  to  any  reader.     It  is  more  probable  that 
the  phrase  had  taken  on  proverbial  force  and  was  used  by  Micah 
as  an  opening  line  which  at  once  would  suggest  the  nature  of  his 
poem.     It  seems  almost  certain  that  Gath  had  fallen  prior  to  the 
time  of  Amos  (6^)  and  that  it  never  recovered  from  this  blow.     It 
is  not  mentioned  with  the  other  four  cities  of  Philistia  either  by 
Amos  (i^'),  Zephaniah  (2^'),  Jeremiah  (47),  Zechariah  (9'"^),  or 
the  books  of  the  Maccabees.— 7»  Baca  weep  Utterly]  M.,  weep  not 
at  all,  is  open  to  the  objections  that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  form 
of  phrase  in  the  parallel  lines  where  a  verb  is  in  each  case  coupled 
with  a  noun,  that  it  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  what  the  prophet 
might  have  been  expected  to  say  under  such  circumstances  as  these, 
and  that  it  makes  it  difficult  to  account  for  the  rendering  of  (g 
(y.  s.).    The  name  "Baca"  is  applied  to  a  village  on  the  northern 
border  of  upper  Galilee  {v.  Gu.,  Bibelatlas,  map  13),  to  a  wady 
discovered  by  Burckhardt  near  Sinai  and  to  a  portion  of  the  valley 
south-west  of  Jerusalem  extending  toward  Bethlehem  and  men- 
tioned in  Ps.  84^.    This  last  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  that  at  all 
suits  the  requirements  of  this  context. — In  Beth-ophrah  roll  your- 
selves in  the  dust]  The  Beth-le-aphrah  of  H  is  a  name  otherwise 
unknown;  it  likewise  constitutes  the  only  case  of  a  preposition  fol- 
lowing Beth  in  a  proper  name.  The  form  Beth-ophrah  here  adopted 
is  preserved  in  ^  and  ©.     The  correction  involved  is  a  slight  one 
and  preserves  the  paronomasia  so  characteristic  of  this  passage, 
and  therefore  seems  preferable  to  the  reading  "Bethel"   {v.  s.). 
The  action  called  for  symbolises  a  frenzy  of  despair. — ^lla.  Pass 
ye  over  from  Shaphir  in  nakedness]  M.  in  this  line  is  badly  corrupt; 
every  word  is  more  or  less  doubtful.     But  the  general  sense  is  clear 
and  supports  the  translation  here  offered.     The  picture  is  that  of 
a  band  of  exiles  being  led  away  by  their  conqueror.    The  location 
of  Shaphir  is  uncertain.    The  most  probable  identification  is  with 

*  So  Ry..  t  So  We.,  Now.,  Marti, 


46  MICAH 

Sawafir,  SE.  of  Ashdod;  it  is  less  likely  an  error  for  Shamir  (jos. 
15^^  Ju.  lo^-  ^),  a  city  in  Judah. — Li  nakedness],  i.  e.,  in  the  garb 
of  a  captive,  deprived  of  the  outer  robe  {v.  on  i*). 

Str.  II  sets  forth  the  conditions  which  enforce  the  call  to  mourn- 
ing.— lib,  c.  The  inhabitant  of  Zaanin  comes  not  forth  from  her 
fortress]  Here  the  punning  continues  as  in  Str.  I.  Zaanan  is  per- 
haps identical  with  \yi  (Jos.  15"),  which  was  in  the  Shephelah.  ^ 
thinks  of  jyi,',  i.  e.,  Tanis  or  Zoan  in  Egypt.  The  suggestion  is  that 
of  a  people  barricading  itself  in  its  city,  afraid  to  face  the  oncoming 
foe. — Beth-ezel  is  taken  from  its  site]  fU,  with  the  addition  of  the 
last  word  in  the  previous  line,  is  translated  by  RV.,  the  wailing  of 
Beth-ezel  shall  take  from  you  the  stay  thereof.  But  this  is  unintel- 
ligible, as  is  every  other  attempt  to  translate  iB-  Cf  GASm.,  the 
lamentation  of  Beth-ezel  takes  from  you  its  standing.  The  above 
rendering  rests  upon  an  emended  text  (v.  s.).  The  description  is 
that  of  a  city  razed  to  the  ground.  The  town  Beth-ezel  is  nowhere 
else  mentioned  (cf.  v^X,  Zc.  14^),  and  was  evidently  unknown  to 
the  Greek  translators  (v.  s.) . — 12.  How  has  the  inhabitant  ofMaroth 
hoped  for  good!]  But  the  help  longed  for  has  failed  to  come. 
Maroth  (=  bitterness)  is  a  wholly  unknown  village  or  town;  it 
would  seem  to  have  been  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  in  view  of  the 
close  connection  of  this  line  with  the  following.  RV.  renders  HI, 
For  the  inhabitant  of  Maroth  waiteth  anxiously  for  good;  but  it 
should  rather  be  is  in  agony  for  good,  which  yields  no  satisfactory 
sense. — For  calamity  has  come  down  from  Yahweh  to  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem]  Yahweh  is  here  represented  as  enthroned  in  the  heav- 
ens {cf  i^),  whence  he  sends  down  chastisement  upon  his  wicked 
people.  It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  a  siege  of  Jerusalem  act- 
ually in  progress;  the  prophet  rather  in  this  way  pictures  the  im- 
minence of  the  danger  that  threatens. 

Str.  Ill  continues  the  elegiac  measure  begun  in  the  last  two  lines 
of  Str.  II.  Here  are  described  the  flight  of  inhabitants  and  the 
loss  of  territory. — 13.  Bind  the  chariot  to  the  steed,  O  inhabitant  of 
Lachisli]  The  paronomasia  here  is  in  the  similarity  of  sound  be- 
tween lyiDI,  chariot,  and  u^'^h-  The  translation,  bind,  is  somewhat 
conjectural,  but  seems  required  by  the  context.  Lachish  is  identi- 
cal with  Tell-el-Hesy,  sixteen  miles  NE.  from  Gaza  and  two  miles 


I"-"  47 

S.  of  Eglon  ;*  it  was  formerly  incorrectly  identified  with  Umm  Lakis, 
a  little  farther  north.  Tell-el-Hesy  lies  at  the  base  of  the  foothills 
of  the  Shephelah  in  a  fertile  valley  opening  off  the  road  to  Egypt. 
Lachish  thus  constituted  a  frontier  fortress  between  Judah  and 
Egypt,  and  was  always  a  place  of  strategic  value.  Rehoboam  for- 
tified it  (2  Ch.  11^)  and  Sennacherib  captured  it  and  established 
temporary  headquarters  there  during  the  campaign  of  701  B.C.  (Is. 
36^  37^)-  A  bas-relief  now  in  the  British  Museum  portrays  his 
capture  of  the  city. — She  is  the  chief  sin  of  the  daughter  of  Zion] 
This  parenthetic  statement  seems  foreign  to  the  context,  and  is 
probably  a  marginal  note  by  some  reader  or  editor  (v.  s.).  The 
grounds  upon  which  so  serious  a  charge  is  based  are  unknown; 
some  have  supposed  that  Lachish  was  the  seat  of  some  grossly  li- 
centious cult;f  others  base  its  guilt  on  the  supposition  that  it  was 
one  of  the  chariot  cities  established  by  Solomon  (i  K.  10^^  2  Ch. 
i"  8^)4  The  best  hypothesis  is  that  "as  the  last  Judean  outpost 
toward  Egypt,  and  on  a  main  road  thither,  Lachish  would  receive 
the  Egyptian  subsidies  of  horses  and  chariots,  in  which  the  poli- 
ticians put  their  trust  instead  of  in  Jehovah."  §  Cf  Ho.  14^. 
Until  we  know  more  definitely  the  nature  of  the  charge  against  La- 
chish or  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  uttered,  the  possi- 
bility must  remain  open  for  the  rendering,  "she  is  the  beginning  of 
sin,  etc." — For  in  thee  are  found  the  transgressions  of  Israel]  The 
address  is  to  Lachish,  not  to  the  daughter  of  Zion.**  The  use  of 
"Israel"  is  not  to  be  explained  as  meaning  that  the  sins  responsi- 
ble for  Samaria's  downfall  are  now  regnant  in  Judah.f  f  "Israel" 
rather  indicates  the  whole  of  Yahweh's  people  and  territory  of 
which  Judah  is  now  the  more  important  part;  on  this  use  of  "Is- 
rael," V.  s..  The  order  of  words  would  seem  to  show  that  the 
thought  is  not  that  Lachish  is  characterised  by  such  sins  as  are  com- 
mon to  all  the  cities  of  Israel,  but  that  the  responsibiUty  for  the  gen- 
eral guilt  rests  largely  upon  Lachish;  this  is  in  harmony  with  the 
gloss  in  the  previous  line.     No  hint  is  given  as  to  the  nature  of  the 

*  See  F.  J.  Bliss,  A  Mound  of  Many  Cilies,  or  Tell-el-Hesy  Excavated,      The  excavations 
were  begun  by  J.  F.  Petris  and  completed  by  Bliss. 

t  So,  e.  g.,  Now..  t  So,  e.  g.,  We.,  van  H.. 

§  GASm.,  384  /..  **  Contra  van  H.. 

tt  Contra  van  H.. 


48  MICAH 

sin  laid  to  the  account  of  Lachish.  It  is,  of  course,  possible  that 
this  oracle  was  uttered  after  Hezekiah  had  sent  tribute  to  Sen- 
nacherib at  Lachish  (2  K.  18'^"'"),  and  that  Micah  here  expresses 
his  judgment  concerning  that  transaction. — 14.  Therefore,  thou 
givest  a  parting  gift  to  M oresheth-Gath]  This  is  better  than  to  treat 
'  Gath '  as  a  vocative,*  or  to  consider  Moresheth-Gath  as  the  one 
addressed, f  which  necessitates  a  change  of  text,  or  to  transpose  the 
preposition  and  render,  "thou  shalt  give  Moresheth  as  a  parting 
gift  to  Gath."  %  The  address  is  to  the  daughter  of  Zion  who  is 
now  to  dismiss  with  the  proper  present  one  of  her  villages.  The 
word  used  here  for  gift  is  that  employed  in  i  K.  9^^  to  designate 
the  dowry  given  by  Pharaoh  to  his  daughter.  There  was  proba- 
bly an  intentional  play  here  on  the  words  ri'jllD  and  nt^INC 
(betrothed).^  Judah  will  lose  the  town  and  pay  tribute  besides. 
The  site  of  Moresheth-Gath  can  only  be  conjectured.  The  form 
of  the  name  would  imply  proximity  to  Gath,  but  unfortunately 
Gath's  location  is  doubtful.  Moresheth-Gath  was  probably  near 
the  Philistine  border;  Jerome  declares  that  a  small  village  near 
Eleutheropolis  (Beit-Jibrin)  on  the  east  bore  the  name  in  his  day. 
This  is  the  region  in  which  Lachish  lay.  Micah's  appellation,  "the 
Morashtite,"  was  probably  derived  from  this  place.  Much  depends 
upon  this  interpretation,  for  other^vise  no  information  is  at  hand 
concerning  the  prophet's  home  or  origin. — Beth  Achzib  has  become 
a  snare  to  the  kings  of  Israel]  M,  the  houses  of  Achzib.  Achzib 
is  not  the  old  Phoenician  town  (Jos.  19^^  Ju.  i^^),**  as  might  appear 
from  the  phrase  kings  of  Israel.  Israel  here  represents  Judah  as  in 
line  2,  and  the  plural  kings  is  generic.  Achzib  has  been  and  still 
is  for  Israel's  king  a  false  hope,  a  brook  whose  waters  have  dried 
up.  Cf.  Je.  15^*.  The  play  on  words  here  is  between  achzib  and 
achzab.  The  exact  site  of  Achzib  has  so  far  eluded  discovery. 
Jos.  15^^  locates  it  in  the  Shephelah  of  Judah,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Libnah,  Keilah  and  Mareshah.  How  so  comparatively  unim- 
portant a  place  as  Achzib  evidently  was  (for  it  plays  no  part  else- 
where on  the  pages  of  Hebrew  history)  could  have  been  a  snare  to 

*  We.'.  t  So  We.,  Now.,  Marti. 

t  So  Hal..  §  So  Hi.,  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  van  H.. 

*♦  C/.  Ew.  and  Re,  who  find  here  an  allusion  to  both  towns,  the  northern  and  t!ie  southern. 


i"-^"  49 

the  kings  of  Israel  must  remain  a  mystery.  The  view  of  Hitzig, 
that  Achzib  had  been  in  the  possession  of  Philistia  since  the  reign 
of  Ahaz  and  that  Judah  had  always  entertained  the  hope  of  its  re- 
covery which  is  now  doomed  to  disappointment,  is  wholly  without 
foundation. 

Str.  IV.  continues  in  the  elegiac  strain,  and  reaches  its  climax 
with  an  announcement  of  the  doom  of  exile. — 15.  /  will  yet  bring 
the  conqueror  to  thee,  O  inhabitant  of  Mareshah]  The  play  here 
is  on  yoresh  and  Mareshah.  Even  Mareshah,  rejoicing  in  its 
name,  a  possession,  shall  noc  escape  the  hand  of  the  conqueror,  the 
dispossessor.  The  modem  Merdsh,  two  miles  S.  of  Beit- Jibrin,  an- 
swers the  geographical  requirements  for  the  site  of  Mareshah  as  in- 
dicated here  and  in  Jos.  15^*  and  by  Eusebius,  who  locates  it  two 
miles  S.  of  Eleutheropolis.  But  the  excavators  have  thrown  doubt 
upon  its  identity  with  the  ancient  Mareshah  (v.  i.).  It  is  evidently 
to  be  distinguished  from  Moresheth-Gath.  The  places  with  which 
the  prophet  has  been  concerned  in  this  oracle  are  thus  seen  to  be 
in  all  probability  those  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  his  own  home, 
places  with  which  he  had  been  familiar  from  childhood.  They 
were  scarcely  of  any  significance  in  the  great  world,  but  to  him  and 
his  fellow-villagers  they  represented  home,  country  and  religion, 
all  that  they  held  dear. — Forever  is  Israel's  glory  to  perish]  M, 
unto  Adullam  shall  Israel's  glory  come,  defies  interpretation;  that 
most  generally  accepted  is,  the  nobility  of  Israel  shall  take  refuge 
in  a  cave.  Cf.  1  S.  22^  ^•.  Adullam,  perhaps  the  modem  'Id-el- 
mije,  six  miles  NE.  of  Beit- Jibrin,  was  originally  the  seat  of  a 
Canaanitish  prince  (Jos.  12^^),  but  was  captured  by  Israel  and  in- 
corporated in  the  territory  of  Judah  (Jos.  15^^).  Of  the  various  at- 
tempts to  improve  the  text,  that  of  Cheyne  seems  the  best  and  is  here 
adopted.  The  glory  of  Israel  is  probably  the  wealth  and  power  of 
Judah  which  constitute  the  seal  of  Yahweh's  approval  upon  her. — 
16.  Make  thyself  bald  and  shave  thee  for  thy  darlings]  Zion  is  here 
addressed  as  a  mother  and  bidden  to  go  into  mourning  for  the  loss 
of  her  beloved  children.  Cf.  Je.  3 1^".  Reference  is  had  to  the  cities 
and  villages  she  has  lost,  with  their  inhabitants. — Enlarge  thy  bald- 
ness like  the  vulture's]  The  vulture  is  distinguished  from  the  eagle 
by  its  bare  head  and  neck.     Shaving  of  the  head  was  a  common 


50  MICAH 

mourning  custom.  Cf.  Am.  8'"  Is.  3^\  Originally  instituted,  in  all 
probability,  as  a  sacrificial  offering  to  the  departed  spirit,  it  later 
came  to  be  obnoxious  to  the  sensitive  religious  conscience  of  the 
prophets,  who  would  permit  no  divided  allegiance  among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Yahweh.  Such  practices  were  therefore  prohibited  by 
the  Deuteronomic  Code  (Dt.  14^;  cj.  Lv.  21^).  The  fact  that  this 
verse  summons  Judah  to  such  a  rite,  even  figuratively,  attests  its 
origin  in  days  prior  to  the  enactment  of  the  Deuteronomic  law.* 
This  verse,  moreover,  seems  to  grow  right  out  of  the  preceding  con- 
text and  so  adds  strength  to  the  argument  for  Micah's  authorship 
of  this  whole  passage  (i^""^®). — For  theywill  go  into  exile  from  thee] 
Thus  ends  in  familiar  but  terrible  fashion  the  lamentation  over 
Judah's  approaching  punishment.  The  warning  note  sounded 
first  of  all  by  Amos  and  Hosea  in  northern  Israel  now  finds  its 
echo  in  the  southern  kingdom.  With  this  picture  of  an  invading 
army,  giving  the  advance  in  detail,  village  by  village,  is  to  be  com- 
pared the  similar  passage,  Is.  10^*"^^. 

10.  nj3]  The  location  of  Gath  is  uncertain;  the  OT.  data  are  too 
fragmentary  to  make  identification  possible;  nor  are  the  Assyrian  or 
Egyptian  records  any  more  satisfactory.  The  two  sites  most  attractive 
are  Beit-Jibrin  and  Tell-es-Safi.  In  either  case  Gath  was  the  nearest  of 
the  five  chief  Philistine  towns  to  the  border  of  Judah.  The  excavations 
at  Tell-es-Safi  by  Mr.  Bliss  in  1899  unfortunately  yielded  little,  the  greater 
part  of  the  mound  being  occupied  by  the  modern  village  and  two  grave- 
yards, under  which  excavation  is  absolutely  prohibited.  The  town  stood 
"as  a  natural  fortress  between  the  plain  and  the  rolling  country."  The 
origin  of  the  town  goes  back  as  far  as  the  seventeenth  century  B.C.  accord- 
ing to  Bliss.  Cf.  F.  J.  Bliss  and  R.  A.  Stewart  Macalister,  Excavations 
in  Palestine  During  the  Years  1898-1900  (1902),  pp.  28-43  ^.nd  (>2  ff.. 
Jerome  says  that  Gath  lay  on  the  road  between  Eleutheropolis  and  Gaza; 
hence  Hpt.  suggests  'Araq  el-munsiyah,  less  than  two  hours  from  Tell- 
cl-Hesy. — idj]  For  the  form,  cf.  lirj;  (Je.  4i«  7')  and  inn  (Is.  6»). — Sn 
133P]  This  and  i  K.  3"  are  the  only  cases  of  Sn  and  an  infin.  abs.  modi- 
fying a  finite  vb.,  and  in  both  cases  the  neg.  follows  the  regular  rule  for 
kS  and  other  negatives  in  standing  immediately  before  the  finite  form. — 
•■noy':']  Ophrah,  the  home  of  Gideon,  in  Manasseh  (Ju.  6"-  «  8"-  ") 
is  out  of  the  question  as  too  far  removed  from  the  scene  of  Micah's 
thought.  Another  Ophrah,  mentioned  in  Jos.  18"  and  i  S.  13",  is  usu- 
ally identified  with  Tayyibeh,  five  miles  N.  of  Bethel.     But  this  latter, 

♦  So  even  Marti,  who  assigns  vv.  '"i*  to  a  later  hand. 


lying  outside  of  Judah  on  the  north,  seems  too  remote  to  be  satisfactory 
here.  The  same  objection  holds  for  the  reading  'Bethel,'  if  the  north- 
ern town  is  meant,  which  lies  ten  miles  from  Jerusalem  and  about 
twenty-five  miles  from  the  region  of  Micah's  home.  For  those  who 
incline  toward  this  reading,  it  is  safer  to  regard  the  Bethel  referred 
to  here  as  the  one  listed  among  the  towns  of  the  Negeb  in  i  S. 
30"  Jos.  i5'o  ((gB);  cj.  Jos.  i9<  I  Ch.  4'».  The  suggestion  of  GASm. 
that  our  '  Ophrah  is  reflected  in  the  name  of  the  Wady  el-Ghufr,  lying 
south  of  Beit-Jibrin,  is  most  attractive. — Tic'Tflnn]  This  form  is  prob- 
ably due  to  a  desire  to  pun  on  the  name  Philistia.  Qr.,  ^v'~'QT\7\^  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  singular  forms  of  v.  ". — dd'?  'n3>']  For  a  similar  lack 
of  agreement  in  gender  and  number,  K6.  5  34  6s  cites  Je.  13";  but  there 
the  text  is  exceedingly  doubtful,  for  the  Qr.,  many  mss.  and  the  Vrss. 
make  the  agreement  regular. — ntt'a  .ti;"]  Apposition,  Ges.  ^""=;  K6. 
^2860, — ^DDc]  iSl  is  here  unintelligible.  By  connecting 'd  with  the  pre- 
vious line  (z'.  5.),  nNi->  is  there  furnished  with  its  necessary  complement 
and  this  line  is  relieved  of  a  troublesome  element.  "nDD  {v.  s.)  is  a  noun 
conjecturally  restored  on  the  basis  of  Assyrian  supuru,  'enclosure'  (of  a 
walled  city,  e.g.,  Erech);  v.  DI.h^^'^-,  509,  Muss-Arnolt,  779. — n,-i>]  For 
the  sense  take  away,  carry  off,  cf.  Ez.  3'*. — imny  D3c]  There  is  nothing 
in  the  immediate  context  to  which  the  pron.  ns  can  refer.  It  is  easy  to 
account  for  a  3  between  two  c's  as  a  dittog.  of  D  in  the  old  script. 
Furthermore,  r\-y-;:y  is  air.,  yields  no  sense  in  M,,  and  was  evidently  not 
present  to  the  eye  of  (ii  21  8".  Preflxing  the  c's  restored  from  d^d  the 
form  nDyso  is  recovered  without  difBculty,  and  may  be  derived  from 
1D57D,  station,  post,  or  from  in^c,  standing-ground. — 12.  nnn]  The 
Meroth  in  upper  Galilee  which  Josephus  mentions  {Wars,  III,  3,  i)  is 
certainly  not  meant  here.  But  no  southern  locality  bearing  that  name 
is  available. — ■"''^"""'3]  According  to  M,  'a  must  be  given  the  meaning 
verily,  for  there  is  no  subordinate  relation  to  the  preceding  or  following 
context,  'n  means  writhe  in  pain  and  is  wholly  unsuitable  before  2\d'^. 
— -lytrS]  For  the  sg.  as  in  M,  cf.  Taylor,  Cyl.  of  Sennacherib,  col.  3, 
11.  22  /.,  "the  exit  of  the  great  gate  of  his  city  I  caused  to  break  through." 
— 13.  arnj  For  other  cases  of  the  masc.  form  in  an  address  to  a  fem. 
subj.,  cf.  Ges.  ^  ""  •',  Ko.  ^  '"*■=.  It  is  better  pointed  as  an  inf.  abs.  having 
the  force  of  the  imv..  The  translation  bind  is  reinforced  by  the  Assy. 
ratamu  =  wrap,  bind  (v.  Muss-Amolt,  991)  and  the  Arab,  equivalent 
which  in  the  fourth  form  =  tie  a  thread  upon  the  finger  as  a  reminder. — 
PNsn  '-\]  Van  H.  renders,  the  beginning  of  the  expiation  of,  etc.,  but  the 
meaning  expiation  for  'n  is  not  attested  earlier  than  Zc.  14'',  a  postexilic 
passage,  and  is  closely  related  to  the  late  priestly  use  of  the  word  in  the 
sense  sin-offering. — 14.  D^'niSi:']  i.e.,  the  dowry  given  with  the  bride  by 
her  father.  Cf.  document  C  of  the  Assuan  Papyri,  published  by  Sayce  & 
Cowley,  where  the  custom  is  witnessed  to  as  current  among  the  Jews 


52  MICAH 

of  the  Dispersion  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.  CJ.  Code  of  Hammu- 
rabi which  evidences  the  same  practice  in  Babylonia  as  early  as  1900  B.C.. 
The  use  of  the  term  here  is  suggested  by  the  similarity  of  ncnb  to  n^i«p, 
betrotlied;  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  allusions  to  the  existence  of  the  custom 
in  Israel.  Cf.  Ju.  I'^-'s  Gn.  ag^"-  ". — SjjJ  After  inj  more  common  preps, 
are  h  and  Sx;  perhaps  Sy  is  used  here  in  the  sense  wUh,  along  with. — 
nj  ntymc]  Analogous  names  cited  by  GASm.  are  Atroth-Shophan  (Nu. 
32'-  35),  Chisloth-Tabor  (Jos.  19"-  's),  lye-Abarim  (Nu.  S3**  '").  ^"d 
Helkath  (Jos.  19^'). — 15.  ij?]  Not  again,  but  still,  even  yet.  The 
change  to  nj?  (with  (6)  makes  necessary  corresponding  changes  in  the 
remainder  of  the  line  which  yields  reasonable  sense  as  it  stands. — ''3n] 
For  other  cases  of  omission  of  n,  v.  Ges.  ^  '<  ^. — niy-in]  The  modern 
Mer^sh  seems  to  date  no  further  back  than  Roman  times,  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  slight  depth  of  debris  upon  the  site.  The  actual  site  of  this 
ancient  town  may  be  represented  by  the  modern  Tell-Sandahannah,  one 
mile  SE.  of  Merash.  The  remains  of  an  ancient  town  are  evident  there, 
and  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  town  name  to  migrate  to  a  new  site 
along  with  the  inhabitants,  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  case  of  'Umm  Lakis.  Cf. 
F.  J.  Bliss  and  R.  Stewart  Macalister,  op.  cit.,  pp.  67/.. — zh^-;]  The  cor- 
rection to  aSiy  {v.  s.)  removes  one  of  the  grounds  for  changing  ^j.'  to  ij?  in 
1.  I  {v.  s.),  and  for  supposing  B'■\^^  to  represent  the  name  of  a  town  (We., 
Now.). 

§  4.     The  Oppression  of  the  Poor  (2*""). 

In  six  strs.  in  which  the  elegiac  strain  is  predominant,  Micah  de- 
nounces the  tyranny  of  the  rich  and  warns  them  of  coming  judg- 
ment. Str.  I,  the  prophet  speaks:  Woe  to  those  who  plot  night  and 
day  to  despoil  their  neighbours  of  houses  and  lands.  Str.  II,  Yah- 
weh  speaks:  For  this  reason  I  am  about  to  bring  upon  this  people 
a  humiliating  and  imbearable  yoke.  Str.  Ill,  Yahweh  continues: 
Then  the  wail  of  the  mourner  will  arise  among  you,  '  Our  land  is 
allotted  to  others;  we  are  wholly  undone!'  Str.  IV,  the  rich  op- 
pressors speak:  Cease  prating  of  such  things.  We  are  immune 
from  calamity.  Is  Yahweh  impotent,  or  can  he  mean  anything  but 
good  to  his  own  people?  Str.  V,  Yahweh  retorts:  But  ye  are  de- 
stroyers of  my  people,  robbing  and  plimdering  them  and  driving 
the  women  and  children  into  slavery.  Str.  VI,  Yahweh  pronoimces 
sentence:  Rise  and  begone!  Because  of  your  sins,  ye  shall  be 
hopelessly  destroyed. 


2^-"  53 

VU^OE  to  those  who  devise  iniquity  upon  their  beds; 

In  the  morning  hght  they  execute  it,  because  it  is  in  their  power. 

Yea,  they  covet  fields  and  seize  them,  and  houses  and  carry  them  off. 

So  they  crush  a  yeoman  and  his  house,  a  man  and  his  heritage. 

[Therefore  thus  saith  Yahweh:] 
■PEHOLD  I  am  devising  disaster. 

Which  ye  cannot  remove  from  your  necks; 

Nor  will  ye  be  able  to  walk  erect, 

For  it  will  be  a  disastrous  time. 
TN  that  day  a  taunt-song  will  be  raised  concerning  you; 

And  a  lament  will  be  wailed,  as  follows: 

The  portion  of  my  people  is  measured  with  the  measuring  line,  and  there  is 
none  to  restore  it. 

To  our  captors  our  land  is  allotted;  we  are  utterly  devastated. 
F^O  not  keep  harping  on  such  things. 

Shame  cannot  overtake  the  house  of  Jacob. 

Is  Yahweh  impatient,  or  are  such  his  deeds? 

Do  not  his  words  mean  good  to  Israel? 
"DUT  ye  have  become  my  people's  foe;  ye  rise  up  against  those  that  are  at  peace. 

Ye  strip  off  from  those  passing  by  in  confidence  booty  of  war. 

The  women  of  my  people  ye  drive  away  from  their  pleasant  homes; 

From  their  babes  ye  take  away  my  glory  forever. 
A  RISE  and  go!     For  this  is  not  your  resting-place. 

Because  of  uncleanness  ye  shall  be  destroyed  with  an  irremediable  destruction. 

This  section  is  dramatic  in  form,  three  different  speakers  being  brought 
forward,  viz.,  the  prophet,  Yahweh,  and  the  greedy  oppressors.  Its 
unity  and  artistic  form  are  both  strongly  marked.  The  prevailing  move- 
ment in  the  six  strophes  is  that  of  the  Qlna,  except  in  Str.  II,  where  the 
announcement  of  coming  disaster  is  in  short  and  sharp  phrases.  The 
closing  str.  pronouncing  final  sentence  drops  to  two  lines.  The  prosaic 
character  of  the  first  two  lines  of  Str  III  and  their  lack  of  conformity  to 
the  metre  of  the  balance  of  the  str.  raise  the  question  whether  they  do  not 
constitute  the  prose  introduction  to  a  new  section ;  but  the  close  connec- 
tion of  the  thought  of  this  str.  with  that  of  the  preceding  and  the  regular 
interchange  of  speakers  throughout  the  entire  passage  seem  to  prohibit 
a  division  of  the  poem  at  this  point.  The  more  important  textual 
changes  which  affect  the  form  are  the  following:  the  omission  of  iSytji 
V\  from  v.  •,  and  of  nxrn  nnoa'Dn  Sj?  from  v.  3;  Sta.'s  reconstruction 
of  v.  *;  the  omission  of  v.  ^  as  a  prosaic  interpolation  (so  Ru.,  Now., 
Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.);  the  omission  of  iicnh  from  v. '  and  of  iin  from  v. '; 
the  treatment  of  v.  "  as  a  prosaic  gloss  originally  belonging  to  v.  «;  its 
relation  to  v.  «  was  already  recognised  by  Dathe  (1773  a.d.)  and,  more 
recently,  by  Hal.,  who  transposes  v.  «  to  follow  v.  ".  The  introductory 
words  in  v.  '  lie  outside  of  the  poetic  form.  Siev.  omits  much  material 
from  this  section  in  his  effort  to  restore  anapaestic  hexameters  here,  and 
then  finds  his  scheme  break  down  in  vv.  ^•■''. 


54  MICAH 

2'.  Mn]<K,  ^7^j'o«'To=vn. — j,n  ^Si•Dl]  Hal.,j,-\  "'b^D-i;  c/.Du.,  pi  ^^^o  ^aB'n. 
— ipan  11N2]  (B  renders  freely,  /coi  fi/xa  ttj  ^/u^/)(?.  C/.  &. — ma'j.*']  Hal., 
Diryv — 3T  Vm*?  !^'''  'j]  (§,  Stirt  oi}k  ppav  7r/)6j  riv  Oebv  rds  x*'/"*^ 
oi)twv;  probably  a  free  rendering  for  'their  hand  is  against  God,'  viz.,  they 
do  not  lift  their  hands  to  him  in  prayer.  This  seems  simpler  than  the 
supposition  that  (6  read  nu';  under  the  influence  of  iNtt'j  in  the  foil,  verse 
and  that  oiK  was  inserted  later  in  order  to  make  the  passage  convey  the 
right  impression.  &  foil.  ®,  but  om.  its  negative.  H,  quoniam  contra 
Deum  est  manus  eorum.  Aq.,  8ti  l^x^P^"  X^^P  o-vroxi.  G,  Siirt  (xovcriv 
l<Txi>vT7jv  x^ipoL  aiiTwv.  Cod.  24  (de  R.),  S^nS.  Siev.  om.  the  phrase. — 2. 
17'Ji]  &  om.;  so  also  Siev..  (S  adds  6p4>avoii%  as  obj.,  probably  as  a  free 
rendering. — m<Z':-\]  (&  U  om.  \  <§t  seems  to  have  transposed  ^HVi^  and 
>P^yy,  for  nvi  is  nowhere  else  rendered  by /caraSi/j'acrTfi/etv,  nor  is  p!fj> 
elsewhere  represented  by  Siapird^eiv;  whereas  Ka.Ta5vva<TTel)eiv  is  a  com- 
mon rendering  of  pa'y  and  SiapTrdfetv,  though  not  elsewhere  used  for  nit'j, 
well  conveys  the  idea  of  violence  that  'j  must  carry  in  this  context.  The 
transposition  may  have  been  made  deliberately  by  (&,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  immediate  repetition  of  Si-fipira^ov,  which  had  already  occurred  as 
the  equivalent  of  iStji;  so  Vol.,  Ry..  Cf.  the  similar  transposition  of  nanj 
and  ixnj  by  #  in  Na.  i^. — u^n]  &  om..  <S^,  Aq.,  2  and  many  Heb. 
mss.  =  B^KV  On  metrical  grounds,  Siev.  om.  inSnji  c-'N  (so  Gu.). — 
•vt/a]  Marti  om.  as  gloss. — as'c]  Om.  vn  as  dittog.  from  i-"Dn  {cf. 
Kenn.  30,  which  om.  d-^'d)  and  join  final  D  with  the  foil,  word  as 
prep.,  D3iniNixD.  This  obviates  two  difficulties:  first  that  of  making 
CB',  which  has  only  local  significance,  refer  to  the  abstract  antecedent 
7\y-\;  second,  the  more  natural  object  of  itt'^cn  is  a  word  referring  to  the 
yoke,  not  to  the  neck;  v.  Ho.  11*  Je.  28'^  Is.  52^!,  but  cf.  Je.  27'-  "•  >* 
Ne.  3'. — HDn]  (S  adds  i^al<pvris,  possibly  due  to  metathesis  resulting  in 
inn  (for  nsi  written  defectively)  and  allowed  to  stand  alongside  of  the 
correction  6p6ol;  so  Ry..  <B^,  6p0poi. — 4.  nnji]  21  om.. — r^-n:]  Om.,  with 
Sta.  (ZAW.,  VI,  122/.)  as  dittog.;  so  Taylor,  We.,  Pont,  Ru.,  Now., 
QQj.^Em.  ^  Marti,  Siev.,  Stk.,  Gu..  (8,  ^v  /^Aet,  and  B,  cum  suavitate,  seem 
to  have  taken  it  as  fern,  of  'hj  and  treated  it  adverbially.  Ro.  and  Elh. 
read  ^nj  in  cstr.  relation  with  foil.  word.  Gr.,  nnr.;  so  GASm.  (?).  Hal., 
nnj.  Van  H.,  nr-i>,  as  subj.  of  the  foil.  vb.. — icn]  Rd.  ien'?,  with  Sta., 
Taylor,  We.,  Pont,  Ru.,  Now.,  Oort^n-.,  Siev.,  Stk.,  Gu.;  cf.  (6\  "Kiyuv; 
"M,  dicentium.  Ro.,  ncs  (so  Hal.)  or  iDNn  (so  Elh.).  GASm.,  idni  (?). — 
UTJ-J  nntt']  Tr.,  with  Sta.,  to  the  end  of  the  verse;  so  Ru.,  Now.,  Stk.. 
&  =  UTv''.  unless  due  to  confusion  of  the  Heb.  preform,  i  with  the  Syr. 
preformative  of  the  3d  pers.. — Ty  pSn]  Marti,  Siev.  and  Gu.,  up.'rri. 
Van  H.,  ■'oy.  'n. — i^c]  Rd.,  with  Sta.,  'I'^na  ia',  foil.  05,  Karefierpi/idT]  iv 
(Txoiv/v;  similarly  0;  so  Gu.,  Ru.,  Now..  San  is  obtained  here  from  v. ', 
whither  it  probably  dropped  by  error.  This  reading  of  the  vb.  is  accepted 
also  by  Ew.,  Stei.,  Taylor,  We.,  Pont,  GASm.,  Oort'^"'-,  Marti,  Siev., 


2*-'  55 

Stk.,  Du..  Gr.,  nnv  Hal.,  ifa\ — T'n]  Rd.,  with  Sta.,  ps'i,  foil.  C5,  Kal  ovk 
^v,  and  d;  so  Pont,  Ru.,  Now.,  Oort^"-,  Stk.;  also  Dathe,  We.  and  Du., 
dropping  ].  Hal.,  ri>ti. — tt-T']  Rd.,  with  Sta.,  3ie'C,  foil.  <8,  o  ko\6<tu)p;  so 
Ru.,Now.,OortE'°-,  Stk..  &om..  We.,  a'tt'on.  Pont,  ^idd.  Hal.,  tiich. 
Marti,  iSu'n^  using  foil.  S-'S.  C/.  Siev.  and  Gu.,  ■>'?  iSifc.  Du.,  3tt*iD. — •>':] 
Om.withj&asdittog.;  soSta.,Ru.,Now.,Stk..  (g=iS;  so  Taylor,  Oort^'"-, 
Du..  ©,  ]inS.  VanH.,  xS,  Gr.,  u'^. — 33vi'S]  Rd.,  with  Sta.,  iraiir^;  so 
Pont,  Ru.,  Now.,  Oort^'"-,  Stk..  (S  S  0  treat  as  an  infin.  depending  upon 
tt''D\  Aq.,  Tors  7«^ro(rt.  'M,cumrevertatur.  g»QIom.  S.  Marti,  ■ij''3vj', 
Gr.,  narSi.  Siev.,  n.nir. — una-]  (S-*-^  SI  =  d.?''1K'. — pSn'']  Rd.,  with 
Sta.,  pVn^;  so  Pont,  Gr.,  Ru.,  Marti,  Stk..  <S,  5iefj.T]plcrdT]<rav.  &,  wjV/i  ^Ae 
measuring  line.  Siev.  om.  'ni  'nB*  as  a  gloss.  Two  Heb.  codd.  pSn;'. 
Hal.,  p'7n  IT  >nt'. — 5.  nS  pS]  Elh.,  ^iVi. — iS]  Pont,  ddS;  so  Ru.,  Marti. 
Oort^"-,  uS. — Siua  'n  ^^'7t^•c]  Tr.  hjn  to  v.*  (^'.  s.).  #,  one  tw/io 
««7/  measure  by  line  and  divide  by  lot.  Ru.  om.  3  San. — 6.  iD''an  Sn] 
Rd.  t]t2n  Sn,  with  Ru.,  Siev.. — ]^D•'t3^]  Rd.  n''OJ,  with  Taylor.  (S,  Sd/c- 
/jufftj';  so  &.  !ff,  loquentes.  Aq.,  ffTaX«£foyTey.  S,  ^a»'  iiriTLfi'fiffTjTe.  Ru., 
Difiiaj.  Elh.,  cccc. — ic^i  nS]  Om.  as  dittog..  ^  =  sd  pers.  la^an; 
so  codd.  295  (de  R.)  and  154  (Kenn.).  13,  non  stillabit.  Ru.,  'a''  nSi. — 
JD^]  Rd.,  with  Gr.,  i^%'\;  so  HWB.^\  Marti,  Now."^,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Hpt.. 
(5,  dirtifferai  =  j'Di;  so  Ru.,  van  H.,  Du..  "B,  comprehendet.  ^,  overtake 
you.  Aq.,  KaToK^fifrj.  Codd.  224  (Kenn.)  and  554  (de  R,),  jd^;  codd.  150, 
226  (?),  201  (second  hand)  of  Kenn.,  and  2, 380, 993, 1257,  411,  211  of  de 
R.,  y:f\  Elh.,  Jb'\  Hal.,  wt;-'\ — ninVa]  14  codd.  (Kenn.),  nip  -h^.  Elh., 
ninS?.  Ru.,  o';'iaJ. — 7.  iidnh]  Rd.  "iD^<n,  with  ®,  6  X^ywi'  and  ®  (so 
Dathe,  Bauer,  Jus.),  and  om.  as  a  gloss,  vrith  Marti,  Siev..  H,  dicit.  ® 
treats  as  pass.  prtc.  agreeing  with  nioSa.  Ki.,  iiDNn;  so  Ew.,  Stei., 
Casp.,  Kl.,  et  al..  Ro.,  imKn;  so  Dr.,  Exp.,  X  (1887),  263.  Taylor, 
iDNH.  Gr.,  oniDH  or  onnnn.  Ru.,  rpxni.  Hal.,  nrrNn.  Van  H., 
I'lDNH. — ni3]  Now.,  nun. — ixpn]  05,  Trapdpyia-ev;  so  &. — bn]  &  = 
D>?. — ■'•12-1]  Rd.,  with  (5  and  cod.  305  (de  R.),  vnai;  so  Gr.,  Gu., 
Ru.,  Now.,  OortE™-,  Marti,  Siev.. — iSn  ityn]  Rd.  '?N-(tt'>,  with  Now., 
Oort^""-.  (^,  Kal  6p0ol  TreirSpevvrai..  Taylor,  i3Sn'\  Ru.,  iS  In'^^K'j  nD,-;i. 
Marti,  Now.^^  and  Gu.,  iDj?  '?N";if\  Hpt.,  innN  ^'7n^  'in, — 8.  VinnNi 
id;']  Rd.  iny.S  ariNi,  with  WRS.,  Proph.,  429,  and  GASm..  Cod.  89 
(Kenn.),  SnnNi.  Cod.  159  (Kenn.),  SicnNn.  Cod.  300  (Kenn.), 
ViD-nNi;  so  Ro.,  Taylor,  Elh.,  Pont,  Hal..  Hi.,  Sid-Sni.  Oort^"*-,  SicnNs, 
taking  3  from  v. '.  We., 'y  *?]?  ansi;  soNow.,  Siev.,  VanH.,  Du..  Marti, 
anNi,  omitting  S  as  dittog.  from  j^nS,  and  transferring  icy  as  iDg  to  end  of 
V. '.  Gu.,  DHKi,  and  om.  Ty  h\ — DDipi]  Rd.,  with  We., -iD-ipn;  Now., 
Marti,  Siev.,  Gu..  WRS.,  aipi;  so  Taylor,  Elh.,  Pont,  Gr..  HWB.'> 
and  van  H.,  diC|-5,  giving  1  to  31N  as  sf.  \   Cf.  GASm.,  Du.,  Di'ji. — Vine]  Rd., 


$6  MICAH 

with  Marti,  H\  We.,  S;:*:;  so  Gr.,  Now.,  Siev.. — nnSr]  Rd.,  with  We., 
D'S^U';  so  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Gu..  05,  t^s  elp^vrjs  avrov  =  nuhv;  so 
&,  WRS..  OortE"-,  nb^u*  (c/.  Ps.  7').  Ro.,  nc*?r.  Elh.,  Pont,  oSit*. 
Hal.,  oSr.  Van  H.  joins  with  foil,  word  and  reads  nxNjoSa'  =  Shalma- 
nezer. — tin]  Om.,  with  Marti,  as  gloss  on  noStt';  so  Now.'',  Siev..  (5, 
rijv  5opdiv  avToO,  giving  'n  its  Aramaic  force  (so  Biichler,  ZAW.,  XXX, 
64/.)  as  in  Gn.  252^;  so  &.  WRS.,  n-i.^N;  so  Taylor,  Gr..  Elh.,  nnsn; 
so  Pont.  Hal.,  Ti.Nn. — c^ajjc]  <&,  toO  d(pe\i(r6ai  =  D>-!^3>v:;  so  &. 
Ru.,  lOj^nS.  Siev.,  iaj?n. — oif]  Rd.,  with  We.,  i;r;  so  Now.,  Marti, 
Siev.,  van  H.,  Gu.,  Hpt..  Cod.  17  (Kenn.),  ■'3B'.  (B,  ffwrpin/xdv  ~  lac.  V, 
convertistis.  ^,  and  ye  turn.  ^,  dfieplfjLvui,  Hoffmann  (Z^PT.,  HI,  103), 
131U'.  Taylor,  iTac*  (so  Elh.)  or  o-^' (so  Ges.,  ">"?).  Gr., '•njip.  Ru,, 
i^rr.  OortE""-,  n^r.  Matthes,  with  foil,  word,  acnS  Do^-j-;  so  Elh., 
Pont. — 9.  '•a'j]  (S,  7]yo6/ji€voi  =  'nicj.  (E,  nt'ij?,  i/j«  assembly. — n>2i:] 
We.,  ''J33  (c/.  I'");  so  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.. — n^jj^n]  Rd.,  with  &  (6, 
]\}V.yiJ};  soGr.,  Ru.,  Marti,  Now.",  Siev.,  Gu.,  Hpt.,  Du..— n>SSjf]  Rd., 
with  &  (S  "H,  it';;'?};  ;  so  Gr.,  Ru.,  Marti,  Now.k  Siev.,  Gu.,  Hpt.,  Du..  (S, 
tA  TTOvrjpd.  iirLTfiBevixaTO.  avrdv  i^w<rdr}ffav,  the  last  word,  i^',  being  per- 
haps a  second  rendering  of  the  following  inpn. — inpn]  C5,  eyylaare. — mn] 
05,  6pe<Tiv  =  ■'Tin.  ijom.  sf.;  so  Oort'^™-.  Hal.,  n-j-in. — 10.  nxoa]  Rd., 
with  Ro.,  HNDJ;  so  Elh.,  Pont,  Gr.,  OortE™-,  Marti,  Now.^,  Stk..  All 
Vrss.  except  ®  treat  it  as  a  noun. — Sam  S^nn]  Rd.,  vnth  05,  iSann 
San;  so  Ro.,  Taylor,  Gr.,  Perles,  Now.,  Oort^'"-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Stk., 
Gu..  ^  reproduces  M  with  addition  of  a  cognate  ace.  San  after  Sann. 
TS  =  'n  Sann;  so  Bauer,  Jus.,  Elh.,  'n  Sarin. — i'idj]  05,  /careSiwx^'?'''*.  B, 
pessima.  &,  violent.  Gr.,  V"jnr,  so  Marti,  Now.'',  Siev.,  Stk.,  Gu.. — 
11.  iS]  (l&=xS.  &om..  B,  utinam  non  essem. — I'l'n]  We.,  i^n;  so  Now., 
Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.. — n'^-]  05,  iK  ttjs  araySvos.     B,  super  quern  stillatur. 

Str.  I  utters  a  woe  upon  men  zealous  toward  evil,  who  abuse 
their  power  by  robbing  the  poor  of  their  houses  and  lands. — 1. 
Woe  to  those  who  devise  iniquity]  The  address  is  made  to  the 
wealthy  in  Judah,  whose  riches  had  greatly  increased  during  the 
long  and  prosperous  reign  of  Uzziah.  Their  greed  not  satisfied, 
they  would  still  more  enrich  themselves,  and  that  at  the  e.xpense  of 
greater  poverty  and  misery  for  the  poor.  Micah's  spirit  flames 
forth  in  indignant  remonstrance,  for  these  suffering  farmers  include 
many  of  his  neighbours  and  friends. — Atid  work  evil]  This  is  a 
prosaic  gloss*  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  comes  in  prematurely — 
the  evil  is  not  done  'upon  the  bed'  but  'in  the  morning' — and 

*  So  Wc,  Now.,  Oort^""-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt.,  el  al.. 


2'-'  57 

that  it  is  superfluous  in  the  metre.  GASm.  seeks  to  retain  the 
phrase  by  giving  to  ^ys  the  meaning,  "prepare  ways  and  means"; 
but  this  is  a  usage  not  found  elsewhere  and  one  that  adds  nothing 
to  ^ttTt  of  the  previous  phrase. — Upon  their  beds]  They  he  awake 
at  night  revolving  schemes  to  circumvent  the  poor.  Cf.  Ps.  36^ — 
Inthelight  of  the  morning]  Brought  into  contrast  by  chiasm  with 
the  night-work  of  arranging  plans.  They  can  scarcely  wait  for 
daylight  before  putting  their  nefarious  schemes  into  operation. — 
Because  it  is  in  their  power]  They  oppress  and  rob  because  they 
can.  This  interpretation  is  supported  by  @  and  Aq.  and  by  the 
usage  of  the  same  phrase  in  Gn.  31=='  Dt.  28'^  p^.  327  j^e.  5^  BS.  5' 
14".  The  interpretation,  "because  their  power  is  their  God," 
common  in  the  older  commentaries*  is  rendered  impossible  by 
some  of  the  parallel  cases  cited  in  which  the  phrase  is  negatived. — 
2.  They  covet  fields  and  seize  them,  etc.]  Their  only  title  to  them 
is  their  greed.  To  the  prophet's  vivid  imagination  it  seems  'no 
sooner  said  than  done.'  He  leaps  over  the  intermediate  steps  be- 
tween the  birth  of  the  desire  and  its  fulfilment,  such  as  extortionate 
rates  of  interest,  foreclosure  of  mortgages,  subornation  and  perjury 
of  vdtnesses,  bribery  of  judges.  So  it  was  in  the  days  of  Ahab 
(i  K.  21),  of  Hosea  (5'°)  and  Isaiah  (5*).  For  the  peasant  prophet, 
bom  and  bred  upon  the  vine-clad  hill-slopes  of  western  Judah,  the 
ousting  of  peasant-farmers  from  their  small  holdings,  inherited 
through  successive  generations  of  toilers  whose  very  life  had  gone 
into  the  soil,  was  a  wholly  unpardonable  crime.  No  amount  of 
legal  procedure  could  make  it  appear  right.  Custom  and  law, 
from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  times,  all  sought  to  perpetuate  the 
family's  tenure  of  its  ancestral  lands.  Cf.  Nu.  27^'"  2)^^'^^.—So  they 
crush  a  yeoman  and  his  home,  etc.]  The  inevitable  result  of  their 
heartless  policy, — the  property  gone,  the  man  and  his  family  must 
succumb.  1132  and  f^}"^^  are  used  for  variety,  there  being  no  es- 
sential difference  in  their  ordinary  usage. 

Str.  II  introduces  a  new  speaker,  Yahweh  himself.  In  trimeter 
movement  and  pointed  phrase,  Yahweh  declares  his  purpose  to 
pimish. — 3.  Behold,  I  am  devising  disaster]  This,  in  contrast 
with  Str.  I,  represents  Yahweh  as  the  deviser,  not,  however,  of 

♦  So,  e.  g.,  Mich.,  Stei.,  Mau.,  Ke.,  Ro.,  Reinke,  Kue.,  Du.. 


58  MICAH 

iniqmty,  but  of  calamity.  In  M  this  line  is  broken  up  by  the  in- 
sertion after  the  vb.  of  the  words,  against  this  family],  i.  e.,  the  peo- 
ple of  Judah,  The  phrase  is  a  gloss,*  as  appears  from  its  abnor- 
mal position  in  the  sentence  and  from  its  metrical  superfluity. 
Cf.  Am.  3^  Je.  8^. — Which  ye  cannot  remove  from  your  necks]  ^ 
=  that  ye  shall  not  withdraw  your  necks  therefrom.  For  text,  v.  s.. 
The  figiu-e  is  that  of  a  yoke,  heavy  and  galling;  it  is  a  common  met- 
aphor in  the  prophetic  books,  e.  g.,  Is.  9*  10"  47*  Je.  27*  28"  Ez. 
30^*  34^'  Dt.  28*^. — Nor  walk  erect]  i.  e.,  because  bowed  down  by 
the  crushing  weight  of  the  yoke. — For  it  will  he  a  disastrous  time] 
There  is  no  sufficient  groimd  for  considering  this  a  gloss  with  some 
recent  scholars. f  It  states  the  accompHshment  of  Yahweh's  pur- 
pose as  indicated  in  the  first  line  of  the  str.,  and  thus  brings  the  str. 
to  a  well-rovmded  close. 

Str.  Ill  represents  Yahweh  as  putting  upon  the  lips  of  Israel's 
foes  a  dirge  describing  the  smitten  state  of  the  nation  in  the  coming 
day  of  wrath. — 4.  A  taunt-song  will  he  raised  concerning  you,  and  a 
lament  will  he  wailed]  It  is  evident  from  the  indefinite  character 
of  the  verbal  forms  employed  that  the  dirge  is  pronounced  not  by 
the  sufferers  themselves  but  by  others.  This  is  in  keeping  with 
ordinary  funeral  customs.  Cf.  Am.  5^®  Je.  9".  This  makes  it  clear 
that  the  precise  character  of  the  71^12  is  defined  by  "TlJ  as  a  satirical 
dirge.  This  is  better  than  to  treat  mashdl  as  describing  the  gibes  of 
the  foe,  and  n'M  as  applying  to  Israel's  own  lamentation ;{  or  to 
eliminate  both  these  introductory  phrases  as  inconsistent  with  the 
contents  of  the  dirge.  § — The  portion  of  my  people  is  measured  with 
the  measuring  line,  and  there  is  none  to  restore  it]  In  this  taunt- 
song  the  triumphant  foe  mockingly  re-echoes  the  thought  of  Judah 
in  the  day  of  her  calamity.  Portion  of  my  people  is  equivalent  to 
our  land  in  the  next  line.  Cf.  Gn.  3 1"  2  K.  9^^  Ez.  48^'  Am.  f.  The 
process  of  allotting  Israel's  territory  to  her  conquerors  for  perpetual 
possession  is  here  graphically  portrayed. — To  our  captors  our  land 
is  allotted;  we  are  utterly  devastated]  The  foe  is  imnamed,  but 
Micah  and  his  hearers  understood  equally  well  that  reference  was 
made  to  Assyria.    The  foregoing  rendering  of  v.  *^'  <=  involves  some 

♦  So  Marti,  Now.k,  Sicv.,  Gu..     Slk.  sul)Stitutcs  a;^??. 

t  Viz.,  Marti,  Kow.k,  Sicv.,  Stk.,  Gu..        }  Contra  Hi.,  Mau.,  Or.,  Reinke.        §  Marti. 


2^-«  59 

slight  rearrangement  and  modification  of  M,  which  reads:  We  are 
utterly  devastated ;  the  portion  of  my  people  he  changes  ;  how  doth  he 
remove  for  me!  to  a  rebel  he  apportions  our  land.  The  difficulty 
with  this  is  its  lack  of  inner  coherence,  its  failure  to  indicate  the 
subject  of  the  verbs  in  the  last  three  clauses,  the  interchange  of 
numbers  in  the  pronouns  of  the  first  person  and  the  failure  to  con- 
form to  the  qtna  measure  which  the  introduction  leads  us  to  expect. 
— 5.  Therefore,  thou  shall  have  none  that  shall  cast  the  line  by  lot 
in  the  assembly  of  Yahweh]  This  verse  lies  outside  of  the  poetical 
form,  and  is  to  be  considered  as  an  annotation  by  some  reader  or 
editor  which  has  found  its  way  from  the  margin  into  the  text.  It 
cannot  be  joined  to  v.  ^  as  a  part  of  the  reproach  by  the  enemy,*  for 
the  address  is  here  evidently  to  only  a  part  of  the  nation,  and  the 
paralleUsm  of  v.  ■*  is  wholly  lacking.  Nor  is  it  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for  as  a  retort  to  Micah  from  those  he  has  been  castigat- 
ing,! ^or  this  leaves  the  therefore  without  any  support  in  the  con- 
text. It  is  more  easily  taken  as  a  resumption  of  the  prophet's  ad- 
dress to  the  wicked, t  '^7  being  treated  as  a  distributive  singular  or 
as  an  error  for  D^?;  but  the  verse  adds  nothing  essential  and  varies 
widely  in  form  from  its  context  and  is  a  later  interpretation  of  v.  * 
to  the  effect  that  the  wicked  oppressors  will  no  longer  increase  their 
huge  estates  at  the  expense  of  the  poor,  for  rich  and  poor  alike  will 
be  denied  foothold  in  Yahweh's  land.  The  use  of  7^n,  line,  with 
"|''^w>12  is  imique,  while  vlli,  lot,  is  common  in  such  a  connection; 
perhaps  ^DPI  here  belonged  originally  to  v.  *,  where  it  has  been 
supplied  above  on  the  basis  of  (g. 

Str.  IV  expresses  the  indignant  protest  of  the  rich  who  regard 
such  preaching  as  disloyal  and  irreligious.  The  elegiac  rhythm  is 
continued. — 6.  Do  not  keep  harping  on  such  things]  Treatment 
of  this  kind  was  no  new  experience  for  prophecy;  it  antedated 
Amos  (2^^),  and  Amos  himself  was  bidden  to  keep  silence  (5'"  7'°"'^), 
as  also  Isaiah  (28^-  ^°).  By  the  time  of  Manasseh  it  had  developed 
into  actual  persecution  (2  K.  21^^  cf.  Je.  11**-^^  26^°  ^■).  The  verb 
employed  here  is  practically  synonymous  with  J<2i,  the  ordinary 
word  for  prophesy,  yet  lends  itself  readily  to  an  imfavourable  con- 
notation by  reason  of  its  original  meaning,  viz.,  drip,  drop,  i.  e.,  of 

♦  Van  H..  t  Hi.,  Now.  (?).  t  Ew.,  Ke.,  GASm.. 


6o  MICAH 

the  foam  from  the  mouth  of  ecstatic,  epileptic  nebVim.  M  of  this 
line  has  been  variously  treated,  e.  g.,  using  the  last  two  words  of  v.  ^ 
"In  the  assembly  of  Yahweh  do  not  prophesy"  (an  address  to 
Micah  and  his  associates  by  his  opponents,  to  which  Micah  repHes) : 
"Whether  they  {i.  e.,  the  prophets)  preach  or  do  not  preach  to  such 
as  you,  shame,  etc."  *  Or  again,  as  the  utterance  of  two  or  three 
of  the  audience  taken  up  by  Micah  into  his  address,  i.  e.,  one  says, 
"You  must  not  speak,"  a  second  replies,  "O,  let  them  speak," 
while  a  third  adds,  "They  must  not  speak  such  things  as  these." f 
Yet  again,  as  a  protest  of  the  rich  cited  by  Micah,  "prate  not," 
they  prate,  "let  none  prate  of  such  things."  {  This  latter  is  the 
best  interpretation  and  the  most  widely  accepted  one,  but  it  does 
not  account  for  the  interchange  of  bi^  and  J^"?,  nor  render  the  change 
from  2d  to  3d  pers.  anything  but  abrupt. — Shame  cannot  over- 
take the  house  of  Jacob]  This  includes  the  first  words  of  v.  '';  for 
text,  V.  s..  The  rich  continue  speaking  here.  The  thought  out  of 
which  this  confidence  springs  is  that  of  Am.  3^:  Israel  is  Yahweh's 
chosen  people  and  therefore  safe  from  harm.  Cf.  3".  It  is  the  creed 
of  the  established  regime,  which  is  ever  too  ready  to  identify  God's 
interests  with  its  own.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  rich,  Micah 
is  guilty  of  both  treason  and  blasphemy.  A  single  word,  "ICKn, 
attached  as  a  marginal  note  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
"house  of  Jacob"  is  the  speaker  in  this  and  the  following  lines,  has 
crept  into  the  text  here  and  caused  much  difficulty.  The  first  part 
of  the  line  as  in  iK  may  perhaps  be  rendered,  reproaches  do  not  de- 
part, though  the  verb  HID  elsewhere  always  conveys  an  element  of 
disgrace  as  attending  the  movement  expressed  by  the  verb,  e.  g., 
'backslide,'  or  'be  driven  back  in  defeat,'  or  'prove  recreant';  the 
second  part  eludes  explanation  as  may  be  seen  from  the  various 
attempts  to  make  sense,  e.  g.,  "O  thou  who  art  called  the  house  of 
Jacob";  §  "O  words  of  the  house  of  Jacob"**;  "What  a  word!  O 
house  of  Jacob"  tt;  "O  thou  that  speakest  thus  to  the  house  of 
Jacob "  tt ; "  Should  it  not  be  said,  0,etc."§§ ; "  Shall  one  say  to  the 


*  Ro..    Cf.  van  H.  t  M.  Jastrow,  in  Frankel's  ilonatschrijt,  1872. 

X  GASm.,  el  al..  §  Cal.,  Ke.. 

*♦  Roscnm.,  Mau..  ft  Ew.,  Casp.,  Stci.,  Urn.. 

tt  GASm..  §§  Hi.. 


2^-'  6l 

house  of  Jacob?"*  ;  "Is  this  the  talk  of  the  house  of  Jacob ?"t- 
— 7.  Is  Yahweh  impatient  or  are  such  his  deeds  ?]  Is  not  Yahweh 
"  slow  to  anger"  (cf.  Ex.  34®),  and  has  not  our  entire  history  demon- 
strated his  beneficent  purpose  toward  us  ? — Do  not  his  words  mean 
good  to  Israel?]  This  was  the  difficulty  encountered  by  all  the 
prophets — the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  realise  that  Yah- 
weh's  favour  was  conditioned  upon  the  character  of  his  people,  and 
that  no  amount  of  ritual  or  protestations  of  loyalty  could  supply  the 
lack  of  truth  and  justice.  The  great  task  of  prophecy,  therefore, 
was  to  inform  the  national  conception  of  God  with  moral  content. 
m  reads  here,  do  not  my  words  mean  good  to  him  that  walketh  up- 
rightly ?  But  this  necessitates  joining  the  line  as  an  utterance  from 
Yahweh  with  v.  ^  and  constitutes  very  bad  Hebrew  for  the  last 
clause.  Of  the  various  emendations  {v.  s.)  offered,  the  foregoing 
best  suits  the  demands  of  the  context. 

Str.  V,  in  the  words  of  Yahweh  himself,  makes  crushing  reply 
to  the  protest  of  the  rich  oppressors,  "How  can  you  expect  good 
when  your  deeds  are  evil?"  The  elegiac  strain  continues. — 8. 
But  ye  have  become  my  people's  foe]  The  Hebrew  text  of  this 
verse  is  badly  corrupt;  for  the  emendations  adopted,  v.  s..  As 
emended  it  is  an  address  to  those  who  have  been  so  loud  in  their 
resentment  of  Micah's  message  of  woe.  'You  yourselves  are 
Israel's  worst  enemies.'  M,  Formerly  my  people  as  an  enemy 
raised  up,  etc.,  offers  no  proper  object  of  the  transitive  'raise.' — Ye 
rise  up  against  those  that  are  at  peace]  The  rich  make  hostile  plans 
against  the  imsuspecting  poor  to  compass  their  spoliation  and  de- 
struction. The  most  common  treatment  of  M,  is  to  connect  the 
verb  'rise  up'  with  the  first  line,  to  draw  plDtS'Sn  from  the  following 
line  to  this  one,  and  translate, /row  upon  the  garment  ye  pull  off  the 
robe.  The  outer  and  more  expensive  garment  is  seized  as  security 
for  debt,  in  violation  of  Ex.  22^^-  ^^.  But  the  preposition  hi'Q  regu- 
larly means  'in  front  of,'  and  the  word  17.^ »  ^^^  occurring  elsewhere 
in  this  sense,  is  better  considered  as  an  error  for  the  ordinary  word 
ri"i7X,  which  was  added  on  the  margin  by  some  reader  as  a  more 
specific  designation  of  the  garment  in  question  after  the  original 
D'^D^w'  had  become  nD7ti'. — Ye  strip  off  from  those  passing  by  in 

*  Dr.,  Exp.,  1878.  t  Or.. 


62  MICAH 

confidence  booty  of  war]  The  words  of  this  line  are  not  to  be  taken 
literally;  the  prophet  is  not  necessarily  speaking  of  actual  highway 
robbery;  his  thought  is  rather  exactly  parallel  to  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding line :  "  You  take  advantage  of  innocent,  trusting  neighbours 
and  plunder  them  as  though  they  were  enemies."  JH  is  very  diflS- 
cult;  the  best  rendering  of  it  is,  if  nilX  may  be  connected  with  this 
line,  the  mantle  ye  strip  from  those  who  pass  by  in  security,  averse  to 
war;  but  ""^"ISy  is  not  found  elsewhere,  and  the  meanings  given  to 
it  have  been  many  and  various. — 9.  The  women  of  my  people  ye 
expel  from  their  pleasant  homes ;  From  their  babes  ye  take  away  my 
glory  for  ever]  i.  e.  in  their  greedy  haste  to  "join  house  to  house  and 
lay  field  to  field,"  they  do  not  hesitate  to  render  families  homeless 
or  even  to  sell  the  fathers  into  slavery  for  debt.  Wellhausen,  et  al., 
substitute  "children"  for  "homes"  {v.  s.),  and  interpret  the  verse  of 
selling  into  foreign  servitude  which  deprives  the  little  ones  of  ever 
living  in  the  land  of  Yahweh.  But  it  is  very  questionable  whether 
so  heinous  a  crime  is  referred  to  here;  the  laws  on  slavery  seem  not 
to  have  contemplated  such  a  dire  possibility,  for  they  make  not  the 
slightest  allusion  to  it;  the  only  case  in  the  Old  Testament  is  the 
sale  of  Joseph  to  the  Midianites  by  his  brethren — an  altogether 
abnormal  transaction.  Furthermore,  the  phrase  "my  glory"  can- 
not well  mean  'the  glory  of  dwelling  in  Yahweh's  land,'  for  this 
does  not  reflect  glory  upon  Yahweh,  while  the  thought  of  'glory 
granted  to  the  people  by  Yahweh'  would  be  more  natvu^ally  desig- 
nated "their  glory."  Then  too,  the  vb.  'expel'  suits  'home'  better 
than  'children,'  and  the  preposition  'from  upon'  suits  better  the 
removal  of  fathers  from  their  children  than  the  taking  away  of  the 
privilege  of  residence  from  the  latter.  For  the  use  of  the  term 
'glory'  as  applied  to  men,  cf.  Is.  5^^-  ".  The  yeomen  of  Israel 
might  well  be  designated  as  Yahweh's  glory. 

Str.  VI  is  Yahweh's  curt,  summary  dismissal  of  the  guilty  to  their 
irrevocable  doom. — 10.  Arise  and  go  I  for  this  is  not  your  resting- 
place]  Those  who  have  driven  out  others  are  now  themselves  to 
be  driven  out. — Because  of  uncleanness,  ye  shall  be  destroyed  with 
an  irremediable  destruction]  Men  strict  in  their  observance  of 
ceremonial  law,  no  doubt,  are  here  brought  face  to  face  with  their 
own  inner  depravity  and  Yahweh's  insistent  and  terrible  demand 


2«-"  63 

for  "clean  hands  and  a  pure  heart." — 11.  If  a  man  walking  in  a 
spirit  of  falsehood  lies,  saying,  "I  will  prophecy  to  thee  of  wine  and 
strong  drink,"  he  becomes  the  prophet  of  this  people]  This  verse  is 
a  later  addition  as  shown  by  its  prosaic  form  and  by  its  lack  of  con- 
nection with  its  immediate  context.  It  seems  to  have  been  suggested 
partly  by  the  contents  of  v.  ^  and  partly  by  the  severe  terms  of  v. '°. 
In  contrast  to  the  denunciatory  Micah  with  his  relentless  message, 
a  picture  of  the  popular  prophets  is  presented.  To  them  Micah 
pays  his  respects  in  3^^'.  This  rendering  of  v.  "  adopts  a  use  of 
■]St  quite  common  {v.  i.)  and  treats  ^iptl'l  V\T\  as  a  case  of  hendia- 
dys.  An  alternative  rendering  for  the  phrase  is  "walking  in  van- 
ity (or  emptiness)  and  falsehood";  for  this  use  of  mi,  cf.  Is.  41^^ 
Jb.  7'  15^  Ec.  i".  To  "walk  in  a  spirit  of  falsehood"  and  preach 
lies  is  to  deceive  people  deliberately,  and  is  far  worse  than  to  de- 
ceive unwittingly.  The  substance  of  the  false  teaching  is  the  prom- 
ise of  material  prosperity  and  blessings  of  the  most  sensuous  char- 
acter. This  is  the  only  thing  that  will  content  the  populace;  they 
will  not  listen  to  the  words  of  the  true  prophet  whose  message,  how- 
ever unpalatable,  is  bom  of  supreme  devotion  to  their  highest 
good.  To  change  "j^in  to  the  perfect  tense  as  some  do  {v.  s.)  in- 
volves either  an  awkward  asyndeton  for  the  verb  ;3TD  or  else  the 
separation  of  the  phrase  Iptt'T  mi  between  the  two  verbs  thus,  "if  a 
man  walk  in  wind  and  falsely  lie,  saying,  etc."  The  Iptl'  however 
is  redimdant  as  a  modifier  of  3TD  and  the  phrase  is  much  better 
taken  as  a  unit  and  modifying  "j^in. 

1.  y"\  •'Syci]  For  the  meaning  'prepare,'  'work  out  in  advance,'  ref- 
erence is  had  to  such  passages  as  Ps.  7'*  58=  Is.  41^  This  thought  is 
certainly  present  in  Ps.  58^,  if  the  text  is  sound ;  but  even  there  the  idea  of 
'planning'  is  not  in  the  vb.  Sj,'d  itself,  but  is  plainly  expressed  by  the 
phrase  '  in  the  heart '  which  is  attached.  The  question  at  issue  is  whether 
'd  may  have  that  sense  in  itself,  without  such  modifying  phrase.  It  is 
clearly  not  required  in  Is.  41*,  where  the  two  vbs.  'd  and  nB'>'  are  more 
naturally  treated  as  exact  equivalents,  being  rendered  'who  hath  wrought 
and  done  it.'  Nor  is  there  any  reason  in  Ps.  7><  for  departing  from  the 
usual  sense;  when  the  psalmist  says  that  Yahweh  'makes  his  arrows,'  he 
surely  does  not  imply  that  Yahweh  'devises'  or  'plans'  them  beforehand. 
— ^n]  In  the  sense  of  'strength,'  'power,'  Sn  is  found  only  in  this  id- 
iom. Nor  can  this  meaning  be  definitely  connected  with  the  \/  Sin.  But 
the  context  of  the  various  occurrences  of  the  phrase  seems  to  demand 


64  MICAH 

this  sense;  <S  in  all  cases  save  this  one  gives  it  this  force;  likewise  &  and 
2J.  The  alternative  rendering,  "their  hand  is  as  a  god,"  is  quite  un- 
natural when  the  phrase  is  negatived  and,  as  No.  has  indicated,  would 
require  the  Hebrew  ^n"^  di^  on'^  nr^^n^  while  the  "^  after  c"  and  pN  must  be 
a  genuine  dative.  Recently,  however,  this  latter  view  has  been  revived 
in  somewhat  different  form.  Brockelmann,  ZAW.  XXVI  ('06),  2gff., 
calls  attention  to  the  belief  found  among  many  peoples  that  the  various 
members  of  the  body  are  tenanted  by  spirits  which  control  their  activi- 
ties. But  such  beliefs  among  American  Indians,  West  Africans  and  an- 
cient Persians  prove  nothing  for  the  Hebrews;  nor  is  the  Arabs'  belief 
that  hunger  is  due  to  a  serpent  in  the  stomach  any  more  convincing, 
even  though  serpents  and  spirits  are  frequently  identical.  Whitehouse, 
Isaiah  {Cent.  Bible),  II,  344,  explains  on  this  same  basis  the  use 
'throughout  the  Mediterranean  littoral'  of  the  facsimile  of  a  hand  as  a 
'prophylactic  to  the  depredator  or  the  evil  eye';  but  surely  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  limit  ourselves  to  this  theory  for  an  explanation  of  the  magic  hand. 
The  objections  urged  above  hold  good  in  part  against  this  newer  view, 
while  the  conception  "god  of  my  hand"  remains  at  present  without  any 
real  Semitic  parallel.  In  any  case,  if  such  a  concept  ever  did  exist  in 
early  Israel,  it  had  long  passed  out  of  the  consciousness  of  the  people  in 
Old  Testament  times. — 2.  ins'ji]  A  bold  figure;  nowhere  else  does 
nij  'i  occur. — 3.  n:;n]  On  adv.  use  of  the  subst,  cf.  Ges.  "^  q, — 4.  nz-] 
The  indefinite  is  often,  as  here,  equiv.  to  a  passive,  like  German  man, 
French  on. — htij]  According  to  Ko.  ^  ",  the  fem.  of  v-ij  (so  the  Vrss., 
Ry.,  et  al.)  and  used  alongside  of  the  masc.  to  express  indefiniteness;  but 
in  Ko.  ^"'"',  cited  as  expressing  the  superlative  idea;  cf.  Is.  3'.  Others, 
e.  g.  Ew.,  Hi.,  Che.,  have  taken  it  as  Niph.  pf .  of  r\''7\,  meaning  '  it  is  done,' 
either  as  the  title  of  the  dirge,  or  as  its  first  word,  viz.  "it  is  done,"  will 
one  say,  "we  are,  etc.";  but  such  a  use  of  ncN  is  quite  abnormal. — in::' 
'b'j]  The  dirge  rhythm  always  consists  of  a  longer  line  followed  by  a 
shorter,  usually  in  the  proportion  3:2;  M,  however,  exactly  reverses 
that  order  here.  On  iJ^ifJ,  cf.  Ges.  'f  " ". — '^]  Ace.  to  M,  dat.  cthicus, 
Ges. ^"'■. — aaic'?]  'c  =  apostate,  rebel;  here  of  Assyria,  and  so  inap- 
propriate; in  Je.  49*,  of  Ammon,  which  was,  like  Israel,  a  descendant  of 
Abraham  and  thus  could  properly  be  charged  with  having  deserted  the 
faith  of  the  fathers;  in  Je.  31",  of  Israel  itself.  (5  connects  it  with  the 
preceding  as  an  infin.. — 5.  Van  tScc]  'n  as  an  obj.  of  iSc  forces  upon 
the  latter  a  meaning,  such  as  'stretch'  or  'adjust'  (van  H.),  which  it  does 
not  elsewhere  have,  nor  can  it  easily  assume. — '^np]  is  consistent  with 
late  origin  of  the  verse,  but  does  not  demand  it,  for  'p  occurs  in  E  (Nu. 
22<),  Ju.  20'  21'-  8  I  S.  17*' — all  early.  Nor  is  any  specific  Messianic 
idea  implied  in  the  use  of  the  term  {contra  Marti) ;  it  is  a  designation  af>- 
plicable  to  Israel  by  foreigners  (Nu.  22<)  or  to  foreigners  by  Israelites 
(i  S.  17*')'    '^''  'p  here  is  synonymous  with  "the  people  of  Yahweh,"  or 


2^-"  65 

"the  inheritance  of  Yahweh." — 6.  id'D^  n"?  iib^o^  ifi^on  *?«]  On  orig. 
force  of  iian,  t;.  ZAW.  Ill,  iig.  Or.  accounts  for  change  from  Sn  to 
nS  by  making  Micah  begin  to  reply  with  '•>  nS  in  the  form  of  a  question, 
"shall  one  not  preach  to  such  as  these?".  If  M  be  retained,  the  only 
treatment  of  ''  nS  is  as  a  positive  prohibition  by  the  rich,  "they  shall  not 
preach  such  things."  For  inf.  abs.  Qal  with  Hiph.  impf .  as  in  emended 
text,  V.  Ges.  ^  "^  ". — jD'']  For  other  cases  of  vb.  in  sg.  masc.  before  a 
fem.  pi.  subj.,  Ges.  5'«°;  K6.  ^348i. — On  the  intensive  pi.  pidS;]  K6. 
§261  h.  the  change  to  sg.  (Now.)  is  unnecessary,  nor  need  '^  no  be  made 
the  subj.  (Marti). — 7.  niDNn]  As  it  stands,  this  can  be  only  a  Qal  pass, 
prtc,  either  with  the  article,  or  with  n  interrog.  (Ges.  5  loo  °;  Ko.  ^  ^ss  w) 
with  gerundive  sense,  "is  it  to  be  said?"  Cf.  Ko.  ^^  "*  ^-  '"  "  ^.  But 
V.  s.. — Dx]  This  indirect  question  does  not  propound  two  alternatives, 
but  rather  two  phases  of  the  same  thought;  Ges.  ^'^o '';  Ko.  ^^^^  °. — aj? 
iSin  nji'in]  An  adv.  use  of  Ti'i  "one  walking  as  the  righteous,"  i.  e. 
righteously.  But  the  order  of  words  is  difficult.  Jb.  31^6,  ^Sn  np>  nn\ 
is  not  a  parallel  case,  for  there  nT"  is  the  main  word  to  which  'n  ip>  is 
attached  as  an  attendant  circumstance,  while  here  the  main  word  is  ^S^ 
and  comes  last.  Not  only  so,  but  the  use  of  the  article  with  -w^  is  an  ad- 
ditional difficulty.  Indeed  in  Jb.  3126  there  is  no  reason  for  treating  ip^ 
as  other  than  an  ordinary  adjective  and  rendering  '  a  glorious  moon  as  it 
passed  along  '  Ko.  ^  "2  i^  cites  the  analogy  of  the  Hal  clause  in  Arabic, 
which  permits  this  order  when  the  governing  word  is  a  participle  as  here. 
On  the  use  of  article  with  iB"  and  its  absence  from  iSin,  cf.  Wright,  A  rah. 
Cram.  °-  pp-  "^  »•  «i'  ». — 8.  SicnNi]  This  word  is  without  force  in  this 
context;  Micah  is  concerned  not  with  the  dead  past,  but  the  living  pres- 
ent.— ''Di']  It  is  not  unlikely  that  this  is  a  dittog.  of  aj."  in  the  last  clause 
of  V. '',  or  has  been  dislodged  from  its  place  after  SN-ia^  {v.  emended  text) ; 
so  Marti,  Now.^.  Such  an  arrangement  yields  a  smoother  sentence  here, 
but  is  not  indispensable. — anp'']  M  requires  tj?  as  subject,  but  as  a 
transitive  form  it  requires  also  an  object  which  is  not  forthcoming. 
Furthermore,  the  succeeding  vbs.  are  all  in  2d  pers.  pi.. — Sice]  The  col- 
location of  four  d's  is  suspicious,  as  also  the  unsuitability  of  this  prep.,= 
from  in  front  of,  to  the  noun  noStt']  This  designates  the  ordinary  outer 
garment,  while  "nt^],  to  be  read  mix  (n  being  lost  before  'dp;  so  BDB.), 
applies  to  the  mantle,  or  cloak,  worn  as  an  overcoat.  But  this  seems 
too  detailed  and  petty  in  the  present  context. — •'^ir]  On  the  gen.  rela- 
tion instead  of  a  prep.,  cf.  Ko.  ^  s^e  mj  on  the  pass.  prtc.  denoting  a  state 
or  quality,  cf.  Ko.  ^  "*  ^.  But  the  harshness  of  this  cItt.  idiom  seems  to  call 
for  correction  of  the  text;  v.  s..  The  most  serious  objection  to  the  emen- 
dation 13B*  is  that  in  its  ordinary  sense  of  'captives'  or  'captivity'  it  does 
not  constitute  a  suitable  object  for  ]\£VBr>.  But  Am.  4'",  a3''DiD  ^z^  o?, 
furnishes  a  use  of  ^2V  very  close  to  that  called  for  here. — 10.  nxr:-^] 
Some  Heb.  mss.  followed  by  Baer  read  '^x'?,'p,  i.  e.  pf.  3d  sg.  Qal;  but  this 


66  MICAH 

is  difficult  after  "Ma;'3,  whereas  the  inf.  cstr.  of  HJ  is  a  normal  construc- 
tion foil.  prep..  But  smoother  sense  results  from  the  noun-form  nsca, 
uncleanness  (HWB.^^),  which  it  is  better  to  follow  than  to  posit  the  irr, 
noun  nxpo  (BDB.). — 11.  nn  •\hr\]  An  ace.  designating  the  goal  or 
sphere  of  the  action,  Ko.  ^"O",  cf.  •\vn  'n,  Jb.  29';  ipB'j  'n,  Je.  23'*;  'n 
n£5  n^ypy,  Pr.  6".  There  is  no  need  to  change  the  text  (v.  s.) ;  the  idio- 
matic use  of  '  walk'  as  designating  a  manner  of  life  is  common  enough  to 
justify  M. 

§  5.     The  Return  of  the  Exiles  (2''-  '^). 

A  later  editor,  in  a  single  eight-line  str.,  prevailingly  trimeter  in 
movement,  offsets  the  announcement  of  exile  made  in  §  4  by  a 
promise  of  Israel's  return  from  exile  under  the  protection  and 
leadership  of  Yahweh. 

T  WILL  surely  assemble  Jacob,  all  of  him; 
I  will  surely  gather  the  remnant  of  Israel. 
I  will  put  them  together  like  a  flock  in  the  fold, 
Like  a  herd  in  the  midst  of  the  pasture. 
The  breaker  will  go  forth  before  them; 
They  will  break  through  the  gate  and  go  forth  thereat; 
And  their  king  will  pass  on  before  them; 
Yea,  Yahweh  at  their  head. 

This  arrangement  involves  two  modifications  of  M;  (i)  the  omission 
of  the  last  two  words  of  v.  '^  as  a  gloss,  (2)  the  omission  of  nayi  from  v.  " 
as  a  dittograph  of  -i3>'M  in  the  following  line.  The  str.  shows  a  gradual 
diminution  in  the  length  of  its  lines,  from  tetrameter  through  trimeter  to 
dimeter  (in  the  last  line  only).  Marti  obtains  a  ten-line  str.  by  retaining 
all  of  M  and  beginning  his  eighth  line  with  ly^'  notwithstanding  its  close 
relation  to  the  preceding  vbs.  as  object.  Siev,  secures  four  of  his  indis- 
pensable '  sevens'  by  omitting  rmK-.r  and  the  last  two  words  of  v.  "  and 
supposing  a  loss  of  one  foot  after  nytt*. 

The  difficulty  of  establishing  any  connection  between  these  verses  and 
2'-"  has  long  been  felt.  The  history  of  interpretation  records  various 
treatments.  Among  others,  it  has  been  interpreted  as  a  continuation  of 
the  threatening  language  of  v. '",  i.  e.  "I  will  gather  them  to  destruction, 
etc.";  so  e.  g.  Ki.,  Ephraem  Syrus,  Theodoret,  Grotius,  Tarnovius,  Cal., 
and  in  recent  times  van  H..  Again,  as  the  teaching  of  false  prophets,  either 
spoken  by  Micah  himself,  viz.  'if  I  prophesy  to  this  people  of  wine,  etc., 
and  say  to  them,  "I  will  gather,  etc."  '  (so  e.  g.  AE.,  Mich.,  Struensee); 
or  as  a  marginal  note  by  Micah  or  an  early  reader  representing  the 
contents  of  false  prophecy  (so  e.  g.  Ew.);  or  as  an  interruption  of  Mi- 
cah's  utterance  by  the  false  prophets  themselves  (so  e.  g.  Kl.,  Ro.,  Or.). 
But  against  all  three  alternatives  lies  the  fatal  objection  that  these  verses 


212-13  6; 

presuppose  the  exile  as  a  matter  of  fact — whereas  the  popular  prophets 
never  admitted  the  possibility  of  exile  (c/.  3").  Furthermore,  the  con- 
tent of  the  verses  is  thoroughly  in  keeping  with  the  teachings  of  the  true 
prophets  of  certain  periods  {v.  i.).  Another  supposition  is  that,  though 
belonging  to  Micah,  the  verses  are  out  of  their  original  connection;  so 
c.  ^.  Ry.,  Ko.  £/«/.  327,  Dr.;  Stei.  who  places  them  after  48;  Condamin, 
RB.  1902,  who  makes  them  foil.  4'. 

The  evidence,  however,  seems  convincing  for  the  exilic  or  postexilic 
origin  of  2"-  ".  The  total  lack  of  connection  and  the  presupposition  of 
the  exile  and  the  dispersion;  the  lack  of  any  moral  or  religious  prereq- 
uisites on  Israel's  part  to  the  restoration  of  Yahweh's  favour;  the  use  of 
'remnant'  to  designate  returning  exiles  {cf.  Gie.,  Beitrdge  2.  Jesaia-Krilik, 
37  jr.);  and  the  parall.  in  phraseology  and  conception  to  such  late  pas- 
sages as  Ho.  2^  Is.  II"  3-  5212  je.  318^  all  combine  to  mark  the  passage  as 
late  (so  Sta.  ZAW.  I,  162  /.;  Kue.  Einl.  II,  359  /•;  Cor.  340;  Che.  in 
WRS.  Prop/f.s,  XXIII;  We.;  Now.;  Onmm,  Lit.  App.;  Marti;  Siev.). 
Possibly  these  verses  have  displaced  a  more  severe  ending  for  the  chapter, 
with  which  the  -\cni  of  3»  originally  made  good  connection  (so  Kue.,  Now., 
Grimm). 

12.  iDs.v]  (g  shall  be  gathered,  perhaps  a  free  rendering  (Ry.). — 
3|-,;<]  51  =  ^NTi'\  d^  this  people. — 1^3]  Rd.,  with  We.,  i^;  so  Now., 
Oort"^'"-,  Marti,  Hal.,  Siev.,  Gu.;  cf.  (S  ffiiv  ■Ko.aiv.—M'O^Vii]  ®  adds  as 
obj.,  rT]v  diroaTpo(pT]v  avrou  {cf.  ®'s  similar  addition  with  raps);  hence 
Taylor  would  insert  in>2r. — n-\x3]  Rd.,  with  Wetzstein  (in  De.  Jesaia\ 
705)  mv^3;  so  Now.,  Oort^""-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  HWB.^^;  cf.  IS  in  ovili. 
"Z  Q  iv  dxvp'ilJ-o.rL.  <g  if  dXl^pei  =  ^-^J3  (so  g>);  so  Dathe,  Taylor, 
van  H..  Hal.  miJX  Hpt.  n-^x33.  Against  the  reading  m^xa,  Hpt. 
makes  the  point  that  we  should  hardly  expect  m^s  here,  when  the 
equivalent  form  mv^a  occurs  in  Gn.  25>«  Nu.  3i'o  Ez.  25^  Ps.  69=6  i  Ch. 
639;  but  cf.  the  equivalent  forms  nxo  and  -\i:j. — ^•\2■^n]  Rd.,  with  Ro., 
n3->n,  carrying  1  over  to  foil,  word;  so  Ry.,  SS.,  Elh.,  Pont,  Gu.,  Now., 
Oort'=^"'-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Hpt..  (&  their  lair.  H  caularum.  S  6  t^j 
ip-liy.ov;  hence  Gr.,  Hal.  nann.  Van  H.  lann.— njD^nn]  Rd.  nj\cnni;  so 
We.,  Gr.,  Now.,  Oort^"-,  Marti,  Hal.,  Gu..  (S  they  shall  escape.  §  is 
concealed.  Van  H.  "nji  incnv— ans-c]  Van  H.  d-jnd.— 13.  ins^  ^^>]  <§ 
Std  T^s  StaKOTTTjs  =  \'-}Br\  •?>;. — li'ic]  &  sg..  A  omits  with  remainder  of  the 
verse. — noi'^i]  Om.  as  dittog.  from  foil,  line;  it  is  tautologous  between 
ii'ii3  and  1NSM,  and  likewise  superfluous  in  the  metre. — -i>";']  #  om.. 

12.  Jacob,  all  of  him  .  .  .  the  remnant  of  Israel]  By  these  two 
terms  the  whole  of  the  Hebrew  people  is  embraced,  the  latter 
phrase  probably  referring  to  the  survivors  of  the  northern  kingdom. 
The  exile  and  dispersion  are  here  treated  not  as  possibilities,  but 


68  MICAH 

as  actually  existing  facts.  Passages  like  this  and  4^"*,  written  in 
periods  when  everything  visible  to  the  human  eye  was  fraught  with 
discouragement  and  gloom,  reveal  the  extraordinary  capacity  of  the 
Hebrew  soul  for  faith — faith  in  its  God  and  in  its  destiny.  The 
pronoun  of  the  2d  person,  as  in  M,  must  give  place  to  that  of  the 
3d  person  (v.  s.),  in  view  of  the  parallel  pronouns  of  the  remainder 
of  the  poem.  It  is  impossible  to  find  anything  but  words  of  en- 
couragement and  comfort  here.* — Together  will  I  put  them  like  a 
flock  in  the  fold]  '  Put  together '  is  here  synonymous  with  the  pre- 
ceding 'assemble'  and  'gather.'  It  refers  not  only  to  the  two 
halves  of  the  nation  heretofore  separated  but  also  to  the  more  or 
less  widely  scattered  groups  of  exiles  in  various  lands.  The  'dias- 
pora' began  early,  as  is  demonstrated  by  the  existence  of  a  Jewish 
colony  at  Assuan  on  the  Nile  at  least  as  early  as  550  B.c.t  RV.'s 
sheep  of  Bozrah  yields  no  satisfactory  sense;  nor  is  it  safe  to  render 
*  flock  of  the  fold,'  for  botsrah  does  not  have  the  meaning  *  fold '  else- 
where, cannot  be  assigned  to  any  root  which  yields  such  a  sense, 
and  lacks  the  preposition  '  in '  which  the  parallelism  seems  to  re- 
quire. It  is  therefore  necessary  to  adopt  a  slightly  different  read- 
ing from  M;  V.  s.. — Like  a  herd  in  the  midst  of  the  pasture]  The 
similes  employed  imply  not  merely  the  bringing  together  of  Israel 
from  its  different  places  of  exile,  but  also  the  thought  of  Yahweh's 
protecting  care  after  the  return;  cf.  Ps,  23\ — And  they  will  be 
tumultuous  with  people]  These  two  words  are  a  later  expansion 
as  shown  by  the  looseness  of  their  connection,  by  the  diflaculty  of 
the  grammar,  and  by  their  redundance  in  the  metre. J  The  sub- 
ject apparently  is  the  'fold'  and  the  'pasture.'  For  the  figure  in 
the  Hebrew,  literally  'they  will  roar  on  account  of  men,'  as  des- 
ignating great  masses  of  people,  cf.  Is.  17". — 13.  The  breaker  will 
go  forth  before  them]  The  figure  of  the  flock  and  herd  is  still  re- 
tained, but  the  scene  now  shifts  from  Palestine  as  the  fold  and  pas- 
ture to  the  land  of  exile  as  a  prison.  Thence  will  Yahweh  lead 
them  forth,  going  before  them  like  the  ram  of  the  flock  to  break 
down  every  barrier  and  remove  every  obstacle.    That  Yahweh  is 

*  Contra  van  H.  {v.  s.),  who  finds  it  necessary  to  eliminate  lines  i,  2  and  8  as  glosses  made  by 
one  who  misunderstood  the  tenor  of  the  passage, 
t  V.  JMPS.  in  Biblical  World,  XXXI  (iqo8),  448  fi.. 
X  So  also  Sicv.,  though  working  upon  a  diflcrcnt  metrical  basis. 


2''-'^  69 

the  '  breaker '  is  shown  by  the  parallel  terms  in  lines  7  and  8,  which 
seem  fatal  objections  to  any  attempt  to  identify  the  '  breaker '  with 
some  particular  part  of  the  Israelitish  army  after  the  analogy  of 
I  S.  13^^  Ju.  20^^  ^-  Jos.  (p-  ^-  ^^.*  The  same  verb  is  used  to  describe 
Yahweh's  activity  in  Ex.  19"-  '^  2  S.  5-°  i  Ch.  14"  Ps.  80'^. — They 
will  break  through  the  gate  and  go  forth  thereat]  The  words  'and 
pass  on'  which  iU  presents  immediately  after  'break  through' 
are  redundant  and  render  the  following  'go  forth'  belated  and 
superfluous.  Furthermore,  the  rendering  'pass  on  to  the  gate' 
(so  RV.)  leaves  the  preceding  verb  without  an  object,  while  the 
sense  'pass  through'  is  difficult  without  a  preposition.  When  to 
these  diflSculties  is  added  the  metrical  redundance,  it  seems  nec- 
essary to  relegate  the  phrase  to  the  margin. — And  their  king  will 
pass  on  before  them,  Yea — Yahweh  at  their  head]  The  'king'  and 
Yahweh  are  here  identical,  as  in  Je.  22^  Zp.  3^^  Is.  33^^  41^^  43^^  44** 
Ps.  89*^.  To  interpret  'king'  as  designating  the  Messianic  ruler 
or  the  exiled  monarch  would  involve  a  double  headship  and  leader- 
ship of  the  returning  procession  such  as  finds  no  parallel  elsewhere 
in  the  Old  Testament.  For  other  pictures  of  similar  tone,  cf.  Je. 
31"  ^-  Is.  40^  ^-  52^-. 

12.  I'-'z]  For  this  use  of  S3,  cf.  on  i'. — niix'^:']  Found  prior  to  Isaiah 
and  Micah  only  in  Gn.  45'  (E),  2  S.  14'  Am.  i^  s'',  i.  e.  twice  in  the  sense 
of  posterity,  once  of  the  few  surviving  Philistines,  and  once  of  decimated 
Israel.  Isaiah  is  the  first  to  introduce  the  thought  of  a  holy  remnant  and 
to  apply  it  to  returning  exiles;  cf.  Meinhold,  Der  heilige  Rest  (1903). — 
mi-3]  Ordinarily  taken  as  from  1x2,  be  inaccessible  (common  to  Heb. 
and  Ar.)  and  given  the  meaning  fold;  v.  s..  The  reading  nnxa  is 
supported  in  part  by  (5  S*  and  furnishes  a  good  parallel  to  nina.  The 
noun  r\yis  is  a  by-form  of  nn'^a,  corresponding  to  the  Ar.  stra,  and 
applied  in  Heb.,  Ar.  and  Syr.  to  the  low  stone  wall  surrounding  an 
encampment,  or  to  the  encampment  itself,  or  to  a  sheepfold  similarly 
protected. — main]  For  other  cases  of  art.  with  sf.,  cf.  Ges.  ^'"';  Ko. 
§  »03e. — njn>nn]  M  derives  this  from  Din,  but  the  existence  of  the  Hiph. 
of  this  vb.  is  doubtful;  the  derivation  from  ncn  (v.  s.)  is  better.  The 
fem.  pi.  because  the  subjects  n-i>s  and  i3t  represent  ^/mm^5. — 13.  rh-;] 
Proph.  pf.;  often  used  of  return  from  exile,  e.  g.  Ho.  i"  2'^  Is.  ii'*; 
cf.  Na.  2'. — iNv]  On  proph.  pf.  continued  by  waw  consec.  with  impf., 
cf  K6.  ^  »';  Dr.  ^ «'. 

*  Contra  Dr.  Exp.  18S7,  pp.  259  /.. 


7©  MICAH 


§  6.     Denunciation  of  the  Leaders  and  Prophets  (3*'*). 

Of  the  seven  four-line  strs.  constituting  this  poem,  three  are 
devoted  to  the  secular  leaders,  three  to  the  reUgious,  and  the  last 
to  Micah  himself. 

Str.  I  charges  the  leaders  of  Israel  with  having  perverted  their 
calling — they  who  should  love  and  honour  justice  are  devoted  to 
the  pursuit  of  wickedness.  Str.  II  in  highly  figurative  language 
pictures  their  oppression  of  the  poor  and  helpless.  Str.  Ill  an- 
nounces a  day  of  disaster  when  these  leaders  will  reap  the  due  re- 
ward of  their  deeds  and  find  that  Yahweh  turns  a  deaf  ear  to  their 
cry  for  help  in  their  distress.  Str.  IV  turns  the  charge  against  the 
prophets  of  the  day  who  being  actuated  by  mercenary  motives  are 
leadmg  Israel  astray.  Str.  V,  imder  the  figure  of  an  eclipse,  de- 
clares the  time  to  be  at  hand  when  the  impotence  of  these  prophets 
will  become  manifest — prophets  without  vision.  Str.  VI  describes 
the  shame  and  confusion  that  will  overwhelm  them  when  they 
discover  that  God  heeds  not  their  cry.  Str.  VII  sets  forth,  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  powerlessness  just  described,  Micah's  conscious- 
ness of  his  own  authority  and  power  to  denounce  the  sins  of  Israel. 

I-JEAR  now,  ye  heads  of  Jacob, 

And  rulers  of  the  house  of  Israel: 

Is  it  not  yours  to  know  justice, 

Ye  who  hate  good  and  love  evil? 
■QUT  they  eat  the  flesh  of  my  people. 

And  their  skin  from  upon  them  they  strip  off; 

And  their  bones  they  lay  bare  and  break  them  up. 

Like  meat  in  the  pot,  and  flesh  within  the  caldron. 
'FHEN  will  they  cry  unto  Yahweh, 

And  he  will  not  answer  them; 

But  will  hide  his  face  from  them. 

Inasmuch  as  they  have  made  their  deeds  evil. 

[Thus  has  Yahweh  said:] 
(CONCERNING  the  prophets  who  lead  my  people  astray, 

Who  when  they  bite  with  their  teeth  preach  peace; 

But  as  for  him  who  puts  not  into  their  mouths — 

Against  him  they  declare  war. 
T^HEREFORE,  it  will  be  night  for  you  without  vision, 

And  darkness  for  you  without  divination. 

Yea,  the  sun  will  set  upon  those  prophets. 

And  the  day  will  become  dark  over  them. 


3"'  71 

A  ND  the  seers  will  be  ashamed. 

And  the  diviners  will  blush. 

And  they  will  cover  the  upper  lip,  all  of  them, 

Because  there  is  no  answer  from  God. 
"RUT  I,  indeed,  am  full  of  power, 

And  justice  and  strength. 

To  declare  to  Jacob  his  transgression, 

And  to  Israel  his  sin. 

The  symmetry  of  the  poem  is  apparent.  In  both  groups  of  three  strs. 
each,  the  opening  str.  contains  the  address  and  the  general  charge,  the 
2d  str.  presents  a  series  of  bold  figures,  and  the  closing  str.  declares  the 
same  climax — Yahweh's  refusal  to  hear  the  cry  of  the  wicked.  Further- 
more, Strs.  Ill  and  VI  alike  are  made  up  of  short  trenchant  lines,  an- 
nouncements of  doom  which  fall  like  the  blows  of  a  sledge-hammer. 
This  arrangement  presupposes  the  omission  of  v.  '*>•  "  as  a  variant  of  v. ' 
(so  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Gu.;  cf.  Lohr,  ZDMG.  LXI,  3-6);  the  treatment 
of  N^nn  nj;3  in  v.  ■"'  as  a  repetition  of  tn  in  v.  ■*»  (so  Marti,  Siev.);  the 
excision  of  nim  nn  nx  from  v. '  as  a  gloss  (so  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev., 
Gu.,  Du.) ;  and  the  exclusion  of  the  introductory  formulas  in  w.  '-^  as 
extraneous  to  the  poetic  form. 

Lohr  and  Siev.  agree  in  excluding  w.  ^-^  from  this  piece  and  including 
w.  '-'2,  but  this  fails  to  do  justice  to  the  symmetrical  relations  between 
w.  '■<  and  5-8  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  logical  and  formal  independence 
of  w.  '-"  on  the  other.  Furthermore,  their  metrical  arrangement  (Lohr, 
4+3  +  3;  Siev.  7  +  3)  takes  too  great  liberties  with  the  text,  removing  no 
less  than  twenty-five  words  from  the  M  of  w.  '-8,  i.  e.  nearly  one-fourth 
of  the  material,  and  adding  two  words  at  the  opening  of  v.  ^ 

1.  iCNi]  (&fb  =  iCNi;  We.,  Marti,  Gu.,  Hpt.  om.  as  gloss;  sot,  un- 
less in  tempore  at  the  close  of  2''  represents  it. — .sj-iycii']  (g  ®  add 
nxi,  as  in  v.  '. — apy]  (^fb"^  and  12  codd.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.,  ''  no, 
as  in  v. ';  so  Hal.. — ■"J'Sp]  (5  ol  /caraXonroi;  so  also  in  v. '. — 2.  njj-i]  Rd. 
pn,  with  Qr.. — aiiy]  Gr.  \pjj  -\iy. — oniSpo]  Hal.  oipn>  Sy.D. — omnxy]  Hal. 
pudSn. — 3.  -iC'Ni]  C§>  tv  rpb-irov.  &  3J  om.  1.  Taylor,  •^nc'-i. — ani'?yc] 
(S'^-Q  iirh  Twp  6<TTio3v  avrQv. — icnsi]  <S  Kal  ifj.4\i(Tap;  so  TJ.  &  they 
throw  into. — na'so]  Rd.  "iN"f  ?,  with  d  ws  crd/j/cas;  so  Doderlein,  Dathe, 
Bauer,  Jus.,  Ro.,  Stek.,  Taylor,  Elh.,  We.,  Pont,  Gr.,  Gu.,  Now., 
Oort^™-,  Marti,  Lohr,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Du.,  Hpt..  Now.,  slavishly  foil, 
by  Marti,  cites  ^  in  support  of  this  reading,  but  &  reproduces  M  liter- 
ally. Hal.  "iNB'p. — i.  tn]  C5  oCrwj.  Lohr  om.  as  gloss,  but  inserts 
here,  partly  from  v. »  nn^B?  -itfjoy,  cf.  Siev.. — iro^i]  Marti,  ipp'.i. — irto] 
d  avd^  &v;  so  &. — 'ui  v;-\ri]  (g  freely,  they  have  dealt  wickedly  in  their 
practices  against  themselves;  similarly  B. — 5.  i^'-ipi]  ^  jjyeipav,  a  free 
rendering,  corrected  by  several  codd.  to  ijylaaav. — v^y]  Siev.  om.  metri 
causa,  as  in  M  after  iNip,  where  d  adds  it. — 6.  nS^S  p'^J  We.  and  Now. 


72  MICAH 

insert  r\^nY,  cf.  (6. — njirni]  Rd.,  with  Hartmann,  n3i?m;  so  Ry.,  Or., 
Taylor,  SS.,  Elh.,  We.,  Pont,  Gr.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  van  H.,  Hpt.,  Du.. 
Gu.,  Itt'ni.  &  treats  as  a  verbal  form. — aopc]  HWB.'\  Marti,  Hpt.,  Du., 
oppp  for  sake  of  parallelism  with  prn ;  but  the  rhyme  supports  ffl. — 7 .  loyi 
DD!f  S;']  <S  /cai  /caTaXa\7j(ro«;(ri»'  /car'  aiiTuiv,  not  a  free  rendering  (contra  Tay- 
lor), but  a  mere  guess.  Cf.  Schnurrer,  \'ol.,  Ry..  In  Ez.  24"-  «  where 
this  phrase  occurs,  (5  renders ';'  by  TrapaKaX^w;  in  Lv.  13",  by  7reptj3aX^tr- 
6(0.  Stek.  therefore  suggests  that  (6  derived  it  from  to'ji ;  but  where  tJ^j?  does 
appear  in  UJ,  <&  failed  to  recognise  it,  rendering  it  by  K\ivu  in  i  S.  14" 
25'*,  by  iopfi7](Tas  ToO  dicrdai  in  i  S.  15",  and  by  5iafxa(ra.(r0aL  in  BS.  34". 
&  renders  'r  as  if  from  r\!:t\  lip. — nj>'c]  Some  Heb  codd.  n.:.g^;  soQ5&. 
— DinS.s]  (5  oiJtwi'  =  Dri'i'i^N;  &  =  dhiSn  D''n'^N. — 8.  dSini]  (6  ^av  m^?  = 
<ViN.  0  iKuMdr).  Several  codd.  of  (S  read  dXXA  /jl-^v  =  M. — "TnSc]  (S 
ifiirX'^aw;  some  codd.  ivewXi^ffdriv. — nin>  nn  rx  nr]  Om.  as  gloss,''  'i  tn, 
with  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Du.,  Hpt..  Gie.  Berufsbegabung,  123, 
om.  HN  na.  Oort^""/'  nnj  nj. — mnji  oeirci]  A  om.;  so  cod.  Reuch. 
of  21;  so  Taylor,  Pont,  Siev..  Chrysostom  om.  bqb'CI. — '?{<i»''''?i]  Two 
mss.  of  (S  =  'b-i  n''3'?i. 

Str.  I  charges  the  rulers  of  Israel  with  having  grossly  betrayed 
the  trust  reposed  in  them, — the  guardians  of  justice  have  become 
abettors  of  and  participants  in  crime. — 1.  But  I  said]  No  satis- 
factory connection  of  this  phrase  with  anything  preceding  can  be 
found.  After  the  removal  of  the  interpolation  2"-  ^^,  with  which 
it  has  no  point  of  contact,  and  of  2"  {v.  s.),  connection  might  be 
made  with  2^°  by  rendering,  '  Furthermore,  I  said ' ;  but  a  particle 
would  be  expected  to  express  such  an  idea,  and  it  presupposes  a 
close  integration  of  thought  between  2*°  and  3*  ^-  which  does  not 
exist.  Rather  does  a  new  theme  present  itself  in  ch.  3.  It  may  be 
that  some  connecting  link  between  2^"  and  3*  has  been  lost ;  other- 
wise, this  phrase  must  be  regarded  as  an  obscure  marginal  note. — 
Heads  of  Jacob  and  rulers  of  the  house  of  Israel]  The  identical 
terminology  in  v.  ®,  with  the  specifications  in  v.  *",  makes  it  clear 
that  the  address  both  here  and  there  is  to  the  officials  of  Judah  in 
general  and  Jerusalem  in  particular. — Know  justice]  Cf.  Am.  3*". 
The  knowledge  required  is  not  mere  intellectual  appreciation  of 
the  principles  of  justice,  but  a  practical  understanding  of  its  obliga- 
tions and  a  sympathy  with  its  aims  which  will  lead  to  a  righteous 
administration  of  law. — 2.  Ye  who  hate  good,  etc.]  Their  con- 
duct is,  for  Micah,  susceptible  of  no  other  explanation. — Ye  wJw 


3'"*  73 

pluck  their  skin  from  upon  them  and  their  flesh  from  upon  their 
hones]  A  gloss  as  is  shown  by  the  lack  of  any  antecedents  for  the 
pronouns,  and  by  its  substantial  identity  of  contents  with  v.  ^. 

Str.  II  is  marked  by  the  transfer  to  the  3d  person  from  the  2d 
person  of  direct  address  in  Str.  I,  and  by  the  contrast  the  picture  of 
the  actual  conduct  of  the  rulers  affords  to  the  ideal  suggested  for 
them  in  Str.  1,-3.  But  they  eat  the  flesh  of  my  people]  The  people 
are  in  Micah's  eyes  like  a  defenceless  flock  at  the  mercy  of  wild 
beasts;  the  watch-dogs  who  should  protect  the  flock  have  pounced 
upon  them  like  ravening  wolves.  Micah's  passionate  sympathy 
with  his  countrymen  is  reflected  in  the  pronoun  "my." — And  their 
skin  from  upon  them  they  strip  off  and  lay  hare  their  hones]  The 
figures  here  employed  suggest  the  violence  and  lawlessness  of  the 
processes  whereby  the  very  life  was  crushed  out  of  the  small  land- 
owners.— And  hreak  them  up  like  meat  in  the  pot  and  flesh  within 
the  caldron]  These  words  are  omitted  by  some  scholars  as  an  edi- 
torial expansion  of  the  preceding  figure.*  Similes  or  compar- 
isons are  not  common  in  Mi.  1-3,  it  is  true,  though  they  are  not 
wholly  lacking  (i^-  ^^  3^);  nor  is  the  adjustment  to  the  metre  here 
the  most  easy;  while  the  verbs  ' lay  bare'  and  'break'  have  different 
objects,  the  latter  referring  to  the  fellow-citizens  of  Micah.  But 
all  this  is  not  conclusive  of  secondary  origin.  Micah,  quite  as  well 
as  a  later  reader,  could  carry  his  figure  through  to  the  very  end. 
The  devastation  of  the  poor  is  total  and  irreparable. f 

Str.  Ill  announces  the  coming  of  a  day  when  Yahweh  vidll  ig- 
nore the  cry  of  these  oppressors  now  brought  low,  because  they 
have  ignored  his  call  to  righteousness  and  justice. — 4.  Then  will 
they  cry]  A  reference  to  the  coming  judgment  spoken  of  in  2^-  ■*•  ^°; 
cf.  the  similar  use  of  'now'  as  =  'then'  in  Am.  (f  Ho.  "P. — And  he 
will  not  answer  them]  For  the  converse  of  this  attitude,  cf.  Ps. 
34^^. — But  will  hide  his  face  from  them]  That  he  may  not  be 
moved  to  pity  by  the  sight  of  their  distress.     A  common  figure  for 

*  So  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Lohr,  Siev.,  Gu.. 

t  If  the  language  of  Micah  be  thought  stronger  than  the  facts  warranted,  attention  need 
only  be  called  to  the  atrocities  perpetrated  upon  the  peasants  of  Germany  in  a  supposedly  more 
civilised  age,  which  resulted  in  the  outbreak  of  the  Peasants'  War ;  and  that  too  with  the  sup- 
port of  the  laws.  See  Schaff,  History  oj  the  Christian  Church,  VI,  440  ff.;  Newman,  Manual  of 
Church  History,  II,  69  if.;  Zimmermann,  Allgemeine  Geschichte  des  grossen  Bauernkriegs 
Ci8S4)- 


74  MICAH 

the  divine  displeasure;  cj.  Is.  i'=  8'^  Dt.  31"-  *^  32^°  Jb.  13^^  Ps.  i3\ 
— At  that  time]  A  gloss,  as  shown  by  the  metre,*  intended  to  define 
more  closely  the  application  of  'then'  in  line  i;  cJ.  2'. — Inasmuch 
as  they  have  made  their  deeds  evil]  A  pregnant  use  of  "iti'tO,  im- 
plying a  comparison;  the  wicked  conduct  of  the  rich  is  clear 
evidence  that  they  have  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  call  of  Yahweh 
through  his  prophets;  Yahweh  now  treats  them  in  like  manner. f 
Str.  IV  turns  to  another  class  of  offenders,  the  popular  prophets, 
whom  Micah  charges  with  base  subservience  to  selfish  ends. — 5. 
Thus  has  Yahweh  said]  This  phrase,  stating  the  divine  authority 
of  the  message  about  to  be  uttered,  lies  outside  of  the  movement 
of  the  poem;  cf.  Am.  i^^  2*°''  3'^^  4^  8**^. — Concerning  the  prophets 
who  lead  my  people  astray]  The  prophets  here  denounced  are  the 
members  of  the  prophetic  guilds  (see  H.'^^,  xlix-lviii),  the  best 
of  whom  were  victims  of  a  too  narrow  patriotism  and  a  low  idea 
of  God.  Micah,  with  the  undiscriminating  passion  of  indigna- 
tion, treats  them  all  alike  as  swayed  by  unworthy  motives.  The 
cleft  between  the  lower  and  the  higher  types  of  prophecy  began  at 
least  as  early  as  the  days  of  Micaiah  ben  Imlah  (i  K.  22)  and  grew 
wider  with  each  succeeding  generation;  cf.  3"  Am.  7'^  Is.  9^^  Je.  28. 
But  the  true  prophet,  in  the  face  of  opposition  and  isolation,  re- 
mained certain  that  he  only  was  the  interpreter  of  the  will  of  God. 
— Who  when  they  bite  with  their  teeth  preach  peace]  Not  in  the 
sense  that  they  hypocritically  proclaim  prosperity  though  con- 
scious that  they  are  all  the  time  injuring  the  people; J  but,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  lines,  that  their  good  will  is  conditioned 
upon  their  being  well  fed.§  For  a  later  estimate  of  the  value  and 
authenticity  of  prophecies  of  prosperity,  see  Je.  28^-  °. — But  if  one 
puts  not  into  their  mouths  they  declare  war  against  him]  It  seems 
less  likely  that  prediction  of  national  war  is  meant  by  this,**  than 
that  these  mercenary  prophets  levy  a  tyrannical  species  of  black- 
mail upon  their  constituents.     The  man  who  will  not  contribute 

♦  So  Marti,  Now.^,  L6hr,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.;  so  also  in  Am.  s" 

t  Gu.  suspects  this  clause  to  be  a  later  addition;  but  the  only  ground  urged  is  its  prosaic 
character.     May  not  a  prophet  descend  to  prose  occasionally  ?    Homer  sometimes  nods. 

X  So  Casp.. 

§  For  a  similar  indignant  charge  made  by  the  Greek  tragic  poets  against  venal  soothsayers, 
V.  Sophocles,  Antigone,  1036;  iiischylus,  Agamemnon,  1168.  ♦*  We.,  Van  H.. 


3"'  75 

to  their  support  is  subjected  to  slander  and  abuse  of  various 
kinds.  They  represent  it  to  be  Yahweh's  will  that  such  men  be 
treated  as  his  enemies.  The  verb  rendered  'declare'  literally 
means  ' sanctif),'  ' consecrate,'  and  has  reference  to  the  religious 
ceremonies  always  associated  with  the  actual  commencement  of 
hostilities;  cf.  i  S.  13^-^2  Je.  6*  Is.  13^  Jo.  4^  Dt.  2ol*  Prophets 
who  thus  brought  their  high  calling  into  disgrace  for  the  further- 
ance of  their  own  selfish  ends  seem  never  to  have  been  lacking, 
from  the  earliest  times  {cj.  Am.  f^)  even  down  to  the  days  of  the 
early  Christian  church. f 

Str.  V,  under  the  figure  of  an  eclipse,  represents  the  spiritual 
darkness  into  which  the  prophets  will  be  plunged  on  the  approach- 
ing day  of  doom  which  they  have  been  preparing  for  themselves. 
— 6.  Therefore,  it  will  be  night  for  you  without  vision]  This  is 
not  merely  a  figurative  way  of  saying  that  the  power  of  prophetic 
insight  and  foresight  will  soon  be  withdrawn  from  those  who  have 
abused  such  gifts,  but  rather  a  description  of  the  great  day  of  Yah- 
weh  {cf.  Am.  5*^),  which  awaits  the  whole  nation.  The  sins  of  the 
leaders  involve  the  entire  people  in  suffering.  The  calamities  of 
that  day  will  stagger  the  shallow  optimism  of  the  prophets  who 
would  heal  Israel's  wounds  lightly.  They  will  have  no  message 
for  such  times. — And  darkness  for  you  without  divination]  The 
verb  '  to  divine '  is  never  used  of  legitimate  prophetic  activity,  but 
always  of  the  arts  of  magic,  soothsaying,  necromancy,  and  the 
like. — Yea,  the  sun  will  set,  etc.]  The  second  half  of  the  str.  re- 
peats and  so  emphasises  the  thought  of  the  first  half. 

Str.  VI  describes  the  shame  and  confusion  that  will  enshroud 
the  pseudo-prophets  when  in  the  light  of  the  events  of  the  day  of 
Yahweh  their  prophecies  are  seen  to  be  lies  and  they  find  themselves 
utterly  unable  to  read  the  will  of  God. — 7.  And  the  seers  will  he 
ashamed,  and  the  diviners  will  blush]  The  terms  'seer'  and  'di- 
viner' are  suggested  by  the  opening  lines  of  Str.  V. — And  they  will 

*  V.  Schwally,  F.,  Semitische  Kriegsalterliimer,  I.     Der  heilige  Krieg  im  alien  Israel  (igoi). 

t  Cj.  Didache,  XI,  3-6: — "  Now  concerning  apostles  and  prophets  and  the  teaching  of  the 
gospel,  so  do  ye:  every  apostle  that  comes  to  you,  receive  him  as  the  Lord.  But  he  shall  re- 
main only  one  day;  if  there  be  need,  however,  a  second  also.  But  if  he  remain  three  days,  he  is 
a  false  prophet.  And  when  a  prophet  sets  forth,  let  him  take  nothing  except  bread  until  he 
may  find  a  lodging;  if  he  ask  for  money,  he  is  a  false  prophet." 


76  MICAH 

cover  the  upper  lip,  all  of  them]  A  common  sign  of  mourning;  cf. 
Ez.  24"-  ""•  Lv.  13^^.  The  origin  of  this  veiling  of  the  lip  and 
mouth  in  mourning  is  variously  explained;  by  some,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  an  older  custom  of  shaving  off  the  beard  as  a  hair-offering 
to  the  departed  spirit;  by  others,  as  a  method  of  disguise  adopted  to 
protect  the  surv'ivors  from  recognition  and  injury  at  the  hands  of 
the  departed ;  by  others,  as  a  method  cf  blocking  the  mouth  against 
the  entrance  of  malicious  spirits;  by  still  others,  as  a  device  to  dis- 
courage conversation  so  that  the  mourner  might  be  undisturbed  in 
his  grief.  Its  original  significance,  however,  had  probably  long 
been  forgotten  by  Micah's  day. — Because  there  is  no  answer  from 
God\  Not  that  all  this  has  come  about  because  their  oracles  had 
been  of  their  own  concoction,  and  not  of  divine  origin  ;*  but  rather 
that  in  the  approaching  day,  Yahweh  will  refuse  to  reveal  his  will 
to  them. 

In  Str.  VII  Micah  unhesitatingly  declares  his  consciousness  of 
possessing  the  indispensable  equipment  for  the  prophetic  office 
which  his  opponents  lack;  hence  his  message  is  of  a  totally  differ- 
ent character  from  theirs. — 8.  But  I,  indeed,  am  J  till  of  power]  In 
contrast  with  the  vacillating  pseudo-prophets  who  are  swayed  to 
and  fro  by  every  wave  of  public  opinion,  the  true  prophet  forges 
straight  ahead  in  the  line  of  Yahweh's  will  which  often  compels  him 
to  defy  the  popular  will.  Micah  knows  he  has  strength  sufficient 
for  all  his  needs. — The  spirit  of  Yahweh]  A  prosaic  gloss  by  some 
editor  who  deemed  it  necessary  to  indicate  the  source  of  Micah's 
power.  Its  extraneous  character  is  showTi  by  the  fact  that  it  alone 
of  the  four  attributes  is  accompanied  by  riK,  by  its  unnatural  posi- 
tion in  the  series  of  four,  and  by  its  violation  of  the  metrical  move- 
ment.— And  justice  and  strength]  The  time-ser\'ing  prophets  are 
filled  with  and  inspired  by  the  people's  gifts;  Micah's  inspiration 
and  satisfaction  come  from  his  God-given  sense  of  right  and  his 
energy  in  the  enforcement  of  righteousness  upon  his  contempo- 
raries.— To  declare  to  Jacob  his  transgression  and  to  Israel  his  sin] 
This  was  the  task  to  which  Micah  and  all  true  prophets  felt  them- 
selves called,  to  denounce  and  expose  sin  and  to  hold  up  in  con- 
trast with  it  higher  conceptions  of  God  and  duty. — This  str.  fur- 

*  So  Ro.,  Ry.. 


3"^  77 

nishes  a  hint  as  to  the  psychology  of  prophecy.  The  truths  enun- 
ciated by  the  prophet  were  not  things  imposed  upon  him  from  with- 
out, but  the  choicest  possessions  of  his  own  inner  spirit,  the  product 
of  his  own  divinely  illuminated  experience,  observation,  and  medi- 
tation upon  the  practical  problems  of  life. 

1.  Obligatory  idea  lies  in  odS  NiSn]  Ko.  ^s""*;  not  in  nyi'?]  Ges. 
km  ij  Dr.  ^so^n.  On  force  of  the  rhetorical  question,  cf.  Ges. ^i^"  ^ — 
2 .  ri-;-\]  Qr.  ;;t  is  supported  by  the  balance  it  furnishes  for  the  monosyl. 
3VJ,  and  the  fact  that  3it3  and  >'i  accompany  each  other  just  as  regularly 
as  njia  and  nyi;  v.  Ps.  52^  38"  35'=  Pr.  163"  Nu.  24". — 3.  inxs]  air;  not 

from    A.^i,  to   break  (so   BDB.  and   HWB.^^),  but  from  >^»~»ii, 

to  lay  bare  (so  Bevan,  cited  by  Marti),  ordinarily  used  in  Ar.  to  denote 
the  exposure  of  vices  or  faults;  v.  Lane,  Lex.  2410. — urnsi]  =  and  spread 
out,  which  does  not  suit  the  following  similes;  it  is  better  taken  as  a  by- 
form  of  DID,  used  in  Qal  of  the  breaking  of  bread  and  in  Hiph.  of  the 
dividing  of  the  hoofs  of  animals;  cf.  No.  ZA.  I,  417/..  The  sequence  of 
tenses  here  demands  'fl»i. — isoj]  On  absence  of  article,  cf.  Ko.  5"''. — 
nnSp]  Only  here  and  i  S.  2 ",  but  context  in  both  cases  renders  its  gen- 
eral sense  quite  clear;  cf.  Lagarde,  Ubersicht,  88;  Erman,  ZDMG.  XLVI, 
121. — 4.  inD^i]  The  jussive,  as  in  M,  is  without  any  of  its  characteristic 
force  here;  it  is  most  easily  accounted  for  as  a  case  of  defective  writing 
of  the  normal  indicative  form,  Dr.  ^  >'<;  but  cf.  Ko.  5  isad^  which  attrib- 
utes e  to  "the  vowel-oppressing  influence  of  the  consonantal  environ- 
ment"; Ges.  ^  ""  '',  which  expldins  forms  of  this  kind  as  often  caused  by 
necessities  of  rhythm;  and  Hpt.  who  calls  it  an  Aramaicism. — -ib'xd]  For 
similar  usage,  c/.  Ju.  6"  i  S.  28'8Nu.  27K2K.  i7««;  v.Ko.^^^e—Q,  a^'OB'jn] 
Serving  as  the  protasis  of  a  condition,  Ges.  ^  "«  ^. — 6.  npirni]  On  3d  pers. 
sg.  fem.,  as  in  M,  used  for  natural  phenomena,  c/".  Ges.  5i44t;  Ko.  "^szak. 
But  the  parallelism  demands  a  noun. — 7.  ddij*]  Lit.  =  mustache;  cf.  2 
S.  19"  {(g  /xvcrra^);  on  root,  cf.  Barth,  ZDMG.  XLI,  633  and  Jensen, 
ZA.  VII,  218. — 8.  mn>  nn  m]  On  function  of  pn  here,  cf.  Ko.  ^  ^sso^ 
The  'thing  with  which'  is  usually  found  in  the  ace.  after  nSc,  when 
used  in  the  Qal,  and  without  the  sign  of  the  ace.  even  when  the  noun  is 
defined;  e.  g.  Dt.  34'  Jb.  20";  but  cases  with  pn,  as  here,  are  not  wanting, 
e.  g.  Ex.  8"  Ez.  io<.  Less  likely  does  pn  have  prepositional  force  'with,' 
'by,'  'through,'  as  perhaps  in  Gn.  4'. 


78  MICAH 


§  7.     The  Doom  of  Israel  (3"-'=^. 

This  is  the  climax  of  Micah's  utterances.  He  here  groups  to- 
gether the  three  leading  classes  in  Judah,  the  princes,  priests  and 
prophets,  and  lays  upon  them  the  full  responsibility  for  the  ap- 
proaching downfall  of  the  capital  city  which  he  foretells. 

Str.  I  repeats  the  address  and  the  charge  with  which  the  preced- 
ing oracle  opened,  but  adds  to  them  a  further  specific  accusation 
to  the  effect  that  Judah's  rulers  have  tried  to  establish  the  prosper- 
ity of  Jerusalem  upon  the  basis  of  oppression  and  murder.  Str. 
II  declares  that  princes,  priests  and  prophets  alike  have  all  used 
their  oflBces  for  their  own  enrichment  through  the  encouragement 
of  bribery  and  fraud,  and  exposes  the  fallacy  and  fatuity  of  their 
reliance  upon  the  favour  of  Yahweh  for  protection  from  all  harm. 
Str.  Ill  pronounces  sentence :  because  of  their  evil  deeds  Jerusalem 
will  be  totally  destroyed  and  become  a  waste  and  desolation. 

tJEAR  this,  now,  ye  heads  of  the  house  of  Jacob, 

And  rulers  of  the  house  of  Israel; 

Who  abhor  justice, 

And  pervert  all  that  is  right; 

Who  build  Zion  with  blood. 

And  Jerusalem  with  iniquity. 
XJER  chiefs  judge  for  a  bribe, 

And  her  priests  give  oracles  for  hire. 

And  her  prophets  divine  for  money; 

Yet  upon  Yahweh  they  lean,  saying, 

"Is  not  Yahweh  in  the  midst  of  us? 

No  evil  can  befall  us." 
'THEREFORE,  on  account  of  you, 

Zion  will  be  ploughed  as  a  field. 

And  Jerusalem  will  become  ruins. 

And  the  mountain  of  the  house  a  high-place  in  a  forest. 

This  is  the  first  departure  in  the  genuine  material  of  Micah  from  the 
norm  of  the  four-line  str..  Du.  {EB.  3800)  and  Marti  organise  such  strs. 
here;  but  to  do  so  is  to  violate  the  logical  connection.  'J3  of  v.  '"  is  a 
continuation  of  the  direct  address  employed  in  v. ',  while  v  "  passes  over 
into  the  3d  pers..  The  three  classes  mentioned  in  v.  "  belong  together 
in  one  str.,  being  all  charged  with  the  same  crime;  princes,  priests  and 
prophets  form  the  great  triumvirate  of  transgressors  from  which  the 
prophets  may  not  be  segregated.     Lohr  and  Siev.  in  their  attempts  to 


39-12  ^9 

carry  through  a4+3  +  3or7  +  3  movement  do  great  violence  to  the  text. 
Both  omit  lines  1-3  of  Str.  II,  simply  because  of  the  3  +  3  +  3  movement 
there  found  (so  also  Gu.,  who  urges  the  change  of  person  as  interrupting 
connection  between  v.  ■"  and  v.  "•^);  likewise  t^S  from  the  opening  of 
Str.  III.  Not  only  so  but  Lohr  finds  it  necessary  to  invent  an  additional 
word  in  each  of  three  lines  in  w.  '• '"  for  the  sake  of  the  metre,  while  Siev. 
accomplishes  the  same  end  by  repeating  "  after  »^  and  transposing  '<* 
to  follow  •<"'.  All  this  seems  arbitrary  and  superfluous  in  a  text  that 
reads  as  smoothly  as  M  does  here. 

9 .  PNt]  Om.  by  Marti,  Lohr,  Siev.,  Hpt.,  Du.;  cf.  v.  K — n^a]  Om.  by  We., 

Marti,  Lohr.,  Siev.,  Du.,Hpt.;  c/.v.i.—'s 3pr]  Interchanged  by 

(gA__,j,xp,]  d  as  in  v.  1.— m-^-n]  (g  &  IJ  ul  pi..— 10.  nj^]  Rd.  \J3,  with 
eg  ol  oiKodofiovvTe^;  so  &  B  ®  and  We.,  Gr.,  Oort^™-,  Now.,  Du.,  Alarti, 
Hal.,  Lohr,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Gu..— 11.  nnr]  <S  TS  pi..— nv]  Aq.  9  i<pdiTi- 
fov,  probably  connecting  it  with  iin.  (I  direKplvovro. — 12 ,  mt']  Oort^™- 
ma's. — pn*]  Rd.  D"}',  as  in  Je.  26'8;  so  8  codd.  of  Kenn.  and  4  of  de 
R.,We.,Now.,Marti,Hal.,Siev.,Gu.,Hpt.,Du..— ^o]llieOT/>/i;c/■.3.— 
^1D3S]  Rd.  nca*:,  with  2  els  vfos  and  9  etj  ^ovv6v;  so  We.,  Now.,  Oort^"-, 
Du.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Gu..  (^  has  ei's  dXa-os,  a  grove  (so  also  in  Je.  26"; 
elsewhere  it  represents  mew);  cf.  #  j-^i^^  h  .  n\ ,  a  wooded  region, 
which  does  not  necessarily  presuppose  a  reading  no,  but  is  better  ex- 
plained as  due  to  the  influence  of  <$.  The  use  of  the  sg.  in  (5  is  not 
conclusive  in  itself,  since  (6's  renderings  of  nca  are  so  varied  in  charac- 
ter (at  least  thirteen  different  ones  in  the  OT.)  and  relatively  heedless 
of  number;  cf.  e.  g.  1  Ch.  21"  Dt.  32'3  Nu.  22"  Is.  14'*  15^  1612  Je. 
731.  S  on  the  other  hand,  so  far  as  it  can  be  tested,  is  faithful  to  the 
form  of  its  original  in  its  treatment  of  this  word  {e.  g.  2  S.  i"  i  K. 
1232  133J  i^u  2  K.  179-  «  23'-  "). 


Str.  I  charges  the  leaders  of  Judah  with  betraying  the  trust  re- 
posed in  them  as  the  guardians  of  truth  and  justice.  Lines  i  and 
2  are  a  verbal  repetition  of  the  corresponding  lines  in  Str.  I  of  the 
previous  section ;  3  and  4  are  a  paraphrase  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
same  str.;  while  5  and  6  add  a  new  figure. — 9.  And  pervert  all  that 
is  right]  Lit.  'twist  all  that  is  straight';  apparently  by  insolent 
defiance  of  law  rather  than  by  Jesuitical  interpretation  thereof. 
Cf.  Is.  5^". — 10.  Who  build  Zion  with  blood  and  Jerusalem  -with 
iniquity]  The  prophet  denounces  a  material  prosperity  which  is 
based  upon  the  spoUation  of  the  poor  and  the  confiscation  of  the 
property  of  the  innocent  condemned  to  death;  f/".  i  K.  21  Am.  5" 
Ho.  4'  Is.  i''  Je.  22"  Ez.  22". 


8o  MICAH 

Str.  II  first  brings  an  accusation  of  bribery  against  all  the  lead- 
ing officials  of  government,  civil  and  religious;  then  contrasts  with 
their  depraved  moral  state  their  false  security  in  Yahweh's  pro- 
tecting presence  and  power.  11.  Her  chiefs  judge  for  a  bribe] 
Judicial  functions  were  exercised  by  the  highest  officials;  cf.  2  S. 
15^".  Bribery  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  prevalent  vices  of 
oriental  government;  every  official  has  his  price;*  cf.  f  Is.  i^'  5'^. 
In  such  a  system  the  poor  man  has  no  chance. — And  her  priests 
give  oracles  for  hire]  The  only  allusion  to  priests  in  the  book  of 
Micah ;  cf.  Ho.  6'  10^  Is.  28^  The  most  difficult  cases  were  brought 
to  the  priests  that  they  might  obtain  the  judgment  of  Yahweh  upon 
them;  cf.  Ex.  18^^  ^-  Is.  28^  Dt.  17^-  ^  21^.  Similar  usage  still  exists 
among  the  Bedouin.  The  prophet  thus  makes  the  terrible  ac- 
cusation that  the  priests  manipulate  the  oracle  in  such  cases  in  the 
interest  of  the  rich  and  powerful  and  to  their  own  enrichment. — 
And  her  prophets  divine  for  money]  Cf.  note  on  v.  ^.  It  is  not 
merely  that  pay,  even  when  offered  and  received  with  the  purest  of 
motives,  is  a  constant  menace  to  the  absolute  independence  and 
freedom  of  thought  and  speech  without  which  true  prophecy  can- 
not live;  but  these  soothsaying  diviners  have  deliberately  sold  them- 
selves to  the  highest  bidders.  All  three  of  the  influential  classes 
are  money-mad. — Yet,  upon  Yahweh  they  lean,  saying]  These 
men  are  not  Godless  miscreants;  on  the  contrary,  they  wear  the 
livery  of  religion  and  they  congratulate  themselves  upon  having 
the  support  of  Yahweh. — 7^  not  Yahweh  in  the  midst  of  us  ?  No 
disaster  can  befall  us]  Cf.  Am.  3^.  This  was  the  crux  of  the  con- 
flict between  the  prophetic  and  the  popular  conceptions  of  God. 
This  conviction  on  the  part  of  the  people  in  general  made  the 
preaching  of  Amos,  Hosea  and  Micah  sound  like  treason  and  dis- 
trust of  Yahweh.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  presence  of  the 
temple  in  Jerusalem  as  the  headquarters  of  Yahweh  gave  added 
strength  to  this  popular  belief;  cf.  Je.  7^"^.  The  common  concep- 
tion of  Yahweh  was  not  yet  informed  with  the  ethical  ideal.  Per- 
formance of  the  ceremonial  was  thought  to  be  the  essence  of 
religion;    Yahweh  cared  for  little  more.     Against  this  error,  the 

*  No.  Sketches  jrom  Eastern  History,  133  /.;  Doughty,  .Arabia  Descrla,  I,  607,  II,  20; 
GASm.  398. 


^11.12  3i 

prophets  with  one  consent  insisted  that  Yahweh's  supreme  inter- 
est was  ethical,  not  ritualistic.  His  demand  for  righteousness 
was  more  insistent  than  his  love  for  Israel.  CJ.  6^-^  Is.  i^"-"  Am. 
5^1-"  Ho.  6". 

Str.  Ill  turns  once  more  directly  to  the  offenders,  as  in  Str.  I, 
and  hurls  upon  them  the  responsibility  for  the  impending  ruin  of 
Jerusalem. — 12.  Therefore^  on  account  of  you]  The  sense  of  indi- 
vidual responsibility  for  sin  had  not  yet  developed  sufficiently  to 
raise  any  question  in  the  prophet's  mind  as  to  the  jusdce  of  de- 
stroying a  whole  city  for  the  sins  of  the  leading  citizens.  But  even 
so,  the  sins  of  the  populace  at  large  cried  out  for  judgment  with  no 
uncertain  sound.  Micah  does  but  iix  the  responsibility  for  lead- 
ing the  way  in  sin  and  thereby  bring  home  guilt  to  the  consciences 
of  those  in  power. — Zion  will  he  ploughed  as  afield]  A  figure  for 
total  destruction;  cf.  Ps.  129^.  Zion  was  the  name  of  the  Jebusite 
stronghold  captured  by  David  (2  S.  5^"^).  This  was  probably  lo- 
cated on  the  southern  slope  of  the  hill  to  the  east  of  the  Tyropoean 
Valley.  But  the  name  soon  came  to  be  applied  to  the  entire  city, 
in  which  sense  it  is  employed  here  in  parallelism  with  'Jerusalem' 
and  also  in  v.  ^". — And  Jerusalem  will  become  ruins]  Micah  was  the 
first  prophet  to  threaten  Judah  with  the  annihilation  of  its  capital; 
but  he  does  so  without  a  tremor.  Jerusalem  as  the  centre  of  cor- 
ruption and  pollution  (i^)  must  be  cut  out  of  the  body  politic,  lest 
the  entire  nation  become  corrupt  and  perish.  His  heart  goes  out 
to  the  peasant  farmers  of  the  hillsides  of  Judah  in  passionate  sym- 
pathy with  them  in  their  misery  and  wrong,  but  he  can  condemn 
their  oppressors  to  death  with  unshaken  voice. — And  the  mountain 
of  the  house  a  wooded  height]  The  temple  mount  now  thronged 
with  worshippers  will  become  a  deserted  hill-top  like  the  summit 
of  Mt.  Carmel.  This  is  the  climax  of  the  threat.  That  Yahweh 
would  permit  the  destruction  and  desecration  of  his  own  chief 
shrine  must  have  sounded  like  blasphemy  to  Micah's  hearers.  But 
it  was  the  most  stunning  blow  that  could  be  dealt  to  the  old  con- 
ception of  God.  It  shows  also  how  thoroughly  Micah  was  freed 
from  slavery  to  rites  and  institutions.  He  had  certainly  learned 
that  'God  dwelleth  not  in  temples  made  with  hands.'* 

♦  On  the  signifioiBce  of  the  citation  of  v.  '^  jn  Je.  26",  see  Introduction. 


82  MICAH 

9.  ii:'|i;"]  On  force  of  impf.  continuing  a  prtc,  cf.  Ges.  ^  "«*;  on  tran- 
sition to  3d  pers.  after  the  vocative,  cf.  Ko.  ^^i*  '•  ■". — 10.  nja]  Is  diffi- 
cult of  explanation  either  as  a  collective  (van  H.)  or  as  applied  to  a 
typical  individual  of  the  class  denounced.  The  reading  \J3  is  supported 
by  the  fact  that  the  Vrss.  all  have  the  pi.,  by  the  close  likeness  to  ."ijb  in 
form,  by  the  parallel  prtc.  aoi'Pcn,  and  by  the  pi.  form  of  iB'pp>  vs^hich  it 
continues. — 11 .  nniio]  3  pretii,  Ko.  'i '"  ". — uanpa  T\\r\<\  Cf.  ^NUSi:,  Is. 
7»  and  F.  C.  Porter,  JBL.  XIV  (1895),  19-36.— 12.  mr]  Ace.  of 
effect  or  product,  Ges.  <>  '2'  J;  Ko.  ^  "* ". — I'v]  Aram.  pi.  due  to  a  copyist; 
cf.  Je  26'*;  note  the  suggestion  that  the  error  was  facilitated  by  the  fact 
that  J  was  more  easily  articulated  before  the  following  n  (Ges.  ^"''). — 
ncj'^]  Usual  form  of  cstr.  pi.  is  Tnca,  but  cf.  Nu.  2i'"'  Ez.  36^  Ho.  lo^. 
The  pi.  is  hardly  appropriate  as  applied  to  the  temple  mount,  and  (S  has 
sg.  both  here  and  in  Je.  26'*.  The  meaning  'hill-top'  gives  a  stronger 
contrast  here  than  is  afforded  by  'high-place.' 

B.     CHAPTERS  4  AND   5. 

Chs.  4  and  5  have  given  much  trouble  to  interpreters,  great  vari- 
ety of  opinion  existing  as  to  what  portions,  if  any,  may  be  attributed 
to  Micah  and  as  to  the  origin  and  date  of  the  portions  not  thus  as- 
signed. All  agree,  however,  that  the  chapters  as  they  now  stand  are 
wholly  lacking  in  logical  continuity  within  themselves  and  must  be 
regarded  as  composed  of  a  series  of  more  or  less  unrelated  frag- 
ments. By  some,  this  lack  of  logical  imity  is  urged,  with  other 
considerations,  as  warrant  for  denying  these  chapters  to  Micah,  in 
whole  or  in  part.  By  others,  it  is  held  to  be  consistent  with  Micah's 
authorship,  either  on  the  ground  of  the  vivacity  and  mobility  of 
his  style,  which  is  not  to  be  confined  within  logical  limits;*  or  be- 
cause the  spoken  word  permits  of  greater  freedom  from  logical  re- 
straint than  does  the  written  word;f  or  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
present  order  is  due  to  the  work  of  a  redactor  who  arranged  frag- 
ments of  Micah's  addresses  in  an  order  which  is  for  us  no  order.  J 

*  So  de  Goeje.  ThT.  VI,  279-84;  Kue.  ThT.  VI,  283-302. 
t  Kue.,  Wildeboer,  GASm.. 

t  Ry..  Elh.,  Pont.     For  more  detailed  treatment  of  these  questions,  sec  the  discussions 
of  the  individual  sections,  and  the  general  Introduction,  §  2. 


4*-»  8s 


§  8.    An  Ideal  of  Yahweh's  World-Dominion  (4*''). 

Three  six-line  strs.  in  trimeter  movement,  with  a  later  expansion 
(w.  *'  ^),  announcing  the  coming  world-wide  supremacy  of  Yah- 
weh  and  the  beneficent  results  involved  therein.  Str.  I  states 
the  fact  that  the  temple  of  Yahweh  in  Jerusalem  is  to  become  the 
religious  rallying-point  of  the  nations.  Str.  II  indicates  their 
motive  in  coming  as  the  desire  to  learn  of  Yahweh's  ways  at  the 
only  source  of  instruction.  Str.  Ill  declares  that  Yahweh  will  be 
the  world's  arbiter,  and  that  the  weapons  and  art  of  war  will  per- 
ish.    The  appendices  add  details  to  the  picture  of  idyllic  peace. 

TT  will  come  to  pass  in  the  issue  of  the  days,      7 

That  the  mountain  of  Yahweh's  house  will  be  J 

Established  at  the  top  of  the  mountains,  \  ^f',me^«r 

And  it  will  be  lifted  up  from  the  hills,     J  )^o^ei»*ev\^ . 

And  peoples  will  flow  unto  it,  7  (3  li"'*  '••»  <^f*^'  ^**  ) 

,Q  ^Yea,  many  nations  will  come,  and  say:    3 
r^OME,  let  us  go  up  to  the  mount  of  Yahweh, 

And  to  the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob; 

That  he  may  teach  us  of  his  ways. 

So  that  we  may  walk  in  his  paths. 

For  from  Zion  goeth  forth  instruction. 

And  the  word  of  Yahweh  from  Jerusalem. 
-^A  ND  he  will  judge  between  many  peoples. 

And  will  arbitrate  for  strong  nations, 

And  they  will  hammer  their  swords  into  ploughshares, 

And  their  spears  into  pruning- hooks. 

They  will  not  lift  up  the  sword,  nation  against  nation. 

Nor  will  they  any  longer  learn  war. 

The  progress  of  thought  is  clear  in  this  poem,  and  points  unmistakably 
to  six-line  (so  Du.)  rather  than  four-line  (Marti)  strs..  The  direct  dis- 
cmirse_l)eginning  in  v.  ^b  distinctly  marks  the  point  of  departure  for  a 
new  str.  and  so  establishes  the  six-line  norm.  The  arrangement  of  Siev. 
fails  to  discover  any  strophic  formation  and  does  violence  to  the  parall., 
in  addition  to  its  omission  of  three  lines  from  w. '  •  ^  solely  on  metrical 
grounds. 

The  original  material  ceases  with  v.  '.  Interpreters  in  general  now 
concede  the  separation  of  v.  *;  so  e.  g.  Cor.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev., 
Gu.,  Du..  It  sustains  no  close  relation  to  vv.  '•■•.  Marti  and  Gu.  also 
athetize  v.  *'^;  but  in  view  of  the  absence  of  the  whole  verse  from  the 
parallel  passage  in  Is.  2^-*,  and  of  the  further  fact  that  it  is  composed  of 
stock  phrases  which  add  nothing  essential  to  the  description  in  w.  '-', 


84  MICAH 

it  seems  safe  to  assign  all  of  v.  *  to  editorial  expansion;  so  Che.  Intr.  to 
Is.,  on  2'-<;  Skipwith,  JQR.  VI,  23,  583  ff.;  F.  Ladame,  Revue  de  Ihcolo- 
gie  et  de  philosophic,  1902,  pp.  446^.;  Du..  The  only  change  in  iH  of 
w. '-'  required  by  the  metre  is  the  omission  of  pmi  ly  from  v.  ">,  as  a 
gloss  not  present  in  Is.  2*. 

The  repetition  of  these  verses  in  Is.  2^-*  has  occasioned  much  discus- 
sion as  to  their  origin.  Four  views  have  found  currency  at  various 
times: — (i)  that  the  passage  was  original  with  Isaiah  and  borrowed  from 
him  by  Micah  (so  e.  g.  De.  on  Is.  2^*;  Ro.,  Kl.,  Cor.  ZAW.  IV,  88); 
(2)  that  it  was  original  with  Micah  and  borrowed  by  Isaiah  or  an  editor 
of  Isaiah  (so  e.  g.  Hartmann,  Ke.,  WRS.  in  Enc.  Brit.  art.  Micah; 
RyO;  (3)  that  it  was  an  older  oracle  borrowed  alike  by  Isaiah  and 
Micah  (so  e.  g.  Ros.,  Mau.,  Ew.,  Hi.,  Reuss,  Or.);  (4)  that  it  was  a  later 
interpolation  both  in  Isaiah  and  Micah  (so  e.  g.  Sta.  ZAW.  I,  165 jf.; 
Kosters,  ThT.  1893;  Kue.  Einl.;  Che.  Intr.  to  Book  of  Isa.,  g-16;  Cor., 
We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Gu.,  Du.).  That  it  neither  originated  with  Micah  nor 
was  incorporated  by  him  from  an  earlier  source  seems  certain.  The  tran- 
sition from  3'2  to  4'-<  is  too  abrupt;  there  Jerusalem  lies  waste,  here  it  is  the 
centre  of  pilgrimages  from  all  parts  of  the  world;  not  a  word  is  spoken  of 
the  restoration  of  the  city  involved  in  the  latter  description.  The  spirit 
of  4'-'  is  incompatible  with  that  of  3'-'2;  here  Jerusalem  is  the  nation's 
pride  and  glory,  there  the  prophet's  love  centres  in  the  country  people 
while  the  city  represents  to  him  all  that  is  bad.  Je.  26'8  tells  against  the 
early  origin  of  this  passage,  for  it  is  unlikely  that  such  an  impression 
of  Micah's  message  would  have  existed  in  Hezekiah's  time,  if  Micah  had 
cancelled  the  effect  of  3  "by  the  comforting  words  of  4'  »-.  It  is  apparent 
also  that  3"  was  spoken  in  Hezekiah's  reign  and  that  4'  ^-  therefore  are 
still  later,  which  fact  shows  that  the  passage  has  no  rightful  place  in  Is. 
ch.  2,  which  is  in  any  case  earlier  than  Hezekiah's  reign.  Furthermore, 
the  ideas  of  the  passage  are  those  characteristic  of  the  postexilic  age. 
The  thought  of  the  conversion  of  the  nations  appears  nowhere  else  in 
the  book  of  Micah,  but  is  first  found  in  monotheistic  vmtings  of  the  exilic 
and  postexilic  periods,  e.  g.  Is.  56"-  '  60  66"  11'°  and  Jonah.  The  pil- 
grimage to  Mt.  Zion  is  a  postexilic  idea,  cf.  Zc.  i4'8  ff-,  and  its  ne- 
cessity could  hardly  have  been  felt  until  late  in  the  postexilic  age  when 
the  teachings  of  Deuteronomy  and  the  Priestly  Code  had  found  such  wide 
acceptance  as  to  render  the  existence  of  local  shrines  like  that  of  Ele- 
phantine impossible  for  the  zealous  follower  of  the  law.  The  expres- 
sion C'C^T  P^insa  as  denoting  the  opening  of  the  Messianic  era  is  first 
met  with  in  Ez.  ^8^K  The  conditions  reflected  in  4'  «•  are  best  satis- 
fied by  assigning  the  passage  to  the  Greek  period. 

1.  P-a]  (6  om.  here  and  Is.  2'.  Marti  tr.  to  precede  C'n->2. — ]^2:]  In 
Is.  2»  preceding  "i^n^;  so  Marti;  the  metre  shows  the  position  in  Micah 
to  be  preferable.     (8's  double  rendering  here,  in<pavh  preceding  n''n>  as  in 


4^-=^  85 

Isaiah  and  ^roifiov  standing  as  in  Micah,  together  with  the  position  of  ti3J 
in  Isaiah  and  <B's  rendering  of  the  Isaiah  passage,  viz.  ^ix<pavks  rb  bpos 
Kvplov  Kal  6  of/cos  rod  deov  iir''  S.Kpov  tQiv  dpiwv,  has  led  Du.  (on  Is.  2*), 
followed  by  Marti,  Stk.  {Die  Dichtungen  Jesaias  [1907]),  Box  {Bk.  of 
Is.  [1909])  and  Gu.  to  reconstruct  these  two  Hnes  thus: 

Dnnn  b'N"»3  irnSx  noi 
But  M  of  Micah  furnishes  a  smoother  metre  and  connection.  The  fol- 
lowing N-j-j  certainly  refers  to  the  mn>  in  and  thus  ignores  any  inter- 
vening 'n  P'2.  (&'s  text  of  Isaiah  may  easily  be  accounted  for  as  due 
to  some  prosaic  glossator  who  felt  the  difficulty  of  a  physical  elevation  of 
Mt.  Zion  and  so  substituted  the  house  of  Yahweh. — a'N-\2]  4  pi.;  so 
GASm..  Elh.  B'N-iS.— Nin]  Om.  in  Is.  2^;  so  Siev..— nnji]  The  PaL- 
Syr.  fragment  published  by  Mrs.  Lewis  offers  the  rendering  and  will 
be  gathered  =  <Tvvax6M°vTai,  not  elsewhere  found;  but  this  is  only  free 
translation. — vSy]  Is.  2^  rSx;  so  many  codd.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.;  so  Siev., 
Gu.,  Hpt.. — D>cj?]  Is.  22  OMjn  S3  (so  Gu.).  S>  and  some  mss.  of  Mi- 
cah insert  S3. — 2.  a>u]  Is.  2^  D^ny. — a^ai]  Siev.  om.. — ncNi]  Du.  (on 
Isaiah),  Marti  and  Hpt.  om..— n'^j.ui]  (g  &  "H  om,  1.— no  Sni]  1  is  om.  in 
Isaiah  and  in  some  mss.  of  Micah.  Siev.  om.  all  this  line. — mvi] 
d  here  =  ijnii;  but  in  Isaiah  sg.  and  also  in  the  Pal.-Syr.  version 
published  by  Mrs.  Lewis. — VD-nc]  (B  sg.  and  ignores  D.  U  de  viis. — 
Siev.  om.  the  last  two  lines  of  this  str.  because  they  do  not  yield  a  seven- 
tone  line. — 3.  vszn]  S>  and  &"  take  "the  law"  as  subj.  of  this  vb.. — 
co-\  D^c>']  Isaiah  o^un;  Siev.  om.  D"i3-\;  so  g*. — n^^ini]  1^  et  corripiet. 
— DTXj)  D''''j'^]  Isaiah  dot  cnpS.  Siev.  om.  DiDxy. — pirn  nj?]  Om.  as  a 
gloss  with  Isaiah;  so  Briggs  {Mess.  Proph.),  Du.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu., 
Hpt.. — oninann]  Isaiah  onann;  so  Siev.. — nS]  Some  codd.  nSi;  so  C6  & 
lJ._ixty,]  Sg.  in  Isaiah;  so  <S  &  B  S.— ncnSc]  (S  woXefjieiv.—^.  lair^i] 
d  dvuTraija-eTai.  B  sg..  51  in  common  editions  p^)?'^  (=  •OB'j),  but  in 
cod.  Reuch.  iian^i. — 5.  rnSx  Oto]  (S  tt^v  68bv  avrov  (a  theological 
change;  cf.  Am.  S'^  Dt.  29^6),  but  the  Pal.-Syr.  version  agrees  with  M. — 
Between  the  text  of  vv.  i-'  and  Is.  2--*  there  are  in  all  twelve  variations. 
The  text  of  Micah  is  nearer  the  primitive  form,  as  is  evident  from  the 
position  of  jiiJ  (v.  1),  the  stronger  vSy  for  vVn  (v.  '),  the  more  concise 
D''ny  for  a'-un-Sa  (v.  0,  and  the  pi.  wv<  (v. »)  for  the  sg..  But  the  Micah 
text  has  undergone  expansion;  v.  s.. 

Str,  I  announces  the  acceptance  of  the  religion  of  Yahweh  by 
the  nations  at  large. — 1.  It  will  come  to  pass  in  the  issue  of  the 
days]  i.  e.  at  the  end  of  the  present  age  and  coincident  with  the  dawn 
of  the  Messianic  era.*    The  phrase  "in  the  issue  of  the  days"  oc- 

*  a.  stk.  ZAW.  XI,  247  #.. 


86  MICAH 

curs  thirteen  times  in  the  OT.,  but  belongs  to  the  exilic  and  post- 
exilic  circle  of  ideas,  occurring  only  in  4"  Ho.  3^  Gn.  49^  Nu.  24", 
aside  from  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  and  later  books;  and  these  four 
passages  are  due  to  interpolation.  Despairing  of  the  present,  the 
later  prophets  built  their  hopes  upon  the  future,  and  out  of  the 
blackest  days  came  the  brightest  visions  of  Israel's  future  glory — 
indisputable  evidence  of  imperishable  faith. — That  the  mountain  oj 
Yahweh^s  house  will  be  established  at  the  top  of  the  mountains]  This 
line,  with  the  parallel  line,  lifted  up  from  the  hills,]  does  not  mean  a 
literal,  physical  elevation  of  Mt.  Zion  above  the  surroimding  hills.* 
It  is  rather  a  figure  representing  the  exaltation  of  Zion  as  superior 
to  all  other  shrines  and  the  focus  of  universal  desire;  cf.  Is.  2"  40^ 
— And  peoples  will  flow  unto  it,  (2)  Yea,  many  nations  will  come, 
and  say :]  This  vision  of  the  world-wide  influence  of  Yahweh  in 
the  conversion  of  the  nations  imto  himself  is  unparalleled  outside 
of  Judaism  and  its  dependent  faiths.  It  is  a  common  thought  in 
Deutero-Isaiah  and  the  later  literature  of  Israel;  but  it  could  not 
find  expression  until  monotheism  had  become  firmly  fixed  in  the 
religious  consciousness  of  Israel  through  the  discipline  of  the  exile. 
The  prophecies  of  the  eighth  century  contain  no  suggestions  of  this 
thought.  Is.  ii*°  18^  ig^^'"^  in  which  it  is  more  or  less  fully  ex- 
pressed are  quite  generally  conceded  to  be  of  late  origin. 

Str.  II  explains  why  the  nations  gather  at  Jerusalem,  viz.  be- 
cause there  they  can  learn  Yahweh's  will  which  is  the  only  safe 
guide  for  life. — 2.  Come,  let  us  go  up  to  the  mount  of  Yahweh,  and 
to  the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob]  The  nations  mutually  incite  one 
another  to  undertake  the  religious  pilgrimage.  The  implication 
is  that  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  is  the  only  authorised  sanctuary  of 
Yahweh.  This  seems  to  force  the  dating  of  the  passage  in  the 
post-Deuteronomic  period.  The  point  of  view  of  Is.  19*^-  ^^  and 
of  the  adherents  of  the  Jewish  temple  at  Elephantine  is  foreign  to 
this  writer.  'Jacob'  here  designates  the  nation  as  a  whole  as  in 
3*-  *•  ®,  not  the  northern  kingdom  as  in  i^. — TJiat  he  may  teach  us 
of  his  ways,  so  that  we  may  walk  in  his  paths]  The  phraseology 
suggests  that  these  would-be  disciples  do  not  expect  to  know  the 
whole  of  the  divine  will,  but  only  such  of  it  as  is  essential  to  their 

♦  Contra  Marti. 


4'-*  87 

welfare. — For  from  Zion  goes  forth  instruction  and  the  word  of 
Yahweh  from  Jerusalem]  These  words  seem  to  close  the  utter- 
ance of  the  nations,  rather  than  to  resume  the  speech  of  the 
prophet.  It  is  a  recognition  by  the  world  at  large  that  Jerusalem 
is  the  seat  and  source  of  all  authoritative  religious  teaching.  The 
word  iorah  is  here  defined  by  the  parallel  phrase  'word  of  Yah- 
weh,' and  this,  together  with  the  absence  of  the  article,  makes  tlie 
general  meaning  'instruction'  more  probable  than  the  specific 
'law.'  Furthermore,  on  the  lips  of  non-Israelites  the  latter  term 
would  be  an  anachronism. 

Str.  Ill  declares  the  result  of  the  nations'  acceptance  of  Yahweh 
to  be  that  all  disputes  mil  be  referred  to  him  and  war  will  there- 
fore be  abolished. — 3.  Afid  he  will  judge  between  many  peoples, 
and  arbitrate  for  numerous  nations]  As  now  all  difficult  cases  in 
Israelitish  litigation  are  brought  to  the  priests  as  the  court  of  last 
resort  and  to  Yahweh  as  the  supreme  judge,  so  in  the  Messianic 
age  the  nations  of  the  world  wall  submit  their  differences  to  Yah- 
weh, accepting  without  question  his  righteous  decision.  To  em- 
phasise the  extent  of  Yahweh's  dominion  an  editor  here  added  the 
phrase  unto  afar. — And  they  will  hammer  their  swords  into  plough- 
shares and  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks]  The  rendering  'plough- 
shares' is  doubtful  {v.  i.),  but  some  agricultural  implement  is 
certainly  meant;  weapons  of  war  will  be  converted  into  tools  of 
peaceful  industry.  For  the  reverse  process,  cf  Jo.  4^". — They  will 
not  lift  up  the  sword,  nation  against  nation  ;  nor  will  they  learn  war 
any  more]  Cf.  Ps.  46^  Is.  9^-  ''  11^'^  Zc.  9^".  While  disarmament 
is  here  positively  predicated  only  of  the  non-Israelitish  nations,  yet 
by  implication  Israel  too  is  included.  The  prophet  certainly  does 
not  conceive  of  Israel  as  dominating  the  rest  of  the  world  by  force. 
This  ideal  of  world-wide  peace  springs  from  the  heart-longings  of 
a  people  left  broken  and  shattered  by  the  stress  of  disastrous  wars. 

To  this  vision  of  glory  are  appended  some  supplementary  details 
by  later  hands. — 4.  And  they  will  sit  each  under  his  vine  and  under 
his  fig  tree,  with  none  to  make  them  afraid]  This  verse  presents 
the  positive  aspect  of  the  thought  that  was  expressed  negatively  in 
v.  ^.  The  subject,  however,  is  individual  and  not  national  as  in 
V.  ^;  the  language  portrays  the  peaceful  Palestinian  countryside 


&S  MICAH 

with  the  rural  inhabitants  in  the  enjoyment  of  peace  and  plenty. 
The  verse  is  made  up  of  stock  phrases,  displaying  none  of  the  cre- 
ative capacity  of  w.  *-^;  cf.  i  K.  4^  2  K.  18''  Zc.  3^°  Is.  if  Je.  30'" 
46"  Ez.  34-*  Zp.  3"  Na.  2"  Lv.  26^.— For  the  mouth  0/  Yahweh  of 
hosts  hath  spoken  it]  A  concluding  phrase  commonly  employed 
to  attest  the  divine  origin  of  a  prophecy;  cf.  Is.  1^°  40''^  58". — 5. 
Though  all  the  peoples  walk  each  in  the  name  of  his  God,  yet  we  will 
walk  in  the  name  of  Yahweh,  our  God,  for  ever  and  ever]  This  is 
the  utterance  of  a  practical  man  who  realises  the  visionary  char- 
acter of  the  foregoing  ideal  and  seeks  to  establish  connection  with 
things  as  they  are.  Instead  of  one  universal  religion,  it  is  tot 
gentes  qtiot  dci.  But  even  so,  and  even  should  it  always  be  so, 
Israel  will  remain  faithful  and  true  to  Yahweh  through  endless 
time.  The  expression  '  walk  in  the  name  of  is  not  elsewhere  used; 
but  it  clearly  means  here  that  yielding  of  a  hearty  allegiance  and 
obedience  to  the  divine  will  spoken  of  in  v.  ■*  as '  walking  in  his  laws.* 
It  is  fanciful  to  find  here  a  contrast  between  the  loyal  obedience  of 
the  nations  to  their  gods  and  the  defective  honouring  of  Yahweh  by 
the  majority  of  his  people;*  or  between  the  eternal  'walking'  of 
Israel  and  the  'walking'  of  the  heathen  which  is  not  etemal.f 
This  verse  is  certainly  not  from  the  writer  of  w.  '"^  or  of  v.  *;  for  the 
general  point  of  view  of  v.  ■*  is  identical  with  that  of  w.  ^'^,  while 
that  of  V.  ^  is  wholly  different.  The  writer  of  w.  ^"^  lived  wholly  in 
the  future;  v.  ^  is  vividly  conscious  of  the  discordant  present,  and 
can  only  express  Israel's  determination  to  be  true  to  her  highest 
ideals  at  any  cost.  What  is  here  expressed  as  a  firm  decision  is 
found  in  Is.  2^  as  an  exhortation.  The  two  verses  are  evidently 
closely  related,  but  on  which  side  the  dependence  lies  is  wholly 
vmcertain. 

1.  ^^n>  .  .  .  n>ni]  The  subj.  clause  lacks  an  introductory  parti- 
cle.— 11:3:  .  .  .  n'n>]  Late  usage;  Ges.  5"«'. — v*?*']  Uiterally,  upon  it ; 
stronger  than  vSn,  Is.  2'. — 2.  id*^]  Including  the  speaker,  K6.  *»"«. — 
aiiy>  vn'TN]  The  only  occurrence  of  this  title  in  the  book  of  Micah;  so 
also  'as  ni,T>  in  v.  *. — Nxn]  If  fut.  it  belongs  in  mouth  of  the  prophet; 
but  better  taken  as  present  of  an  existing  fact. — 3.  a^nN^]  Found  only 
in  I  S.  13"  '•  Jo.  4"';  the  latter  sheds  no  light  upon  the  meaning;  in  the 
former  the  list  of  agricultural  implements  begins  with  intnnc,  plough- 
♦  Contra  Ry..  t  Contra  Pont. 


share,  hence  it  is  unlikely  that  tn  carries  the  same  meaning;  it  is  proba- 
ble also  that  in  2  K.  6'  '^^n-r^  should  read  'n  rx  and  be  rendered  "the 
axe  of  iron."  ®  renders  by  iporpov,  plough,  except  in  i  S.  13",  where 
the  indefinite  o-^eDoj,  tool,  appears. 


§  9.     The  Doom  of  Exile  and  a  Promise  of  Restoration  {4^'^°). 

This  section  reflects  a  period  when  Jerusalem  was  in  imminent 
danger  from  an  invader.  It  foretells  capture  and  exile  as  the  in- 
evitable outcome  of  the  situation,  but  hastens  to  assuage  the  grief 
by  the  declaration  that  Yahweh  will  intervene,  bringing  deliver- 
ance from  captivity  and  restoration  to  the  home-land.  It  can  be 
treated  as  a  unit  only  by  transposing  w.  ^-  ^°  to  precede  w.  *"*; 
V.  i..  Str.  I  pictures  Israel's  bitter  suffering  and  gently  satirises 
the  futility  of  human  leaders.  Str.  II  declares  that  even  greater 
calamity  is  coming,  but  that  Yahweh  will  thereupon  deliver  Israel 
from  its  foes.  Str.  Ill  announces  that  Yahweh  will  then  gather 
together  the  exiles.  Str.  IV  promises  their  re-establishment  as  a 
mighty  nation  under  Yahweh  as  their  eternal  king.  Str.  V  reaches 
the  climax  with  the  assurance  that  Jerusalem  will  be  restored  as 
the  nation's  capital. 


"THEREFORE,  now,  dost  thou  cry  so  loud? 

Is  there  no  king  in  thee, 

Or,  has  thy  counsellor  perished, 

That  agony  has  seized  thee  like  one  in  childbirth? 
■^yRITHE  and  bring  forth,  O  daughter  of  Zion,  like  one  in  childbirth. 

For  now  thou  must  go  forth  from  the  city  and  dwell  in  the  field. 

And  go  to  Babylon;  there  shall  thou  be  rescued. 

There  Yahweh  will  redeem  thee  from  the  hand  of  thine  enemies. 
TN  that  day,  it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh, 

I  will  gather  the  halt. 

And  the  outcast  I  will  assemble, 

And  her  whom  I  have  afllicted. 
A  ND  I  will  make  the  halt  a  remnant. 

And  her  that  was  sick  a  strong  nation. 

And  Yahweh  will  be  king  over  them  in  Mount  Zion. 

From  now  on  even  forever. 
A  ND  thou,  O  tower  of  the  flock. 

Height  of  the  daughter  of  Zion, 

Unto  thee  will  come  the  first  dominion; 

Yea,  there  will  come  the  kingdom  of  the  house  of  Israel. 


90  IMICAH 

The  prevailing  measure  in  this  section  is  trimeter,  but  there  are  many 
variations.  Str.  II  is  in  the  rhythm  of  the  dirge.  Though  the  metre  is 
on  the  v/hole  very  broken,  the  parall.  is  clear  and  furnishes  the  only 
safe  guide  to  the  length  of  lines  and  the  formation  of  strs..  Siev.'s  ar- 
rangement in  three  strs.  of  3  +  3  +  2  seven-tone  lines  ignores  this  guid- 
ance, as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  n->'  7\py  (v.  ')  appears  in  the  middle 
of  one  of  his  strs.,  and  even  of  one  of  his  lines,  instead  of  starting  a  new 
line  and  str.  as  it  clearly  must.  In  the  present  arrangement,  vv.  '•  ><» 
are  placed  before  vv.  «•«  in  response  to  the  demands  of  the  logic.  They 
furnish  the  presuppositions  requisite  to  the  understanding  of  the  message 
of  vv.  «-».  The  resulting  movement  of  thought  is  clear  and  straight- 
forward throughout  the  piece.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  assign  vv.  «'  and 
••  •"  to  different  authors  and  periods  as  has  been  done  by  Kue.,  We.,  Volz, 
Now.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  et  al..  As  here  arranged,  vv.  '•  '<>  furnish  the  neces- 
sary preparation  for  w.  «-8.  The  order  of  events  becomes  perfectly 
natural — downfall  of  Jerusalem,  exile,  deliverance,  restoration  to  power. 
The  date  of  the  prophecy  cannot  be  definitely  determined,  but  it  would 
seem  to  have  originated  in  the  dark  days  just  prior  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
in  597  or  586  B.C..  Those  who  claim  vv.  »•  '"  for  Micah  (Kue.,  et  al.) 
are  under  the  necessity  of  excising  "and  thou  shalt  go  to  Babylon  "  (v.  '"), 
but  this  phrase  is  demanded  by  the  poetic  form  of  v.  '",  and  is,  further- 
more, in  harmony  with  the  background  of  the  whole  section.  In  sup- 
port of  the  period  suggested  by  this  phrase  may  be  urged  the  advanced 
stage  in  the  conception  of  the  'remnant'  {v.  i.),  the  significance  of  the 
phrase  "tower  of  the  flock"  {v.  i.),  and  the  general  Messianic  tone  of  the 
passage.  The  only  serious  alternative  to  this  date  is  suggested  by  the 
not  altogether  unlikely  view  that  this  is  a  vaticinium  post  evenium  (so 
We.,  Marti;  but  v.  i.),  in  which  case  a  period  after  Deutero-Isaiah  and 
the  return  may  be  sought. 

6.  '•>  on:]  Siev.  om..— nj-Si-n]  ^the  distant  ones;  similarly  (E.— "r^V^n  -\u'ni] 
^  Kal  06s  dirwffdfjLrjv.  Now.  om.;  so  Siev.;  c/".  Zp.  3".  Ro.,  Elh.  iu'N  Tu'Ni 
'n.  Ko. 'I  <'""om.-irN  and  points  •■niinrii.  Gr.  adds  3"l2"'N.  Du.'in 'n2Tni. 
— 7.  nKSnjm]  Rd.,  with  We.,  n'^njni;  soNow.,  Marti,  Gu.,  Du..  "Bet earn 
quae  laboraverat  =  hn'^jhi;  so  Stei.,  Gr.,  Oort^""-,  Hpt..  (&^  kolI  rrjv 
diru(Ttx^vT]v.  Siev.  nVnni. — jvs  nna]  Perhaps  a  marg.  n.;  cf.  ft's  ad- 
dition of  and  in  Jerusalem. — 8.  Sd>]  The  Vrss.  have  confused  this 
with  ^DS;  so  Aq.  (TkotwStjs;  (&  avxf^<^5r}s;  B  fiebulosa;  S  dTr6Kpv(f>oi;  21 
T'?::;  ^dark. — nnsr]  Ry.om.  as  gloss  upon  hnj;  so  Taylor,  Pont,  Du.. — 
r^n2^]  Tr.,  with  Ro.,  to  precede  rs'^cc;  so  Elh.,  Now.,  Oort^'"-,  Marti. 
Hpt.  om.  as  gloss  on  nr NT. — nsSrc]  Cod.  Kenn.  40m..  Marti,  n3';'ccri,  (^ 
adds  ix  Bo/SdXwi/os. — z^z'^•\>  r^:h]  Rd.,  foil.  We.,  Now.,  Du.  Sxns'^  r^S 
Cod.  Reuch.  of  SI  offers  Sxitt'''  for  DScn\  Oort^™-,  Siev.  and  Gu.  om. 
ra*^. — 9.  nn;]  Siev.  and  Gu.  om.. — n  "■yin]  05  i-^vio^  AfaK(£=>n  'ynr. 
&  doest  thou  evil,  taking  vb.  as  Hiph.  of  r;-\  and  reading  yn  as  obj., 


with  <B.  31  moerore  contraheris,  deriving  vb.  from  n>n  II.  (J  con- 
nectest  thou  thyself  with  peoples. — ixyv]  (§  17  §ov\-f)  aov;  so  also  in  Pr. 
II'*  Is.  95.  &  ul  pi.. — 10.  ^nji  iSin]  (S  &5Lve  kuI  dpSpi^ov  Kal  e77ife,  of 
which  dvdpl^ov  is  to  be  taken,  with  Ry.,  as  a  duplicate  rendering  of  '''^in, 
which  was  wrongly  connected  with  S;n;  while  e77tfe  represents  a  confu- 
sion of  ■'nj  with  •'j.';j.  &'s  rendering  of  ^Sin  corresponds  to  <6's  dvdpi^ov. 
^^  £  and  codd.  87,  91,  97,  228,  310,  &"  om.  Kal  €771^6.  >nj  is  rendered 
by  H,  ia^a^e;  21  '>ir.  Elh.  and  Che.cB  uni;  c/.  Je.  483'.  HWB.'^ 
■'>:di;  c/"  Is.  42";  so  Now.,  Gu..  Pont,  >n^3r\.  Gr.  and  Marti  'n^Nrii. — 
'Sxjn]  ®  pifferal  ae. — '\^i<i''  Dt:']  (S'*  om..  Several  codd.  of  Kenn.  at'v, 
so  (6^2  &. — nin-']  (g  adds  6  ^e6j  <rov. 

Str.  I,  in  good  trimeter,  brings  out  through  three  questions  the 
desperate  situation  in  which  Israel  now  finds  itself. — 9.  Wherefore, 
now,  dost  thou  cry  so  loud  ?]  Jerusalem  is  on  the  verge  of  a  siege 
apparently,  or  already  besieged.  The  anguish  of  the  cry  is  to  be  in- 
ferred from  the  last  line  of  this  str..  The  person  addressed  is  "the 
daughter  of  Zion"  (v.  *").  Now  is  not  temporal,  but  logical;  it 
lends  a  tone  of  expostulation  to  the  question. — Is  there  no  king  in 
thee,  or  has  thy  counsellor  perished  ?]  The  confusion  and  terror  in 
the  city  are  so  great,  it  would  seem  that  no  ruler  was  present  {cf. 
Ho.  13'°).  The  term  'coimsellor,'  used  of  the  Messiah  in  Is.  9", 
is  here  a  synonym  for  'king,'  rather  than  a  collective  for  citizens 
pre-eminently  wise  (cf.  Is.  36'^).  The  common  meaning  of  the  root 
•^^D  in  Assy,  is  advise,  counsel.  For  a  similar  question,  cf.  Je.  8'". 
This  question  does  not  imply  the  actual  absence  of  a  king,  involv- 
ing a  postexilic  date  for  the  passage,  but  is  ironical  and  derisive. 
Of  what  use  is  it  to  trust  in  those  who  cannot  help?  Marti  con- 
siders Yahweh  to  be  the  king  here  mentioned,  but  this  is  an 
interpretation  made  necessary  by  his  view  that  the  passage  is 
postexUic* — That  agony  has  seized  thee  like  one  in  childbirth  ?]  A 
figure  frequently  employed  as  the  most  vivid  description  of  phys- 
ical pain;  cf.  Je.  6^*  22^^. 

Str.  II,  with  a  change  from  trimeter  to  the  dirge  movement  so 
well  adapted  to  the  contents  of  the  str.,  annotmces  the  climax  of 
calamity,  but  only  as  a  background  for  a  message  of  hope. — 10. 

*  C/.  Sellin,  Serubbabel,  67  if.,  who,  though  accepting  the  postexilic  origin  of  these  verses, 
still  insists  that  a  human  monarch  is  meant,  and  so  seeks  to  posit  a  short  period  of  monarchy 
under  Zerubbabel;  but  in  Sludien  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  der itidischen  Gemdnde,  II,  174  fj., 
this  view  is  in  part  abandoned. 


92  MICAH 

Writhe  and  bring  forth,  O  daughter  of  Zion,  like  one  in  childbirth] 
The  figure  in  the  previous  line  (v.  ®)  is  here  taken  up  and  enlarged 
upon.  Having  ironically  inquired  in  Str.  I  why  Jerusalem  aban- 
dons herself  to  grief,  the  prophet  here  in  all  seriousness  says,  '  thou 
hast  good  reason  to  agonise.' — For  now  thou  must  go  forth  from  the 
city  and  dwell  in  the  field]  i.  e.  from  the  protection  of  the  walled  city 
into  the  open  country,  exposed  to  inclement  weather,  wild  beasts, 
and  hostile  armies.  For  exit  from  the  city  as  denoting  surrender, 
cf.  Is.  36^°  2  K.  24^^.  Now,  i.  e.  in  a  Httle  while,  soon;  cf.  f-  ^° 
Am.  6'. — And  go  to  Babylon]  Those  who  would  retain  vv.  ^-  *" 
for  Micah  are  forced  to  regard  this  phrase  as  an  interpolation,* 
for  it  is  unHkely  that  Micah  had  the  Babylonian  captivity  before 
his  mind.  Israel's  enemy  in  Micah's  age  was  Assyrian,  and  Baby- 
lon was  playing  a  subordinate  part.  It  is  clear  also  from  chs.  1-3 
that  ISIicah  expected  the  doom  of  Judah  to  follow  close  upon  that 
of  Samaria,  and  Je.  26*^  ^-  shows  that  the  time  for  the  fulfilment 
of  Micah's  prediction  there  cited  was  regarded  as  being  long  past 
in  Jeremiah's  day.  The  force  of  these  objections  to  the  phrase  is 
not  overcome  by  the  suggestion  that  Babylon  is  representative  of 
the  Assyrian  empire  as  being  one  of  its  most  powerful  kingdoms, 
nor  by  the  fact  that  Sargon  transported  some  of  the  population  of 
Babylonia  to  northern  Israel  (2  K.  jf^),  and  may  therefore  be 
supposed  to  have  put  Israelites  in  their  places,  thus  suggesting  to 
Micah  a  destination  for  Judah's  exiles.  Micah  and  contemporary 
prophets  were  occupied  with  Assyria,  the  world-power  of  the  eighth 
century  B.C..  But  all  that  goes  to  show  this  phrase  to  be  of  late 
origin  is  evidence  for  the  late  date  of  the  verse  in  which  it  stands, 
for  the  verse  is  incomplete  without  this  clause  which  is  essential 
both  to  form  and  content.f  It  is  the  only  satisfactory  antecedent 
to  the  following  tliere,  which  cannot  go  back  to  the  elusive  and  in- 
definite field. — There  shall  thou  be  rescued  ;  there  ivill  Yahweh  re- 
deem thee  from  the  hand  of  thine  enemies]  The  thought  that  de- 
liverance from  the  foe  would  be  accomplished  in  Babylonia  and 
that  this  was  but  the  first  step  in  the  coming  of  the  Messianic  glory 

♦  So  e.  g.  Oort,  Kue.,  WRS.  Proph.,  de  Goeje.  Now.,  NO.,  Pont,  GASm.. 

t  So  e.  g.  Wf.,  Marti,  Du.;  cj.  van  H.,  who  retains  the  context  as  the  utterance  of  Micah, 
but  relegates  v.  '"  as  a  whole  to  a  later  period.  Du.  likewise  makes  v.  '"  a  still  later  addition 
to  vv.  •-»  which  are  themselves  late. 


4"  93 

was  common  from  the  time  of  Deutero-Isaiah;  cj.  43^"'-  ""^°  44^'*'^^ 
45""^^  55^^-^^.  It  is  impossible  to  say  definitely  when  it  first  found 
expression,  but  the  basis  for  it  was  laid  in  Isaiah's  doctrine  of  the 
remnant.  When  it  became  quite  clear  that  a  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity was  inevitable,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  deathless 
hope  of  the  prophets  never  for  a  moment  accepted  this  as  final, 
but  looked  forward  to  the  time  when  Yahweh  should  glorify  him- 
self in  the  sight  of  the  nations  through  the  rescue  and  exaltation  of 
his  people.  Interpreting  v.  ^^  from  this  point  of  view,  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  suppose  with  Marti  that  the  prophet  wrote,  like  Deutero- 
Isaiah,  in  the  full  light  of  the  victorious  career  of  Cyrus,  and  thus  to 
class  his  prediction  as  in  large  part  a  vaticinium  post  eventum.  All 
that  is  said  here  is  quite  intelligible  on  the  lips  of  a  contemporary 
of  Jeremiah's  later  years. 

Str.  Ill,  dropping  the  qtna  rhythm  and  taking  up  a  dimeter 
movement,  represents  Yahweh  as  reassembling  the  afflicted  exiles. 
While  vv.  ^'^  have  no  connection  with  their  context  as  they  stand 
in  fH,  the  case  is  altogether  different  when  they  follow  v.  ^*';  for 
the  thought  of  the  halt  and  afflicted,  inappropriate  after  the  picture 
of  imiversal  peace  in  4^"^,  is  peculiarly  in  place  after  such  a  catas- 
trophe as  is  described  in  w.  ^"^°. — 6.  In  that  day,  it  is  the  oracle  0/ 
Yahweh]  The  day  of  Yahweh  is  in  the  prophet's  mind,  which  day 
was  commonly  looked  upon  as  closing  the  period  of  present  dis- 
tress and  inaugurating  the  future  age  of  bliss,  "That  day"  here 
marks  the  end  of  the  exile. — /  will  gather  the  halt,  and  the  outcast 
I  will  assemble]  The  words  'halt'  and  'outcast,'  suggestive  of  a 
flock  of  sheep,  designate  the  exilic  community  as  a  whole,  not  indi- 
vidual members  of  that  community.  At  the  time  when  these  words 
were  written  the  diaspora  had  already  begun.  The  descendants  of 
the  captives  from  Samaria  were  scattered  throughout  the  Baby- 
lonian empire ;  refugees  from  Judah  had  doubtless  already  founded 
colonies  in  Egypt  like  that  at  Elephantine;  Jehoahaz  and  his 
courtiers  had  been  carried  to  Egyipi;  and  perhaps  the  blow  of 
597  B.C.  had  fallen.  All  of  these  are  to  be  gathered  home  in  the 
great  day. — And  her  whom  I  have  afflicted]  The  fact  that  these 
words  are  missing  in  Zp.  3^^  where  the  two  preceding  Hnes  re- 
cur is  not  sufficient  evidence  for  treating  them  as  an  interpolation 


94  inCAH 

here;*  they  furnish  a  comprehensive  statement  summarising  the  sit- 
uation. The  prophets  never  hesitated  to  ascribe  any  of  Israel's  ca- 
lamities to  the  hand  of  Yahweh,  but  always  as  punishment  for  sin. 

Str.  IV,  in  trimeter  movement,  declares  the  coming  exaltation 
of  the  remnant  of  the  nation  and  its  permanence  as  Yahweh's 
people. — 7.  And  I  will  make  the  halt  a  remnant,  and  her  that  was 
sick  a  strong  nation]  The  parallelism  shows  that  the  term  'rem- 
nant' is  practically  ecjuivalent  to  the  corresponding  term  'strong 
nation.'  This  implies,  as  We.  has  noted,  a  much  more  advanced 
stage  in  the  development  of  the  idea  of  the  remnant  than  can  be 
imagined  for  the  eighth  century  when  Isaiah  was  first  giving  clear 
expression  to  the  conception;  cf.  Is.  7^  S*"^-  io-°^-  Am.  8^^  It 
presupposes  a  time  when  the  idea  had  been  long  familiar  and  the 
mere  mention  of  the  term  carried  with  it  the  suggestion  of  all  the 
glory  and  splendour  of  the  Messianic  age  that  had  gradually  gath- 
ered around  the  thought  of  the  remnant.  For  'her  that  was  sick' 
iH  reads  'her  that  was  far  removed';  v.  s.. — And  Yahweh  will  he 
king  over  them]  in  a  larger  and  truer  sense  than  ever  before  and 
to  the  exclusion  of  any  human  being;  cf.  Is.  24^^  52'. — In  Mount 
Zion]  This  reflects  an  attitude  toward  Jerusalem  quite  contrary 
to  that  of  chs.  1-3,  and  common  only  after  the  adoption  of  the 
Deuteronomic  Code.  The  metrical  form  seems  to  point  to  this 
phrase  as  a  gloss. — From  now  on  even  forever]  'Now,'  i.  e.  in  the 
immediate  future,  deliverance  will  be  wrought;  cf.  the  similar 
use  of  'now'  in  v.  ^°. 

Str.  V,  in  trimeter  measure,  promises  the  restoration  of  the  old- 
time  glory  and  power  to  Jerusalem. — 8.  And  thou,  O  tower  of  the 
flock]  The  figure  of  Israel  as  a  flock  of  sheep  is  resumed  from 
vv.  ^-  ^^.  The  '  tower '  was  an  elevated  structure  overlooking  the 
sheepfold  in  which  the  flock  was  gathered  for  the  night  (Nu.  32*"). 
From  this  watch-tower  the  shepherd  could  keep  a  lookout  for  ma- 
rauding beasts  (2  Ch.  26'°;  cf.  2  K.  if  18^).  The  phrase  is  not 
therefore  an  allusion  to  Jerusalem  as  a  scene  of  desolation, |  but 
rather  as  the  headquarters  of  Yahweh,  the  protector  of  Israel;  cf 
Is.  14^^.  The  figure,  perhaps,  reflects  the  experience  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  campaign  of  Sennacherib,  701  B.C.,  which  placed  the  stamp 

*  Contra  Gu..  t  Contra  Wc,  Now.,  Marti. 


4'"  95 

of  Yahweh's  approval  upon  the  city  for  later  generations. — Height 
of  the  daughter  of  Zion]  ^£J?,  height,  is  used  of  fortified  hills  in 
general  (2  K.  5^*;  Mesha-Inscr.,  1.  22),  and  also  specifically  of  the 
southern  end  of  the  hill  Moriah,  between  the  temple  and  Siloam 
(2  Ch.  2f  33"  Ne.  3^^-  "  11^^).  Here,  as  in  Is.  32",  it  is  either 
used  in  its  general  sense,  or  by  synecdoche  designates  the  whole 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  specific  name  of  a  portion. — Unto  thee  will 
come  the  first  dominion]  The  reference  is  probably  to  the  days  of 
the  kingdom  imder  David  and  Solomon  when  Jerusalem  was  the 
capital  of  the  whole  nation.  Allusion  to  the  prosperous  days  of  the 
double  kingdom  under  Jeroboam  II  and  Uzziah  is  less  natural; 
while  to  say  that  the  implied  contrast  must  be  between  the  post- 
exilic  regime  and  the  pre-exilic*  as  a  whole  is  without  any  basis. 
It  is  possible  that '  first '  here  is  used  in  the  sense  of '  chief '  and  thus 
describes  the  dominion  as  the  greatest  in  the  world,  the  world- 
empire. — Yea,  there  will  come  the  kingdom  of  the  house  of  Israel] 
With  the  transposition  of  the  verb  'come'  (y.  s.),  there  is  preserved 
here  the  regularity  and  symmetry  so  characteristic  of  the  paral- 
lelism of  these  verses.  M,  reads  'there  will  come  the  kingdom 
of  the  daughter  of  Jerusalem';  but  this  is  a  prosaic  repetition 
of  the  previous  line  and  adds  nothing.  As  corrected,  the  second 
line  points  out  that  Jerusalem's  great  honour  is  to  come  to  her  as 
the  representative  of  the  entire  nation,  the  people  of  Yahweh.  The 
kingdom  will  be  such  an  one  as  will  be  worthy  of  Israel's  exalted 
relation. 

9-  r."!]  On  ace.  cog.  as  substitute  for  inf.  abs.,  Ges.  5"'".  117  q_ — 
10.  Tjji]  Irregular  vocalisation  might  be  for  euphonic  variation  after 
••Sin;  cf.  irn  in  v.  "  and  Ko.  '•  ^"s,  Sta.  *!  5'"';  but  in  Gn.  43I'  under  similar 
circumstances  such  variation  is  not  made,  and  there  are  other  o  imvs.  and 
infs.  from  iX  impfs.,  where  euphony  plays  no  part,  e.  g.  oid  (Ps.  38"  46'), 
yj  (Is.  7").  The  meaning  of  the  vb.  as  used  elsewhere  (viz.  in  Aram., 
Ar.,  and  Jb.  38'  40")  is  'gush  forth,'  'break  forth.'  In  view  of  this, 
we  might  render  here, '  burst  forth '  {i.  e.  into  weeping,  lamentation,  etc.), 
especially  since  the  thought  of  a  new  birth  for  Israel  is  not  at  all  present 
in  the  speaker's  thought,  but  only  the  attendant  suffering;  and  since  the 
meaning  "bring  forth,"  i.  e.  in  childbirth,  is  very  doubtful  for  the  vb. 
n>j. — jvs  n2]   /.  e.  the  people,  not  the  town;   Ko.  ^"". — 6.  hddm]  Qal 

*  So  We.,  Now.. 


96  incAH 

impf.  of  ']Dtt,  treated  as  n'd  vb.,  and  often  confused  with  Hiph.  of  fiD\ 
The  n  _  (4  times  in  2  lines)  is  probably  used  for  poetic  assonance,  and 
not  with  any  specific  meaning. — ny'^xn]  The  fem.  used  as  a  coll.;  Ges. 
4i22s_ — 7,  nNSn:n-J  A  Niph.  prtc.  from  a  denom.  vb.  nSh  not  elsewhere 
used,  but  the  existence  of  such  a  vb.  is  very  doubtful;  the  Vrss.  had  difB- 
culty  with  the  word,  <&^  ®  rendering  it  just  like  nmjn  of  v. «,  (6^  using 
a  slighdy  different  word  {i^uan'  for  atruan'),  11  rendering  as  if  from  hn*^, 
and  S>  using  same  words  here  as  for  n;''^x  and  nmj  in  v.  ^  but  in  transposed 
order;  Jj  has  expulsam  in  v. '  and  projectam  here,  but  this  is  only  for  the 
sake  of  variety  as  appears  from  the  renderings  adflictam  and  contribula- 
tam  for  the  one  word  r\'s'^-ir^  in  the  two  verses.  The  proposed  reading 
nSnjn  accounts  well  for  the  corruptions  of  M  and  3,  and  its  position 
together  with  its  similarity  to  nmjn  might  easily  have  misled  <&. — 8. 
-np  Vijc]  Gn.  35-'  (J),  the  only  other  place  where  this  title  occurs, 
evidently  refers  to  a  locality  between  Ephrath  and  Hebron,  and  appa- 
rently nearer  to  the  former  than  to  the  latter.  But  Ephrath  was  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bethel,  hence  the  application  of  the  term  is  different  from  its 
usage  here.  Similar  names  are  -iJ  Vijd  (Jos.  15"),  pjjSn  'u  (Ct.  7*),  '0 
•tnijo  (Ju.  8"),  33tt'  'd  (Ju.  9<«),  Ss  '-a  (Jos.  ig'*). — Sc;']  If  used  here  as 
a  proper  name  {v.  s.),  it  designates  a  place  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
eastern  or  temple  hill;  cf.  GASm.  Jerusalem,  I,  152  ff.;  Paton,  Jerusa- 
lem in  Bible  Times,  64.  The  basal  idea  of  the  word  is  'swelling,'  'pro- 
tuberance,' as  appears  from  the  Arabic  root  and  from  its  use  in  i  S. 
58-  9-  >2  Dt.  28".  The  Assy,  ublu,  boil,  ulcer  (Dl."^^^)  should  perhaps  be 
read  uplu  (Jensen,  ThLZ.  1895,  p.  250). — r^rnr']  The  use  of  this  Aramaic 
word  might  perhaps  be  urged  against  Micah's  authorship;  but  it  is  unnec- 
essary to  go  further  down  than  Jeremiah's  time  for  Aramaisms,  in  the  light 
of  the  general  and  widespread  use  of  Aramaic  revealed  by  the  discovery 
of  the  Assuan  papyri  and  by  the  Aramaic  dockets  on  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian contract  tablets  dating  as  early  as  the  time  of  Sennacherib.  On 
preformative  ^^,  as  regularly  in  Aram.,  instead  of  6,cf.  Ges.  ^  f^^'. — n3':'cc] 
On  cstr.  before  prep.,c/.  Ges.^"''",Ko.  ^"«'''.  The  function  of  the  prep,  is 
to  define  the  relation  between  cstr.  and  gen.  specifically;  H.  ^  ^■'^^.  Thus 
the  meaning  here  is  not '  kingdom  over '  but '  kingdom  for,'  or  '  belonging 
to.' — D^ti'iT'  ro]  no  may  easily  have  been  written  na  as  in  MeSa-Inscr., 
1.  23,  Phoenician,  Palmyrene,  Sabaean;  and,  through  the  influence  of 
jvx  na  in  1.  2,  oSiyn^  displaced  '^n-ib'^. 

§  10.     The  Triumph  of  Israel  (4"""). 

In  two  strs.  of  six  lines  each  and  in  trimeter  measure,  the  prophet 
describes  the  scene  of  Israel's  fmal  vindication  at  Yahweh's  hands. 
Str.  I  depicts  the  assembling  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  for  the 


4"-"  97 

purpose  of  crushing  Israel,  whereas  Yahweh's  purpose  is  to  use 
Israel  to  crush  them.  Str.  II  shows  Israel  turning  upon  her  foes 
and,  with  Yahweh's  aid,  vanquishing  them  and  dedicating  their 
booty  to  Yahweh. 

A  ND  now  there  are  gathered  against  thee 

Many  nations,  who  say:    Let  her  be  desecrated, 

And  let  our  eyes  fasten  upon  Zion. 

But  they  know  not  the  purposes  of  Yahweh; 

Nor  do  they  understand  his  plan, 

That  he  hath  gathered  them  like  grain  to  the  threshing-floor. 
A  RISE  and  thresh,  O  daughter  of  Zion; 

For  thy  horn  I  will  make  iron. 

And  thy  hoofs  I  will  make  bronze. 

And  thou  shalt  crush  many  peoples. 

And  thou  shalt  devote  their  spoil  to  Yahweh, 

And  their  wealth  to  the  Lord  of  all  the  earth. 

This  passage  reflects  other  conditions  than  those  with  which  w.  '•  ■"• 
•-8  deal.  In  both  descriptions  Jerusalem  is  in  a  state  of  siege;  but  there 
the  result  of  the  siege  is  the  fall  of  the  city  and  the  exile  of  its  inhabitants; 
deliverance  comes  only  after  captivity  has  begun.  Here,  Jerusalem 
turns  upon  its  foes  and  conquers  those  who  came  confident  of  victory. 
There,  the  enemy  is  evidently  the  Babylonian;  here,  the  whole  pagan 
world  gathers  against  Yahweh's  people.  This  last  feature  was  first  in- 
corporated in  the  prophetic  descriptions  of  the  'latter  days'  by  Ezekiel 
(38'^  39*'^'  '^)  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  it  was  original  with 
him.  Hence  this  oracle  must  belong  to  a  late  exilic  or  a  postexilic  date. 
The  whole  spirit  of  the  passage  is  consonant  with  such  a  date.  In  view 
of  3''  alone,  Micah's  authorship  of  this  section  seems  out  of  the  question. 

The  text  of  the  passage  is  well  preserved.  The  two  strs.  present  each 
a  distinct  phase  of  the  situation  and  together  constitute  a  complete  rep- 
resentation of  the  scene.  The  metre  is  regular  except  in  lines  2  and  4  of 
Str.  I,  where  tetrameters  appear.  To  separate  Str.  I  from  Str.  II  on  this 
account  alone,  with  Siev.,  seems  to  be  placing  too  much  stress  upon  con- 
siderations of  form.  The  two  are  bound  together  into  one  prophecy  by 
identity  of  situation  and  point  of  view. 

11 .  nnyi]  §  om.  1. — tljnn]  05  iTnxa-poiixeda.  B  lapidetur.  Aq.  (ace. 
to  §")  will  fall  into  wrath.  ^  treats  irx  as  subj.  of  lonn,  and  M-'ry  as 
subj.  of  tnn,  for  which  it  supplies  a  pron.  as  obj..  We.  finon. — ij>j''y]  4 
mss.,  S"  13  QT  sg.,  Myg.  <S  has  pi.,  but  puts  vb.  in  pi.  to  agree  with  subj.. 
— 12.  mati'nc]  d  §  sg.. — n^sy]  "B/oenum  {hay)  as  always  in  B.  Sears 
of  grain.  (5  dpdy/jLara  (sheaves).  Aq.  ^  chaff.  0  a  stalk  of  grain. — 
13.  IJip]  <g  g- pi.. — .-i|i-in]  (gs  Kararij^ets.  ^-^^  0  153.  233  XeTTTums.  ®Y 
combines   both   renderings,  kolt air a.T riff eis  iv  ainaZi  fdvij  kolI  Xeirrvveii 


98  MICAH 

\aovi  iroXXoi's;  cf.  £  et  labescere  faciam  in  eis  gentes  et  minutalim  fades 
plebes  tnultas.  H  comminues.  &  om.  conj.  ^. — 'no'^n'?]  Rd.  as  2d  pers., 
with  ^  &  13  (3,  and  nearly  all  interpreters. — aS^n]  ($  t^v  lax^"  avTuv; 
so  V. 

Str.  I  states  Yahweh's  purpose  to  thwart  the  evil  intentions  of 
the  nations  toward  Israel. — 11.  And  now  there  are  gathered  against 
thee]  Jerusalem  is  addressed.  The  prophet's  'now'  is  at  the  end 
of  the  days,  whither  he  has  transported  himself  in  spirit.  The  sit- 
uation he  depicts  here  cannot  be  identified  with  any  set  of  known 
historical  circumstances,  not  even  the  Maccabaean  {pace  Hpt.).  It 
is  the  vision  of  a  seer. — Many  nations,  who  say:]  The  gathering  of 
the  nations  in  array  against  Jerusalem  is  a  characteristic  idea  of 
exilic  and  postexilic  prophecy;  cf.  Ez.  38  and  39;  Jo.  3^-  "  Zc.  12''® 
Is.  29'-  ^  41""^^  Zp.  3*.  It  belongs  to  the  later  eschatological  as- 
pect of  prophecy.  Pre-exilic  prophecy  sends  its  roots  deep  down 
into  contemporaneous  history;  its  visions  of  the  future  are  indis- 
solubly  linked  with  the  conditions  of  the  present;  Yahweh's  ac- 
tivities in  Israel's  destiny  are  all  historically  mediated.  But  in  the 
later  eschatology,  as  here,  the  pictures  of  the  future  bear  no  neces- 
sary relation  to  the  circumstances  of  the  present,  and  Yahweh's 
interventions  are  direct  and  immediate;  not  by  human  agencies, 
but  by  divine  forces.* — Let  her  he  desecrated]  The  choice  of  lan- 
guage is  determined  by  the  prophet's  own  point  of  view  which  is 
that  Israel's  land  is  holy  to  Yahweh  and  the  tread  of  the  nations 
is  desecrating;  cf.  Jo.  3".  The  same  figure  appears  in  Is.  24^  Ps. 
106^^  Je.  3*-  ^-  '  Nu.  35^. — And  let  our  eyes  fasten  on  Zion]  i.  e. 
gloat  in  triumph  upon  the  fallen  city;  cf.  La.  2'*  Ob.  12/.. — 12. 
But  they  know  not  the  purposes  of  Yahweh,  nor  do  they  understand 
his  plan]  Cf  Is.  55^^-  Ps.  92^  Rom.  11^.  Just  so  Isaiah  (10^*') 
had  pictured  the  Assyrian  army  as  unconsciously  working  out  the 
purpose  of  Yahweh  in  reference  to  Israel,  only  to  fall  in  turn  a 
victim  to  Yahweh's  righteous  wrath.  "The  secret  of  the  Lord  is 
with  them  that  fear  him"  (Ps.  25"). — That  he  hath  gathered  them 
like  grain  to  the  threshing-floor]  This  is  the  content  of  the  plan 

♦  Gressmann's  attempt  (Eschalologtc,  177  ff.)  to  retain  these  verses  as  Mirah's  involves  too 
much  of  unproved  hypothesis  and  docs  not  carry  conviction  even  to  those  in  sympathy  with 
his  general  contention,  e.  g.  Stk.  Das  assyrische  Wcllrckh,  132. 


4"-"  99 

in  question.     Threshing  is  a  favourite  simile  with  the  prophets; 
cj.  Am.  i^  2  K.  13^  Hb.  3^==  Je.  51^  Is.  21^"  4I*^ 

Str.  II  promises  Israel  complete  victory  over  the  nations  as- 
sembled to  humiliate  her. — ^13.  Arise  and  thresh,  O  daughter  of 
Zion]  The  prophet's  national  pride  finds  expression  in  this  repre- 
sentation of  Israel  as  the  agent  of  Yahweh  in  crushing  the  arrogant 
foes. — For  thy  horn  I  will  make  iron  and  thy  hoofs  bronze]  Israel 
is  addressed  as  "the  ox  which  treadeth  out  the  grain"  (Dt.  25* 
Ho.  10").  The  reference  to  horns  here  is  foreign  to  the  figure  of 
the  threshing-floor,  and  introduces  a  new  element  into  the  picture 
— that  of  the  angry  ox  goring  the  foe;  cf.  i  K.  22"  Dt.  33^^. — And 
thou  shall  crush  many  peoples]  The  verb  here  means  'to  pulver- 
ise,' 'to  reduce  to  fine  dust';  hence  practical  annihilation  of  the 
nations  is  here  contemplated. — And  thou  shall  devote  to  Yahweh 
their  spoil]  Not  the  booty  taken  by  them  from  others,*  but  the 
prey  taken  from  them  by  Israel.  There  is  no  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  '  spoil '  of  this  line  and  the  parallel '  wealth '  of  the  follow- 
ing line.  This  is  all  to  be  placed  imder  the  ban,  i.  e.  everything 
combustible  is  to  be  burned,  and  the  non-combustibles,  silver, 
gold,  etc.,  are  to  be  presented  to  the  treasury  of  the  temple;  cf. 
Jos.  6"'^^-  ^*.  Other  instances  of  the  ban  are  found  in  Ex.  22*® 
Dt.  13®'^®  Ju.  i"  I  S.  15. — And  their  wealth  to  the  Lord  of  the 
whole  earth]  This  title  as  applied  to  Yahweh  is  found  only  here, 
in  the  late  passages  Zc.  4"  6^  Ps.  gf,  and  in  Jos.  3"-  ^^  (J),  where 
it  is  generally  conceded  to  be  interpolated ;f  cf  Dt.  lo^^  The 
ill-gotten  gain  of  the  nations  is  to  be  given  to  the  God  of  the 
world,  to  whom  it  rightfully  belongs. 

11.  oiinxn]  Prtc.  with  art.  after  indeterminate  noun  is  equiv.  to  an 
attributive  clause;  Ko.  ^<"  <*. — tnni]  On  fern.  sg.  of  vb.  with  subj.  in  pi. 
(not  «fMa/,  as  in  Ges.  ^'"n^  and  Ko.  ^^^47)^  c/.  Ges.  ^'^i'. — 12.  T'sy]  Not 
specifically  sheaves,  but  the  grain  in  the  swath;  v.  BDB.  and  cf.  the 
renderings  of  the  Vrss.  here. — nni]  Baer,  incorrectly,  nn'j;  Ges.^'"'. — 
13.  ''•^ni]  On  pointing,  cf.  v.  '". — \":r:in:']  Old  2d  pers.  sg.  fem.  end. 
■•n—,  which  occurs  in  several  cases,  e.  g.  in  pron.  ^nN;  always  in  form 
of  vb.  before  pronominal  suflfixes;  in  corresponding  pron.  of  Assy.,  atti; 

*  Contra  Now.,  Marti. 

t  So  e.  g.  Carpenter  and  Battersby,  Holzinger,  Addis,  Kent,  Dillmann  (?);  conira  Steuer- 
nagel. 


lOO  MICAH 

in  the  verbal  end.  ti  in  Ar.,  Syr.,  and  sporadically  in  Aram..  Other  in- 
stances of  vi  with  vb.  in  Heb.  are  Je.  2"3<-  '31"  46"  Jd.  3'-  *  Ez.  i6"-  "• 
«.  31.  38.  43.  <7.  41^  whcrc  thc  Mas.  recognised  it  as  2d  pers.  and  so  pointed 
'n;  and  Jc.  2''  Ez.  16"'  where  it  was  mistaken  for  ist  pers.. — So  ji-x 
inN'"!]  Cf.  I'-iNi  O'DS'  njp,  Gn.  14";  and  the  Ranal  Inscr.,  which  men- 
tions "the  Lord  (Baal)  of  heaven  and  earth." 

§  II.     A  Call  to  Mourning  (4"). 

A  fragment  of  an  oracle  dealing  with  some  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
perhaps  that  of  Sennacherib,  or  that  of  Nebuchadrezzar,  or  some 
one  unknowTi.  It  seems  to  reflect  an  actual  historical  situation, 
rather  than  a  prophet's  vision  of  the  last  days.  But  the  material  is 
too  scant  to  furnish  a  basis  for  assignment  to  any  specific  date.  Its 
closest  connection  is  with  vv.  ^-  '"  and  it  may  have  belonged  orig- 
inally after  v.  °  or  as  a  marginal  note  on  v.  '"  (so  Marti).  It  has 
been  generally  recognised  that  no  connection  exists  with  what  pre- 
cedes, as  is  sho^vn  by  the  absence  of  1  from  before  nJlJ?  and  by  the 
totally  different  thought  conveyed.  Halevy  places  it  after  6*^,  but 
no  real  connection  is  thereby  attained. 

14.  -inj  ra  mj.nr]  Rd.,  with  We.,  ■'i"'.Jnn  Ti.jpn,  or  vice  versa;  so 
Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt..  <S  e/i<^/3ax^^ceTot  dvydTTjp  iixtppay^tfi, 
mistaking  the  2d  t  for  1;  cf.  van  H.,  -\-\^  no  '^^^?^.  2  udiv^ffovffL  ae 
0vy'  ffwexofJ-^vv-  B  vastaberis  filia  latronis.  &  thou  shall  go  forth  in  a 
troop,  O  daughter  of  troops. — ai:']  Rd.,  with  g>  13  01,  isr;  so  Taylor, 
Pont,  Now.,  Marti,  Gu..  "L  irid-q.  Hal.  'cr.  Ro.  BU';  c/.  Ry.  p.82.— 
12']  Hal.  ''rn. — -jd-j']  (6  ras  Tri/Xas.  &  shepherd,  perhaps  =  C3C.  Cod. 
548  (de  R.)  ■'i?pu';  so  Dathe,  Gr..    Van  H.  •'•czv,  foil.  <8.     Hpt.  oduo. 

14.  Now  thou  art  cutting  thyself  severely]  Zion  is  addressed, 
not  Babylon  nor  Assyria.  Cutting  of  one's  flesh  was  an  element  in 
the  old  Semitic  mourning-cult  and  was  long  retained  by  the  Israel- 
ites; Dt.  14'.  It  was  resorted  to  also  as  an  act  of  worship  and  en- 
treaty in  cases  of  dire  necessity;  cf.  i  K.  18^^.*  The  usual  render- 
ing of  M.  is,  "Now,  thou  shalt  gather  in  troops,  O  daughter  of 

*  Hpt.  denies  the  relislous  significance  of  the  act  of  cutting  oneself  in  mourning  and  declares 
it  a  symbolical  perpetuation  of  thc  early  custom  in  accordance  with  which  mournirs  scratched 
themselves  till  the  blood  ran  in  order  to  show  their  grief.  But  on  this  suppfisition  the  prohibi- 
tion in  Dt.  14'  Lv.  i(j2'  2 1'  is  hard  to  account  for.  Nor  can  the  custom  be  dissociated  from  such 
practices  as  appear  in  i  K.  i8-'. 


5'-'  loi 

troops,"  referring  to  the  assembling  of  Zion's  army  to  resist  the  as- 
sault about  to  be  made.  But  Je.  5'  offers  the  only  case  where 
nnjrin  must  mean  "assemble,"  and  there  it  is  far  better  to  follow  d 
KareXvov  and  read  mlHril*,  make  themselves  at  home.*  This  ref- 
erence to  a  practice  forbidden  by  the  Deuteronomic  law  may  point 
to  an  early  date  before  the  religious  consciousness  of  Israel  had 
branded  the  custom  as  heathenish,  or  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  prophet  is  merely  describing  what  is  actually  taking  place,  and 
neither  commanding  nor  approving  it. — A  siege  they  lay  against 
us]  The  prophet  now  identifies  himself  with  his  suffering  people. 
The  plural  IDIT  is  required  by  the  corresponding  13\  A  similar 
situation  is  depicted  in  Is.  i^-  *. — With  a  rod  they  smite  upon  the 
cheek  the  ruler  of  Israel]  The  pun  upon  tOStt^  and  tD3tt^  is  clear,  the 
former  being  used  rather  than  "^^D  or  h^^  to  make  the  parono- 
masia; cf.  Am.  2^.  Such  treatment  was  grossly  insulting;  cf.  i  K. 
22^*  Jb.  16^".  It  may  refer  to  the  insults  heaped  upon  Hezekiah 
(Is.  36*"^°)  by  Sennacherib's  general,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  arro- 
gance of  the  foe  was  an  insult  to  Israel's  greater  king,  Yahweh. 

§  12.     The  Messianic  King  (5*"'). 

This  eight-line  str.,  secured  by  omitting  v.  ^  as  a  gloss,  an- 
nounces the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  sprung  from  an  ancient  line, 
who  shall  rule  as  Yahweh's  representative  and  in  his  might  over 
the  entire  world. 

A  ND  thou,  Beth  Ephrathah, 
The  least  among  the  clans  of  Judah, 
From  thee  one  will  come  forth  for  me, 
Who  will  be  ruler  over  Israel, 
Whose  origins  are  from  of  old,  from  ancient  days. 
And  he  will  stand  and  shepherd  (his  flock)  in  the  strength  of  Yahweh, 
In  the  majesty  of  the  name  of  Yahweh,  his  God; 
For  now  he  will  be  great  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

The  trimeter  movement  of  this  str.  is  somewhat  uneven;  1.  3  forms  a 
light  trimeter  while  11.  5  and  8  are  extremely  heavy.  The  reconstruction 
includes  the  omission  of  a  word  each  from  II.  i,  2,  and  8  {v.  i.),  in  addi- 
tion to  the  excision  of  v.  '.  The  arrangement  in  pentameters  by  Siev. 
includes  all  of  these  omissions  except  that  in  I.  8,  but  likewise  finds  it 

*  So  e.  g.  Gie.,  Du.,  Cor.,  Dr.. 


I02  MIC  AH 

necessary  to  suppose  the  loss  of  three  words  from  v.  '.  V.  *  is  om.  by 
Du.  (on  Is.  7'<),  G.  H.  Skipwith  {JQR.  VI,  584);  Now.,  F.  Ladame, 
Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Hpt..  It  interrupts  the  connection  between  w. '  *"'' ', 
and  changes  from  the  first  person  of  v.  •  ("V)  to  the  third  in  v.  »  (aon"'), 
where  Yahweh  is  evidently  intended. 

The  date  of  vv.  '•  '  cannot  be  decisively  settled.  The  attitude  of  re- 
spect for  the  ancient  Davidic  dynasty  and  the  largeness  of  the  Messianic 
expectation  make  it  reasonably  certain  that  the  oracle  must  be  assigned 
somewhere  in  the  postexilic  age.  The  period  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
when  Messianic  hopes  were  gathering  around  the  name  of  Zerubbabel 
furnishes  the  kind  of  background  necessary  to  such  an  utterance  as  this. 
On  v.  ',  V.  i.. 

1.  n.--\D!<  anS  r^a]  Om.  onS  as  a  gloss;  so  cod.  161  (Kenn.),  Ro., 
Pont,  We.,  GASm.,  Now.,  OortE">-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt..  (& 
B($\^efi  o/koj  'E0pd5a.  Mt.  2'  BedXdfi  yfj  'Ioi;5a.  Comp.  oT/cos  roO 
Bed\^€/x  ToO  Evcppdda. — nvi]  Rd.,  with  Hi.,  -\'';;i^;  cf.  (S  6Xi7o<rT6y  J; 
so  Ro.,  Taylor,  Pont,  We.,  Kosters,  GASm.,  Now.,  Oort^""-,  Marti, 
Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt..  Twenty-one  mss.  cited  by  HP.,  together  with 
A,  C,  Mt.  2',  Justin  Martyr  and  Chrysostom,  introduce  a  negative 
before  's. — nvnS]  Om.,  as  dittog.  from  1.  4,  with  U,  Mt.  2^;  so  Hi.,  Che., 
Taylor,  Pont,  We.,  Kosters,  Gr.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du., 
Hpt..  r^Yry"-)  's  is  poor  Heb. ;  the  correct  form  would  be  '^n;;  's. — >S]  ft  and 
Mt.  2^  om.;  so  Stk.. — Sii'D  nvn'^]  (^^  Tjyov/j.evos  toO  elvai  eh  dpxovra. — 
Mt.  2'  renders  the  last  part  of  verse  loosely;  /yom  thee  shall  come  forth 
a  leader  who  shall  shepherd  my  people  Israel. — 2 .  cj.— ']  (J  has  vb.  in  3d 
pers.  pi.;  A  in  2d  pers.  sg.  fem.. — rns]  (5  (5  A,  pi.  sf.. — S>-]  We., 
Now.,  Marti,  Stk.,  Hpt.  'jn. — 3.  nyn]  (g  has  a  doublet,  6\{/fTai  Kal  iroi- 
fxavei  rb  iroi/xvLov  avrov.  Gr.,  GASm.,  Siev.,  Gu.,  foil.  (S,  add  an  obj., 
e.  g.  n-ij;.- — pt<J^]  ^  =  P>!-i3V — rnS.s]  (S  has  pi.  sf.. — i^^'n]  Om.  as  a 
gloss,  or  as  a  dittog.  from  jiav^-'  in  v. '.  <S  virdp^ova-iv,  connecting  with 
V.  '•  and  omit.  1;  so  Taylor,  Pont,  who  read  vb.  as  in  fH.  B  conver- 
tentur;  so  ft  (U.  One  ms.  ur;;  3  mss.  i2vrM.  Ro.  orv.  Siev.,  Stk., 
and  Gu.  suppose  the  loss  of  some  word  or  phrase  modifying  la:;"',  e.  g. 
naa. — Su'']  <S  pi..     Siev.  supposes  the  loss  of  the  subj.,  or  of  an  adv.. 

1.  And  thou,  Beth  Ephrathah]  M  reads,  "Bethlehem  Ephra- 
thah";  but  "Bethlehem"  is  a  gloss  as  is  shown  by  (g's  rendering 
and  by  the  metre.  The  identification  with  Bethlehem  is,  however, 
correct  as  appears  from  the  reference  to  Judah  in  the  following  line, 
from  the  evident  allusion  of  v.  ^  to  the  Davidic  dynasty  which  sprang 
from  Bethlehem,  and  from  the  way  in  which  Bethlehem  and  Eph- 
rathah are  associated  in  other  passages.  The  family  of  David  were 
Ephrathites  of  Bethlehem  Judah  (i  S.  17'^);  Mahlon  and  Chilion 


5'  1^3 

are  likewise  classified  (Ru.  i^) ;  Ephrathah  and  Bethlehem  are  par- 
allel terms  in  Ru.  4";  (g's  version  of  Jos.  15^^,  which  is  generally 
conceded  to  represent  the  original  text,  identifies  Ephrathah  and 
Bethlehem;  while  i  Ch.  2*®-  ^°  4^  enumerates  Bethlehem  in  a  list  of 
Judean  towns  associated  with  Caleb  and  Ephrathah.  The  only 
evidence  at  variance  with  these  facts  is  furnished  by  Gn.  35^"-  ^^ 
48^  I  S.  10^;  in  Gn.  35^^  48''  Ephrathah  is  identified  with  Bethlehem 
as  above,  but  from  Gn.  35^®  and  i  S.  10^  it  appears  that  the  Ephra- 
thah in  question,  which  was  the  burial-place  of  Rachel,  was  near 
Bethel  and  was  in  the  border  of  Benjamin.  Hence  we  are  forced 
to  conclude  that  there  were  at  least  two  places  named  Ephrathah, 
one  in  Benjamin  and  one  in  Judah,  and  that  the  phrase  "that  is 
Bethlehem"  in  Gn.  35^^  48^  is  a  gloss  due  to  some  reader  who  con- 
fused the  two  places.*  The  Ephrathah  of  our  text  seems  to  have 
been  the  name  of  a  larger  district  within  which  Bethlehem  was  situ- 
ated, or  of  the  clan  to  which  Bethlehem  belonged.  On  the  basis 
of  the  existence  of  an  Ephrathah  in  Benjamin,  Oort  endeavoured 
to  show  that  this  prophecy  had  to  do  with  that  site  and  was  in- 
tended to  announce  the  coming  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  through 
the  restoration  of  the  downfallen  dynasty  of  Saul,t  but  upon  the  ex- 
posure of  the  weakness  of  this  proposition  by  Kue.,|  Oort  himself 
abandoned  it.§ — The  least  among  the  thousands  of  Judah]  The 
only  possible  rendering  of  HJ  is,  "little  to  be  among  the  thousands 
of  Judah,"  i.  e.  so  small  that  one  would  hardly  have  expected  to 
find  thee  in  the  number.  But  grammar  and  metre  combine  to 
recommend  the  corrected  text.  The  word  rendered  clans  is  of 
somewhat  doubtful  significance  as  applied  to  Beth  Ephrathah. 
It  ordinarily  designates,  aside  from  its  strictly  numerical  usage, 
either  a  band  of  one  thousand  men  under  a  common  leader,  or  a 
family.  Here  and  in  i  S.  23^  it  has  either  the  latter  meaning,  or 
else  denotes  the  region  or  district  occupied  by  an  C]7X.  It  may  re- 
fer to  Ephrathah  as  the  seat  of  the  Davidic  clan,  which  at  the  time 
this  was  written  seems  to  have  been  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms. 
But  in  contrast  with  the  present  low  estate  of  the  family, /row  thee 
one  will  come  forth  for  me  who  shall  he  ruler  over  Israel]  This  im- 

*  So  e.  g.  Dillmann,  Stk.,  Dr.,  Addis,  Gunkel,  Holzinger,  Carpenter  and  Battersby. 

t  ThT.  V,  S01-S12.  t  ThT.  VI,  4SH56.  §  ThT.  VI,  273-279. 


I04  anCAH 

plies  that  at  the  time  of  its  utterance  there  was  no  king  over  Israel 
and  thus  indicates  the  late  origin  of  this  passage  For  me,  i.  e.  in 
accordance  with  my  purpose  and  as  a  result  of  my  plans;  the 
speaker  is  Yahweh. — Whose  origins  are  from  of  old,  from  ancient 
days]  i.  e.  he  will  belong  to  one  of  the  oldest  families,  viz.  the 
Davidic;  cf.  Ez.  34^^  ^-  37'*  ^-  Ho.  3'^.  The  phrase  "from  ancient 
days"  (Q^IJ?  '•CD)  is  of  indefinite  scope,  but  is  undoubtedly  in- 
tended to  convey  the  impression  of  great  antiquity;  cf.  Am,  9" 
Mai.  3^.* — 2.  Therefore  will  he  give  them  up  until  the  time  when 
she  who  is  to  give  birth  shall  have  borne]  The  connection  of  this 
gloss  with  the  preceding  verse  is  very  loose.  The  thought  seems 
to  be  thus: — since  Yahweh  is  going  to  raise  up  a  mighty  king  for 
Israel  in  his  own  good  time,  it  is  clear  that  the  present  oppression 
and  suffering  are  only  transitory'  and  will  come  to  an  end  when  the 
Messiah  is  bom.  The  change  from  the  first  person  of  v.  ^  ("for 
me")  to  the  third  person  here  is  awkward;  the  failure  to  define  the 
subject  is  striking;  and  the  lack  of  any  mention  of  the  antecedents 
of  the  pronoun  "them"  is  confusing.  The  treatment  of  v.  ^  as  a 
marginal  note  best  accounts  for  these  facts.  The  statement  con- 
cerning the  expected  birth  is  evidently  an  allusion  to  Is.  7"  and 
comes  from  a  time  when  that  prophecy  was  being  given  Messianic 
significance.  This  would  point  to  an  age  long  after  the  days  of 
Isaiah.f — And  the  rest  of  his  brethren  will  return  unto  the  sons  of 
Israel]  The  only  proper  antecedent  for  "his"  is  the  promised 
Messiah.  The  exile  is  evidently  presupposed,  but  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  the  phrase  "the  rest  of  his  brethren"  eludes  us.     Probably 

*  An  interesting  analogy  is  furnished  by  the  "Messianic"  passage  of  Leiden  Papyrus,  No. 
344  [v.  A.  H.  Gardiner,  Admonitions  oj  an  Egyptian  Sage  (1909)],  where  the  "  Messiah"  is  ap- 
parently represented  as  a  reincarnation  of  the  god  Re  and  thus  can  be  spoken  of  as  a  contempo- 
rary of  the  first  generation  of  mankind;  c/.  JMPS.  on  Semitic  Prophecy,  BW.  XXXV  (1910), 

223-233- 

t  Stk.'s  attempt  to  maintain  Micah's  authorship  of  this  passage  involves  a  mythological  in- 
terpretation of  the  Messiah  as  the  Urmcnsch,  the  "days  of  old  "  as  the  age  of  Paradise,  and  "  the 
one  who  is  to  bear  "  as  the  mother  of  the  gods  (both  here  and  in  Is.  7) — all  of  which  seems  far- 
fetched and  fanciful.  Much  more  plausible  is  the  interpretation  in  the  form  offered  by  Gress- 
mann  {Eschalologie,  270  ^.)  and  Burney  (Journal  oj  Tluol.  Studies,  X,  580-4).  which  is  to  the 
effect  that  this  prophecy  as  well  as  Isaiah's  Immanuel  oracle  rested  upon  a  popular  e.Tpectation 
of  the  advent  of  a  Messianic  ruler  whose  birth  should  be  signalised  by  some  remarkable  portent. 
This  passage  refers  to  three  phases  of  the  expectation,  \iz.  (i)  that  the  Messiah  will  be  of  divine 
origin  having  existed  in  reality  or  in  the  mind  of  God  from  time  immemorial;  (2)  that  whether 
his  fatherhood  be  human  or  divine  he  is  to  be  bom  of  a  woman;  and  (3)  that  his  birth  will  usher 
in  a  new  age  of  peace  and  prosperity. 


5'- '  I05 

We.  is  right  in  seeing  in  it  an  allusion  to  the  Shear  Jashub  of  Is.  7^. 
Perhaps  the  prophet  has  in  mind  the  return  of  all  the  exiles  and 
their  reunion  with  those  who  had  not  been  carried  away;  or  again, 
he  may  look  forward  to  the  reunion  of  Israel  and  Judah  in  the 
Messianic  age;  cj.  Ho.  3^  Is.  11''  ^-  Ez.  i6^- "»  Zc.  8''.— 3.  And  he 
will  stand  and  shepherd  (his  flock)  in  the  strength  of  Yahweh,  in 
the  majesty  of  the  name  of  Yahweh,  his  God]  The  thought  of  v.  * 
is  here  continued.  "Stand"  is  probably  used  in  the  sense  of 
"stand  firm,  steadfast,  invincible."  His  power  will  emanate,  not 
from  the  nation  over  whom  he  rules,  but  from  God  himself.  The 
words  "his  flock"  are  not  expressed  in  the  Hebrew  but  are  im- 
plied in  the  verb  used. — And  they  will  endure]  This  verb,  found 
in  M,  seems  to  be  due  to  a  copyist's  error,  for  it  is  redundant  in  the 
metre  and,  as  it  stands,  yields  no  satisfactory  sense.  It  is  com- 
monly explained  as  meaning  "dwell  in  safety,"  but  the  verb  alone 
never  has  that  meaning.  The  rendering  here  adopted  is  the  least 
difficult;  but  it  is  doubtful,  since  in  Ps,  125*  Jo.  4^",  the  two  pas- 
sages cited  in  support  of  it  (BDB.),  the  meaning  "abide,"  "endure," 
is  conveyed  rather  by  the  modifying  phrase  ub'i'i^b  than  by  the  verb 
itself.  The  elimination  of  this  word  takes  away  all  occasion  for 
Duhm's  transposition  of  v.  ^^  to  follow  v.  ^  as  a  continuation  of  the 
gloss. — For  now  he  will  be  great  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth]  Ac- 
cording to  iK  this  clause  furnishes  the  reason  for  the  security  of 
Israel,  viz.  the  universal  acknowledgment  of  the  power  of  the 
Messiah.  According  to  the  text  as  here  presented,  it  gives  a  con- 
vincing illustration  of  the  effect  of  Yahweh's  strength  as  revealed 
in  the  Messiah. 

1.  'ir^cN]  ^  loc.  with  old  fern,  ending,  Gas.  ^'"e;  cf.  nn^,!?. ,  ^np^B'% 
etc..  'dn  with  this  spelling  occurs  also  in  Ru.  4"  Gn.  35"'-  "  48'  Ps.  132* 
I  Ch.  2"-  6"  4*  Jos.  15"  <S;  but  without  n  _  in  Gn.  48'  i  Ch.  2'3.  Hence 
it  is  better  to  retain  n  in  Mi.  5'  and  to  regard  loss  of  n  from  before  '>'i"  as 
due  to  haplo..  Fr.  Schulthess,  ZAW.  XXX,  62  /.,  following  ^  = 
'apharid,  would  preserve  M  intact  here,  and  treat  'c.s'  as  epitheton  ornayis, 
related  to  the  Aram.  iVJOn  and  Assy,  apparu  which  mean  'pasture- 
land,'  'marsh.'  But  the  character  of  the  region  around  Bethlehem  does 
not  warrant  the  application  of  such  an  epithet,  nor  can  one  clear  case  of 
the  use  of  this  word  as  an  appellative  be  cited  from  either  Heb.,  Ar.,  Syr., 
Aram,  or  Assy..   It  is  equally  true,  of  course,  as  Schulthess  points  out, 


io6  MICAH 

that  nothing  is  known  elsewhere  of  a  Beth-Ephrathah,  yet  the  formation 
of  names  with  '  Beth '  is  one  of  the  most  common. — I'i'x]  Position  in 
sentence  is  against  this  being  in  predicate  relation  to  nrx;  better  as  an 
appositive.  On  the  adj.  with  art.  as  having  superlative  force,  Ges.  ^ '"  «. 
The  masc.  form  is  no  indication  that  Bethlehem  is  used  as  representing 
its  people  and  not  as  designating  a  place,  for  town-names  with  n''3  not  in- 
frequently take  the  masc.  instead  of  the  fem.;  Ko.  hino.mo.  t  Nor  is  it 
true  that  's  applies  only  to  persons  (Hal.);  cf.  Dn.  8»  (of  a  horn),  Je. 
49^°  (of  sheep),  and  the  place-name,  n-r-yx,  2  K.  8". — SsriD  nvrh  nx^]  It 
is  difficult  to  make  'd  'n'?  the  subj.  of  Nif  (Now.,  Marti);  it  is  better  to 
assign  an  indefinite  subj.  and  treat 'd  '^  as  expressing  purpose,  i.  e.  "one 
will  come  forth  to  become  ruler";  on  indef.  subj.,  Ges.  ^ '"  <*;  on  h  with 
inf.  to  express  purpose,  Ges.  ^  "<  '-k. — rnixxin]  av.  in  this  sense;  but  cf. 
Assy.  mUsil,  used  e.  g.  of  the  sources  of  the  Tigris.  A  nominal  clause 
with  relative  force;  cf.  Ko.  ^'"p. — 2.  Djn>]  For  meaning  "deliver  up," 
cf.  Ju.  2o'3  I  S.  ii'2  and  BDB.  679b. — rnSv  nj?]  A  noun  in  cstr.  rel. 
with  a  sentence,  equivalent  to  a  noun  limited  by  a  temporal  clause; 
cf.  Ges.'i'wd.ies  i,_m^>]  put.  pf.;  Dr.  ^'^  Ges.  i '»«  <>  Ko.  ^ '".— Sj?]  = 
Sn;  cf.  BDB.  7S7a;  it  is  unnecessary  to  change  the  text.  The  meaning 
"along  with,"  "together  with,"  which  some  prefer  here  (e.  g.  BDB.),  is 
usually  found  only  where  hy  connects  closely  with  a  noun  (e.  g.  S^  DN 
a^j3,  Gn.  32''),  not  where  it  governs  a  phrase  modifying  a  vb.  as  here 
(so  Now.). — .lim]  Not  uncommonly  used  fig.  of  the  activity  of  a  ruler; 
but  only  here  without  an  obj.  expressed.  Assy,  re'u  commonly  means 
"to  rule,  reign,"  and  'i  here  seems  to  have  that  force. — nny]  Used  of 
fut.  time  as  in  4'. 

§  13.     Israel's  Protection  against  Invasion  {$*•  ^). 

A  ten-line  str.,  the  three  closing  lines  of  which  are  almost  identi- 
cal with  its  three  opening  lines.  When  the  invader  sets  foot  upon 
Israelitish  soil  there  will  be  no  lack  of  valiant  leaders  to  repel  him 
and  to  carry  the  war  into  his  own  territory.  In  contrast  with 
the  present  defenceless,  helpless  condition,  the  Israel  of  the  com- 
ing golden  age  will  be  adequately  equipped  to  defend  her  own 
interests. 

A  ND  this  will  be  our  protection  from  Assyria: 
When  he  comes  into  our  land, 
And  when  he  treads  upon  our  soil, 
Then  we  will  raise  up  against  him  seven  shepherds — 
Yea,  eight  princes  of  men, 
And  they  will  shepherd  the  land  of  Assyria  with  the  sword, 


5'- '  I07 

And  the  land  of  Nimrod  with  the  drawn  sword. 

And  they  will  rescue  from  Assyria, 

When  he  comes  into  our  land, 

And  when  he  treads  upon  our  border. 

The  metre  of  this  str.  is  irregular;  II.  1,4  and  6  are  in  tetrameter,  the 
rest  in  trimeter,  though  2  and  9  might  be  classified  as  dimeters.  L.  6 
may  have  been  originally  a  trimeter,  i'-ix-pn  having  come  in  by  error 
from  the  foil,  line;  cf.  C6.  Siev.'s  attempt  to  secure  four  seven-tone 
lines  here  involves  the  omission  of  the  last  three  words  of  1.  i  and  the 
insertion  of  the  subj.  after  N3''  in  1.  2. 

These  verses  are  assigned  to  Micah  by  some  modem  scholars,  e.  g. 
Volz,  GASm.,  and  the  specific  mention  of  Assyria  seems  to  settle  the 
question.  But  the  name  Assyria  is  used  by  later  writers,  as  the  name 
of  Israel's  first  great  foreign  oppressor,  to  designate  typically  later  peo- 
ples, e.  g.  Babylon  (La.  5^),  Persia  (Ezr.  6"),  Syria  (Zc.  10"  Is.  27"''* 
Ps.  83'  ^■').  The  name  Assyria  clung  to  the  territory  long  after  the  fall 
of  Nineveh;  cf.  the  Talmud's  name  for  the  Aram,  script  employed 
throughout  the  regions  formerly  controlled  by  Assyria,  viz.  ma'N  3-3; 
and  Hdt.  VII,  63,  where  the  names  Assyria  and  Syria  are  declared  to  be 
synonymous;  v.  Buhl,  Kanon  u.  Text,  201.  In  some  such  way  Assyria  is 
used  here.  For  it  is  hardly  conceivable  that  Micah  could  have  spoken 
of  the  Assyria  of  his  day  in  the  terms  employed  in  v.  ^.  Nor  is  the  con- 
fident, warlike  spirit  at  all  compatible  with  Micah's  attitude  toward  the 
future  and  to  Assyria  in  chs.  1-3.  The  verses  seem  to  reflect  later  times 
when  the  Apocalyptists  painted  glowing  pictures  of  the  future  with  little 
reference  to  present  conditions  or  to  the  possibility,  from  a  human  stand- 
point, of  their  ever  being  realised.  Until  we  know  more  of  historical 
conditions  in  Judah  during  the  postexilic  period  than  is  now  accessible, 
we  need  not  follow  Marti  and  Gu.  in  assigning  this  passage  to  the  Macca- 
baean  age,  with  which  it  has  no  necessary  connection,  even  though  the 
reference  of  the  "seven  or  eight  princes"  to  Mattathias  vrith  his  five 
sons  and  grandsons  is  alluring  [so  Hpt.  Transactions  of  the  Third  Inter- 
national Congress  for  the  History  of  Religions,  I  (1908),  268].  In  any 
case  it  is  quite  clear  that  vv.  *-^  do  not  belong  ■with  vv.  >-3;  for  the  Mes- 
siah who  is  the  dominant  figure  there  is  ignored  here.  Instead  of  the 
one  great  leader,  there  are  here  seven  or  eight,  and  these  are  not  raised 
up  by  the  Messiah  but  by  the  populace.  Moreover,  whereas  in  v.  '  the 
rule  of  the  Messiah  is  to  extend  unbroken  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  here 
we  find  "Assyria"  invading  the  territory  of  Israel.  The  point  of  view 
is  thus  distinctly  different  from  that  in  w.  '-3.  Cf.  van  H.,  who  treats 
vv.  <•  '•  as  a  gloss;  and  Du.  who  considers  w.  *^- "»  a  gloss  upon  the  word 
"Assyria"  in  v.  "',  while  w.  *»•  ^b  form  a  four-line  str.  belonging  to  5'-  ». 

4.  ni]  &  om.. — aiSr]  Schnurrer,  oiW;  so  Laufer,  Gautier.  Siev. 
OiSe'.  Siev.  and  Gu.  eliminate  the  phrase  'z'H  '^t'  n:^  as  a  superscription 
which  has  been  mistakenly  incorporated  in  the  body  of  the  poem. — 


Io8  MICAH 

11CN]  Rd.  lie's'?,  the  loss  of  c  from  iJI  being  due  to  haplo..  For 
jD  oiVc*  =  protection  from,  v.  Zc.  8">  Jb.  2i».  Taylor  tr.  to  foil.  n3i,  re- 
garding the  position  in  j31  as  due  to  influence  of  the  order  in  v.  ';  cf. 
Siev.'s  insertion  of  tWN  in  the  same  place  mtr.  cs.. — usiNa]  <g  2d  pi. 
masc.  sf.  and  in  v.  ^ — ijTnjD-iNa]  Rd.  urs-ixa,  foil.  05  iirl  r^v  xwpa*' 
inCov;  so  Ro.,  Ry.,  Pont,  Elh.,  Gu.,  Now.,  Oort'"""  ,  Hal.,  Siev.,  Hpt.. 
We.,  GASm.  ij'?i3Ja,  as  in  v. ». — ucpn]  (6  iireyepdrfffovrai.  =  ^t^^'J). — 'D'D:] 
(g  d^Qy/xara,  connecting  it  with  lU'j,  to  bite. — aix]  Gr.  ncnx. — 5.  ij,'"'i]  Gr. 
•ij?^i. — nvrs  y\{<  tn]  (g  rbv  ''Affcrovp. — ninnca]  Rd.  nn>ns5;  so  Taylor, 
Pont,  Now.,  van H.,Du.,  Hpt..  (&  iv  ry  Td<t>pifi  aiiTrjs.  "TS  in  lancets  ejus;  so 
Aq.  E'.  &  in  his  wrath.  Ro.  n'n\723.  Gr.  and  Marti,  r\y^}^n>^l02,  Hi. 
ninno3;  so  Elh.,  Gu.,  Oort'^"'-,  Marti. — S^sm]  Rd.  ''^•"i^y,  so  Elh.,  Gu., 
Now.,  Siev..  Ro.  '?''?nv  Oort'^'"-  uS^i-nS.  Hal.  S?n\  We.  uiS'sni  (so 
Marti),  or  'ij';''xni.  J.  Herrmann,  in  OLZ.  XIV  (191 1),  203,  suggests  that 
v.»'>/iji  S''xni,wasa  true  correction  of  v."",  which  should  read  oiSti'  nr  n^ni 
'ui  "iiK'ND  S'xni.  The  correction  was  placed  on  the  margin  alongside 
of  the  error  and  finally  came  into  the  text  in  the  wrong  place.  This 
is  plausible;  but  the  use  of  ai'^;:'  is  difScult  and  the  Messiah  seems  su- 
perfluous alongside  of  the  "princes  of  men." 

4.  And  this  will  be  the  protection  from  Assyria]  M  is  usually 
rendered,  "and  such  shall  be  our  peace.  Assyria,  etc";  but  the 
connection  thereby  established  is  very  harsh  and  abrupt.  By 
some,  the  first  words  are  connected  with  w.  ^'^  and  rendered,  "and 
such  an  one  shall  be  our  peace."  *  But  the  description  of  the 
Messiah  as  abstract  'peace'  is  unusual.  The  translation  here 
adopted  furnishes  an  admirable  sense  in  this  connection  and  in- 
volves only  the  slightest  textual  change.  This  refers  to  the  fol- 
lowing, not  the  preceding  context.  Assyria  stands  as  representa- 
tive of  the  great  world-tyrant  of  the  time,  whether  Babylon,  Persia, 
or  Syria  (v.  s.). — When  he  comes  into  our  land,  and  when  he  treads 
upon  our  soil]  The  invasion  is  not  conceived  of  as  a  remote  possi- 
bility, but  rather  as  an  event  likely  to  occur  and  therefore  needing 
to  be  reckoned  viath. — Seven  shepherds,  yea — eight  princes  of  men] 
This  collocation  of  two  numbers,  the  second  being  greater  than  the 
first  by  a  unit,  is  employed  to  express  the  idea  of  indefiniteness;  cf. 
H.^^,  2 1  .f    The  supply  of  leaders  will  be  equal  to  all  demands  that 

♦  So  Kl.,  Ro.,  Or..    The  application  of  nt  to  the  Messiah  began  with  Ki.. 

t  The  view  of  Gressmann,  Eschat.  284,  that  seven  and  eight  are  to  f)c  added  together  yield- 
ing fifteen,  which  is  the  number  of  Ishtar  (AM  T?,  454)  the  goddcss-mothcr  of  the  Messiah,  can 
only  be  counted  among  the  curiosities  of  the  history  of  interpretation. 


may  be  made.  Shepherds  and  princes  of  men  are  equivalent  terms, 
both  designating  military  leaders;  cf.  Jos.  13^^ — 5.  And  they  imll 
shepherd]  i.  e.  in  sensic  malo,  exercise  punitive  power  over  her. — 
The  land  of  A  ssyria  and  the  land  of  Nimrod]  "  Nimrod  "  is  chosen 
as  a  synonym  for  "Assyria,"  perhaps,  because  of  its  suggestion  of 
the  root  marad,  "to  rebel."  The  only  other  references  to  Nimrod 
(Gn.  lo*""  I  Ch.  i*^)  show  that  the  whole  Babylonian-Assyrian  em- 
pire was  classified  as  the  territory  of  Nimrod,  the  foimder  of  Baby- 
lon.— And  they  will  rescue  from  Assyria]  M,  "he  will  rescue," 
referring  to  the  Messiah  of  w.  *"^;  but  this  ignores  all  the  interven- 
ing context.  Van  H.'s  solution  of  the  difficulty  by  dropping  this 
context  as  a  later  addition  is  too  drastic  treatment.  The  whole 
progress  of  thought  here  requires  the  plural. 

4.  nt]  Eerdmans,  ThT.  XLI  (1907),  502,  would  give  nr  here  the 
meaning  of  Ar.  dzu,  lord  of;  but  this  rendering  is  necessary  nowhere  else, 
not  even  in  Ju.  5^;  nor  does  it  belong  to  the  Syr.,  Aram.,  and  Eth.  equiv- 
alents.— utiijcin]  is  hardly  appropriate  here.  The  prophet  is  pictur- 
ing a  condition  when  the  enemy  will  never  be  permitted  to  do  more  than 
cross  the  border;  entrance  of  the  palaces  is  out  of  the  question;  cf.  v.  ^ 
and  (6  &. — ois  ^TOi\  i.  e.  "princely  men";  cf.  Pr.  152"  'n  '?^p?,  "a  foolish 
man";  c/.  Ges.  ^ '^s'. — 5.  n'^npc]  i.  e.  "in  its  entrances,"  establishing  a 
blockade;  or  "in  its  passes,"  pursuing  the  fugitives  to  their  mountain 
fastnesses.  But  the  parall.  calls  for  a  weapon;  hence  it  is  better  to 
read  some  form  of  nn>ns,  drawn  sword,  as  suggested  by  Aq.  E'  and  B. 


§  14.     The  Divine  Emergence  and  Irresistible  Alight  of  the 
Remnant  (5^^). 

Two  strs.  of  six  lines  each,  in  trimeter  movement,  set  forth  the 
glory  of  the  remnant,  as  exhibited  in  its  marvellous  rise  to  power 
and  in  its  victorious  career.  V.  *  is  a  marginal  note  on  v.  ^  {y.  i.). 
Str.  I  likens  the  emergence  of  the  remnant,  from  among  the  nations 
whither  Israel  has  been  scattered,  to  the  silently  falling  dew  and  to 
the  showers  which  enable  the  grass  to  grow  independently  of 
human  aid.  Str.  II  presents  the  remnant  under  the  figure  of  a 
roaring  lion,  ravaging  defenceless  flocks  of  sheep  with  none  to  say 
him  nay. 


no  MICAH 

A  ND  the  remnant  of  Jacob  will  be  among  the  nations, 
In  the  midst  of  many  peoples, 
Like  the  dew  from  Yahweh, 
Like  the  showers  upon  the  herbage, 
Which  waits  not  for  man, 
Nor  tarries  for  the  children  of  men. 
VEA,  the  remnant  of  Jacob  will  be  among  the  nations. 
In  the  midst  of  many  peoples, 
Like  the  lion  among  the  beasts  of  the  forest, 
Like  the  young  lion  among  the  flocks  of  sheep. 
Who,  if  he  pass  over, 
Tramples  and  tears,  with  none  to  deliver. 

This  piece  is  quite  generally  denied  to  Micah.  In  contrast  to  the 
prophecy  of  the  eighth  century,  its  interests  are  not  in  the  present  but 
exclusively  in  the  future.  The  diaspora  is  a  familiar  idea  and  has  at- 
tained wide  extent.  The  remnant  is  no  longer  the  weak  handful  of 
Isaiah,  but  is  endowed  with  invincible  might,  none  can  stand  before  it. 
There  is  no  connection  between  this  passage  and  vv.  <•  ';  there  Israel 
occupies  its  own  territory  whence  it  repels  the  invader;  here  Israel  is 
scattered  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Nor  does  it  connect  with  the 
following  context;  for  while  Israel  is  the  victorious  avenger  over  the 
nations  here,  in  vv.  «  ^-  Israel  becomes  the  victim  of  Yahweh's  punitive 
wrath.  This  passage  thus,  like  vv.  <•  s,  is  a  fragment  entirely  indepen- 
dent of  the  surrounding  context.  Not  only  so,  but  v. «  is  very  loosely 
connected  with  vv.  «■  ',  and  is  best  considered  as  a  marg.  n.  on  v.  '  (so 
Siev.,  Gu.,  Hpt.);  v.  i..  Cf.  Du.  who  puts  5'  between  4"*  and  4"''. 
Some  also  would  separate  v. '  from  v.  *,  on  the  basis  that  the  two  verses 
present  diametrically  opposite  aspects  of  Israel's  activity;  so  Ladame, 
Hal.,  Stk.;  but  this  is  dependent  upon  the  interpretation  given  to  v. «;  v.i.. 

The  symmetry  of  form  between  v. «  and  v. '  is  noticeable;  the  first  two 
lines  of  each  are  identical,  the  third  and  fourth  contain  similes  in  both 
cases,  and  the  fifth  and  sixth  a  relative  clause.  It  results  from  this  that 
the  series  of  consonants  opening  the  successive  lines  is  the  same  in  both 
strs.,  viz.  3  ,3  ,3  ,N  ,1 ,1.  Such  resemblance  may,  of  course,  be  due  to 
identity  of  authorship,  or  to  imitation,  though  the  latter  is  less  likely  than 
the  former. 

It  is  difficult  to  fix  the  time  of  the  origin  of  this  section  within  any  nar- 
row limits.  The  only  certain  basis  for  a  date  is  furnished  by  the  extent 
of  the  diaspora  herein  reflected  and  the  idea  of  the  remnant  that  dom- 
inates the  whole  passage.  The  wide  scattering  of  Israel  "among  the 
nations,  in  the  midst  of  many  peoples  "  would  seem  to  call  for  a  date  after 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586;  while  the  conception  of  the  irresistible  might 
of  the  remnant  as  the  representative  of  God  among  the  peoples  points  to 
a  time  later  than  Deutero-Isaiah  and  the  return  from  captivity.  The 
only  terminus  ad  quern  available  is  furnished  by  the  close  of  the  prophetic 


^6-8  J  J  J. 

canon.  But  there  is  nothing  in  the  content  of  the  passage  that  makes  it 
necessary  to  come  down  so  far  for  the  origin  of  this  prophecy.  It  might 
well  belong  to  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the  Persian  period. 

6.  3r;'']  Add  D^J?,  with  C6d,  cod.  Kenn.  154  and  v.  ';  so  Ro.,  Elh., 
Pont,  Gu.,  Now.,  Siev.,  van  H..  Oort'^'"-  adds  aiun  -\-\n2. — 't  '•;  3-ip;:] 
Siev.  om.  here  (so  Stk.)  and  in  v.  '  mtr.  cs.,  as  a  gloss. — ao''2n^]  (£  ws 
&pves.  All  Vrss.  and  many  Heb.  mss.  prefix  1  here  and  before  •t'sdj  in 
V.  '. — ni,i"']  (g  avvaxO^  =  np\ — m**  ''J^S]  Siev.  om.  mtr.  cs.. — 7.  -i;-^] 
B  0/ the  flock. — ^-i-i>3]  &  sg.. — 8.  Din]  Rd.  aii,  with  (S;  so  We.,  Now., 
Oort^"-,  Marti,  Siev.  (?);  cf.  35  codd.  (Kenn.)  ann.  Hal.  Dinn. 

Str.  I  expresses  the  conviction  that  Yahweh  himself  will  bring 
Israel  to  her  rightful  place  of  power. — 6.  And  the  remnant  of 
Jacob  will  be  among  the  nations,  in  the  midst  of  many  peoples] 
"Jacob"  is  used  as  representing  the  people  of  Yahweh  as  a  whole, 
not  those  of  northern  Israel,  nor  those  of  Judah  merely.  The 
exile  and  scattering  of  the  people  are  presupposed  either  as  an  ex- 
isting fact,  or  as  conceived  of  in  the  prophet's  mind;  the  former  is 
the  more  natural  interpretation;  v.  s..  The  use  of  the  term  "rem- 
nant" is  parallel  to  that  in  4^,  another  late  passage. — Like  the  dew 
from  Yahweh,  like  the  showers  upon  the  herbage]  Opinions  vary- 
as  to  the  exact  point  of  the  comparison  here.  Is  it  in  the  sud- 
denness of  the  fall  of  the  dew?  Just  so  suddenly  shall  Israel  fall 
upon  its  foes  and  smite  them.*  This  furnishes  a  sense  in  harmony 
with  the  unmistakable  meaning  of  v.  ^.  Or  is  it  that  Israel  in  the 
Messianic  age  will  be  as  innumerable  as  the  drops  of  dew  and 
rain  ?  f  Or  again,  is  it  found  in  the  refreshing  influence  of  the  dew 
to  which  Israel's  moral  and  religious  influence  among  the  nations 
is  parallel  ?  J  This,  however,  yields  a  sense  for  v.  ®  entirely  at 
variance  with  that  of  v.  '^,  for  Israel  which  is  here  a  blessing  is 
clearly  there  an  agent  of  destruction.  Or  yet  again,  is  it  in  the 
divine  origin  of  the  dew  and  rain,  which  are  wholly  independent 
of  human  aid  ?  §  So  will  be  Israel's  rise  to  power  over  the  nations. 
Or  finally,  must  we  confess  our  inability  to  discover  the  meaning  ?  ** 
The  key  to  the  meaning  of  the  simile  seems  to  be  given  by  the  fol- 
lowing clause,  viz.  which  waits  not  for  man,  nor  tarries  for  the  chil- 
dren of  men]  The  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  is  not  the  dew  nor 

*  So  Hi..  t  So  Now.,  Hpt..  %  So  Stk.. 

§  So  e.  g.  Casp.,  Ke.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hpt..  **  So  We.. 


112  MICAH 

the  rain,*  but  the  herbagef  (z'.  i.).  The  force  of  the  comparison 
thus  appears  to  be  that  just  as  the  dew  and  rain  faUing  upon  the 
grass  cause  it  to  grow  and  render  it  independent  of  human  irriga- 
tion, so  through  the  favour  and  might  of  Yahweh  the  remnant  of 
Israel  among  the  nations  will  rise  to  power,  notwithstanding  the 
absence  of  all  human  help.  Israel's  future  depends  solely  upon 
Yahweh. 

Str.  II  goes  on  to  say  that  this  divinely  produced  remnant  will 
overthrow  all  opposition. — 7.  Like  the  lion  among  the  beasts  of  the 
forest,  the  young  lion  among  the  flocks  of  sheep]  Wild  beasts  and 
domestic  animals  alike  are  defenceless  before  the  lion ;  so  Avill  Is- 
rael's power  be  supreme  among  the  nations. — Who,  whenever  he 
passes  through,  tramples  and  rends,  with  none  to  deliver]  A  pic- 
ture of  wanton  destruction  on  the  one  hand,  and  utter  defenceless- 
ness  on  the  other. — The  two  strs.  thus  interpreted  fit  together  ex- 
cellently, the  second  taking  up  the  description  where  the  first  drops 
it.  There  is  not  the  slightest  necessity  for  segregating  v. '. — Fired 
by  this  vision  of  triumph,  some  reader  added  the  patriotic  and 
pious  comment  constituting  v.  8. — Thy  hand  will  he  high  above 
thine  enemies  and  all  thy  foes  will  he  cut  off]  iH's  "may  thy  hand, 
etc."  is  improbable,  since  what  is  declared  to  be  an  assured  fact 
in  V.  '  would  hardly  be  prayed  for  in  v.  ^,  unless  the  latter  were 
wholly  unrelated  to  the  former.  Interpreters  have  always  differed 
as  to  the  person  addressed,  some  holding  it  to  be  Yahweh,  J  others 
the  remnant.§  The  biblical  usage  of  such  phraseology  as  "thy 
hand  is  high"  may  be  cited  for  either  interpretation;  cf.  Is.  26" 
Ps.  89"  Nu.  T^f  Dt.  32^^  Ex.  14^.  But  a  closer  connection  with 
V.  '  is  obtained  by  taking  the  words  as  addressed  to  the  remnant. 
For  similar  sentiments,  cf.  Is.  49^  ^-  60^^  Zc.  14'^  ^-  Ps.  149^  ^•. 

6.  nnNtt']  Treated  as  masc.  {cf.  sf.  in  v.  »),  since  the  term  is  thought 
of  as  practically  identical  with  nation  and  people. — nip^  nS  i^'n]  Syn- 
tax may  be  satisfied  here  in  either  of  four  ways,  (i)  rel.  clause  with  ante- 
cedent yi'V,  (2)  rel.  clause  with  antecedent  Si: ,  an^an  being  regarded  as 
subordinate  or  parenthetical;  (3)  rel.  clause  with  antecedent  0''3''3i,  but 

*  So  Ew.,  Hi..  Hd..  Ke.,  Casp.,  KI.,  Or.,  Now.,  Marti,  el  al.. 

t  So  Bauer,  Theiner,  Rosenm.,  Ro.,  van  H.,  et  al.. 

X  So  e.  g.  Mau.,  Hd.. 

§  So  e.  g.  Rosenm.,  Ew.,  Ke.,  Kl.,  Ro.,  Or.,  Now.,  Marti. 


5""  "3 

number  of  vb.  is  determined  by  acp  the  nearest  noun;  (4)  an  explanatory 
clause  stating  the  content  of  the  resemblance,  viz.  "the  remnant  shall 
be,  etc.  ...  in  that  it  shall  not  wait,  etc.";  cf.  <S.  But  (i)  yields  the 
smoothest  structure. — 7.  '-n  lay  dk]  Regular  form  for  a  condition 
pointing  to  "any  time  in  the  indefinite  or  more  or  less  remote  futiu'e," 
Dr.  ^"8. — 8.  Fine  chiasm. 


§  15.    Israel's  Purification  through  Chastisement  (5®""). 

This  piece  consists  of  two  four-line  strs.,  with  an  introductory 
prose  line  (v.  ^^)  and  two  additional  verses  from  the  hands  of  edi- 
tors (w.  ^^-  ").  The  original  piece  probably  dates  from  some  time 
in  the  Deuteronomic  period.  Str.  I  foretells  the  destruction  of 
the  mimitions  of  war  in  which  Israel  places  confidence  instead  of 
trusting  in  Yahweh.  Str.  II  denounces  idolatrous  practices  which 
likewise  lead  Israel  away  from  Yahweh. 

And  it  will  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh: 
T  WILL  cut  off  thy  horses  from  the  midst  of  thee. 
And  I  will  destroy  thy  chariots. 
And  I  will  cut  off  the  cities  of  thy  land, 
And  I  will  lay  waste  all  thy  fortresses. 
A  ND  I  will  cut  off  sorceries  from  thy  hand. 
And  thou  wilt  have  no  soothsayers. 

And  I  will  cut  off  thine  images  and  thy  pillars  from  the  midst  of  thee. 
And  thou  wilt  no  more  bow  down  to  the  work  of  thine  own  hands. 

The  assonance  of  the  poem  is  noticeable,  especially  the  repetition  of 

'mom  and  the  suffix  :i.  The  movement  is  trimeter  except  in  the  last 
two  lines  where  a  heavier  metre  appears.  Siev.  recognises  this  change 
in  v.  •'',  and  therefore  inserts  Sj  in  v.  i^*  jn  order  to  secure  six  beats. 
But  V.  i^*"  cannot  be  made  over  thus,  hence  it  is  athetized  from  w.  '-i'* 
and  with  v.  "  is  constituted  another  fragment.  But  v.  '^b  jg  the  climax 
of  the  poem  and  the  only  natural  stopping-place.  Du.  refuses  any 
poetic  form  to  vv.  '-"  and  prints  the  entire  passage  as  plain  prose. 

That  v.  "  has  no  connection  with  w.  '-"  has  long  been  recognised;  so 
We.,  Now.,  Ladame,  Siev..  It  introduces  a  wholly  new  subject,  viz. 
Yahweh's  vengeance  upon  the  heathen,  whereas  w.  '-■'  are  concerned 
with  Israel  exclusively.  The  fact  that  the  vengeance  is  to  be  executed 
upon  the  nations  at  large  points  to  a  relatively  late  origin.  Early  proph- 
ecy did  not  contemplate  the  conversion  of  the  world  to  Yahweh,  hence 
did  not  denounce  the  nations  for  disobedience  to  him.  Its  indignation 
was  expended  upon  the  particular  nation  which  was  oppressing  Israel 
at  any  given  time. 


114  ivncAH 

The  grounds  for  setting  aside  v.  "  are  no  less  cogent.  V.  '"»,  as  it 
stands  in  M,  is  a  weak  repetition  of  v.  '"";  and  if  the  common  correction 
of  T^y  to  T'^j-;'  be  accepted  the  case  is  no  better,  for  '"'  then  becomes 
superfluous  after  v.  ".  V.  "»  likewise  is  an  editorial  insertion,  giving 
an  additional  detail,  which  has  no  place  after  the  summary  in  v.  ";  any- 
thing additional  weakens  the  effect.  Hpt.,  however,  athetizes  vv.  '"•  "•  " 
leaving  w.  s-  '■■  '<  as  the  original  material. 

The  date  of  vv.  '-'^  has  been  a  subject  of  debate  for  some  years.  Sta. 
{ZAW.l,  161-72),  Cor.  {ZAW.  IV,  88/.;  Intr.  342),  Kosters  (r^r. 
XXVII,  249-274),  Marti,  Bu.cesch.^  35 y^  ^^  ^/^  deny  the  passage  to 
Micah  and  place  it  somewhere  in  the  exilic  or  postexilic  periods.  Kue. 
(Einl.  II,  360-3)  and  Che.  {EB.  art.  Micah)  suppose  that  it  orig- 
inated with  Micah,  but  was  thoroughly  worked  over  in  the  postexilic 
age.  Many  scholars,  however,  still  maintain  Micah's  authorship;  so 
e.  g.  We.,  Ry.,  GASm.,  Volz,  Now.,  Wildeboer,  Ladame,  van  H.,  and 
apparently  Dr.. 

The  argument  against  an  early  date  is  best  presented  by  Marti,  viz. 
(i)  that  the  mas.'fehoth  and  asherim  were  not  denounced  by  Hosea  and 
Isaiah,  nor  until  the  promulgation  of  Deuteronomy,  which  shows  that 
they  were  not  eliminated  by  Hezekiah's  reform;  (2)  that  the  joint  con- 
demnation of  munitions  of  war  and  idolatrous  practices  is  a  late  char- 
acteristic, as  are  also  the  combination  of  pesilim  and  masseboth,  and  the 
allusion  to  the  existence  of  fortresses;  (3)  that  parallel  passages  are  of 
later  origin,  viz.  Ho.  2'"  8'^  14^;  and  (4)  that  the  lack  of  any  allusion  to 
"high-places"  is  as  easily  accounted  for  on  the  hypothesis  of  origin  after 
these  were  all  destroyed,  as  it  is  on  the  supposition  of  origin  before  the 
movement  against  them  had  developed.  When  to  all  this  is  added  the 
consideration  that  weighs  as  heavily  here  as  in  the  case  of  i',  viz.  that 
a  polemic  against  idolatry  lies  outside  of  the  range  of  Micah's  thought, 
the  argument  seems  convincing. 

Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  though  Amos,  Hosea  and  Isaiah  did  not  de- 
nounce masseboth  and  asherim  specifically,  the  polemic  against  images 
was  taken  up  by  Hosea  (8<-«  lo^  13').  Horses  and  chariots  are  coupled 
with  idolatrous  images  by  Isaiah  (2';  c/.  30"  31'),  as  hostile  to  complete 
faith  in  Yahweh  as  Israel's  only  defence.  Furthermore,  the  Deutero- 
nomic  prohibition  of  masseboth  must  have  been  prepared  for  by  the 
teachings  of  the  preceding  prophets.  Law  is  but  the  codification  of  an 
already  existing  sentiment  or  custom.  Finally,  the  excision  of  i'  does 
not  necessarily  carry  with  it  the  dropping  of  this  section,  for  i'  clearly 
is  in  no  close  relation  to  its  context  and  carries  the  stamp  of  an  addition 
even  apart  from  its  context. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  seems  probable  that  5'-"  is  of  late  origin;  but 
the  possibility  must  remain  open  that  it  is  a  genuine  fragment  of  Micah 
and  represents  to  us  a  phase  of  his  teaching  not  otherwise  recorded. 


^9.12  jj^ 

9.  'P-iaNni]  Siev.  adds  -^d,  mtr.  cs.. — 11.  CiJE's]  <S5  =  iiflcs,  con- 
fusing D  and  3;  cf.  p.  32. — T^'c]  (S  &  =  l>i'D. — 12.  i>ni3XDi]  &  = 
/^y  high-places,  or  altars;  cf.  (S  BvcriaffT-nplov  in  Ho.  3*. — nryc]  ^  pi.. — 
13.  inia'N]  ^  the  groves  =  an^CN,  again  confusing  3  and  D.  &  thy 
plants. — Tiij;]  01  thine  enemies,  i.  e.  ins;  so  also  Che.,  Elh..  Hi.  y-^'ny 
{thy  tamarisks).  Krenkel  {ZwTh.  IX,  275),  q^^jf.  Van  H.  i^xy  {thy 
trees).  Stei.  q\?xy.;  so  Kosters,  Gr.,  Gu.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Du.;  cf.  2 
Ch.  24". — 14.  'iji  nS  ntt'x]  OS  'avO''  Zv  ovk  k.t.\.   !H  quae  non,  etc.;  so  §. 

Str.  I  threatens  Israel  with  the  destruction  of  every  source  of 
human  confidence  and  help. — 9.  And  it  will  come  to  pass  in  that 
day,  it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh]  An  introductory  statement  in  prose. 
The  last  phrase  occurs  again  only  in  4^,  a  late  passage;  it  is  common 
in  Amos. — That  I  will  cut  off  thy  horses,  etc.]  A  similar  prophecy 
in  Zc.  9^*^;  cf.  Dt.  17^®  20^  Ho.  14*. — 10.  And  I  will  cut  off  the  cities 
of  thy  land  and  lay  waste  all  thy  fortresses]  The  mention  of  forti- 
fied cities  is  hardly  sufficient  warrant  for  placing  the  prophecy  in 
the  Maccabaean  age  as  Marti  does;  cf.  Ho.  10**  Am.  5^  Is.  17^  22^** 
25^^  34^^  2  Ch.  11"  26^.  Sennacherib  (Taylor  Cylinder)  testifies  to 
the  large  number  of  cities  in  Judah;  "  but  as  for  Hezekiah  of  Judah, 
ft'ho  had  not  submitted  to  my  yoke,  forty-six  of  his  strong  walled 
cities,  and  the  smaller  cities  round  about  them,  without  number, 
...  I  besieged  and  captured."  Though  Yahweh  will  destroy  all 
Israel's  means  of  defence,  it  is  not  to  leave  her  defenceless;  he  him- 
self will  be  her  strength  and  shield.  But  she  must  be  brought  to 
realise  her  absolute  dependence  upon  him. 

Str.  II  declares  that  Yahweh  will  destroy  all  supposed  sources  of 
divine  help  other  than  himself  so  that  Israel  may  come  to  "see  their 
futility. — 11.  Sorceries]  The  exact  content  of  this  term  is  uncer- 
tain; it  is  apparently  a  general  designation  of  all  sorts  of  magi- 
cal rites. — Soothsayers]  This  is  an  equally  obscure  word;  it 
probably  denotes  those  who  practise  various  arts  of  divination. 
Both  sorcerers  and  diviners  alike  totally  fail  to  reaHse  the  true  and 
only  way  to  communion  with  God. — 12.  Thine  images  and  thy 
pillars]  Graven  images  are  meant,  such  as  were  common  in  early 
Israel  (cf.  Ju.  17^-  *  Ho.  11^  Is.  10^''  21®  Je.  10"),  and  continued 
in  exilic  and  postexilic  times  (Is.  30^  48^),  but  were  prohibited  by 
all  three  codes  (Ex.  20*  Dt.  12^  Lv.  26^).     The  "pillars"  were  con- 


Il6  MICAH 

secrated  stones  set  up  beside  altars  and  at  graves  or  as  boundary- 
stones,  and  originally  supposed  to  serve  as  the  residence  of  deity; 
cf.  Gn.  28'^  3 1'^-  ^^  3s"-  20  Ex.  24*.  They  were  a  common  Semitic 
institution,  having  been  found  at  Gezer,  at  Petra,  in  Cyprus,  and 
having  existed  also  among  Phoenicians  and  Arabs.  They  were 
first  prohibited  by  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  Dt.  x(P\  but  remained 
in  good  standing  as  legitimate  elements  in  the  Yahweh-cultus  long 
after  in  the  minds  of  many;  cj.  Is.  19*^-  ^",  a  late  passage. — A'iid, 
thou  wilt  not  how  down  any  more  to  the  work  of  thy  hands]  This 
does  away  at  one  stroke  with  all  idolatrous  worship  of  images. 
Notwithstanding  the  prohibition  in  the  Decalogue,  the  prophets 
found  it  necessary  to  wage  imceasing  war  upon  image-cults;  cJ. 
Ho.  132  2  K.  23"  Ez.  8'-  5-  »2  Is.  448-2o_ 

To  v.  ^^  has  been  attached  a  gloss,  or  marginal  note,  supple- 
menting the  statement  there  made. — 13.  And  I  will  uproot  thine 
asherim  from  the  midst  of  thee]  The  asherah  was  a  sacred  wooden 
post  that  constituted  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  place  of 
worship,  both  among  the  Canaanites  (Ex.  34"  Ju.  6^)  and  the 
Hebrews  (2  K.  23*  Is.  17^),  perhaps  taken  over  by  the  latter  from 
the  former.  They  were  forbidden  by  the  Deuteronomic  Code 
(Dt.  f  12^  16^*;  cf.  Ex.  34",  in  a  late  stratum  of  J) ;  but,  like  the 
accompanying  "pillars,"  they  survived  the  prohibition  for  some 
time  {cf.  Je.  I'f  Is.  27^).  The  precise  nature  of  their  origin  and 
function  are  not  yet  known. — And  I  will  destroy  thy  cities]  This 
adds  nothing  to  v.^°^;  hence  it  is  emended  by  many  to  "thine  idols," 
but  this  is  vain  repetition  of  v.  ^^.  In  either  case,  it  is  more  easily 
assigned  to  a  glossator  than  to  the  author  of  vv.  ^"". — Taylor  recon- 
structs vv.  ^^-  ^  thus:  "I  will  cut  off  thine  images  and  thy  pillars, 
and  I  will  uproot  thine  asherim  from  the  midst  of  thee,  and  thou 
wilt  no  more  bow  down  to  the  work  of  thy  hands,"  omitting  the 
last  word  of  ^-^,  inserting  "*  after  *^^,  and  dropping  *^^.  This 
furnishes  good  progress  of  thought  and  preserves  the  proper  cli- 
max, but  it  destroys  the  symmetry  of  Str.  II  and  makes  no  real 
contribution  to  its  content. 

14.  And  I  will  execute  vengeance,  in  anger  and  wrath,  upon  the 
nations  which  have  not  hearkened]  An  addition  by  an  editor  who 
was  unwilling  that  a  prophecy  denouncing  Israel's  idolatry  should 


close  without  a  word  of  condemnation  upon  the  great  idolatrous, 
heathen  world.  The  only  way  of  escape  for  the  nations  is  to  sub- 
mit themselves  to  Yahweh  and  his  people,  putting  away  their  own 
gods;  the  failure  to  do  this  arouses  Yahweh's  anger  and  involves 
their  total  destruction.  Yahweh  will  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less 
than  a  world-wide  kingdom. 

11.  d-idcd]  Only  here  and  2  K.  922  Is.  47 ^  Na.  3'.  ']V2  in  Assy.  =  (o 
practice  magic;  in  Ar.  to  cut;  cf.  Syr.  in  Ethpc^  to  pray  {i.e.cut  oneself; 
cf.  I  K.  18").  Zim.  (KAT.^,  605,  650)  maintains  that  it  is  a  loan-word 
from  Assy  ;  but  it  is  not  likely  that  a  word  of  this  kind  known  in  Ar., 
Assy,  and  Syr.  would  not  be  current  in  Heb.,  designating  as  it  does 
a  common  Semitic  custom.  Furthermore,  the  vb.  occurs  in  Ex.  22'^ 
which  antedates  the  Assy,  period  of  Heb.  history. — dijji>2]  Forbidden 
in  Dt.  iSi";  but  mentioned  in  Je.  27'  Is.  57'.  Exact  function,  and  the 
orig.  mean,  of  root  are  unknown;  cf.  CI  dirocpOeyydfievoi;  Aq.  KkTjdovi- 
^bfievoL;  S,  atjfieioa-Koirovixevoi;  ^  diviners,  or  necromancers.  Cf.  Ju. 
937.— 13.  i>iv^x]  Full  writing  of  _;  so  also  in  Dt.  7^  2  K.  17^^;  cf.  ^yypJ, 
Jos.  9".  On  relation  to  the  Canaanitish  goddess  ASirtu  or  A^ratu, 
V.  refs.  in  BDB.,  HWB.^'  and  EB.  331. — I'ly]  Various  meanings  have 
been  proposed  in  order  to  avoid  repetition  of  v.  'O",  e.  g.  enemies  (01,  Ra., 
Ki.,  Cal.,  Ro.);  sacred  forests  (of  Ar.  origin;  Theiner,  Mich.);  witnesses, 
used  of  trees,  pillars,  etc.,  as  signs  of  altars  (reading  t  for  1;  so  Hi.). — 14. 
apj  .  .  .  ^"1^  ::•>■]  The  construction  is  unusual  in  that  the  noun  as  obj.  is 
so  far  removed  from  its  vb.,  and  is  unique  in  that  'i  '•;  is  followed  by  pn 
with  the  ace.  of  the  person  upon  whom  vengeance  is  executed;  i.  e.  the 
compound  expression  is  treated  like  the  simple  vb.  opj;  cf.  Jos.  10"  Lv. 
i9'8. — •y^a]  Better  treated  as  rel.  part,  with  antecedent  a^'un  than  as 
causal  part.,  or  as  rel.  with  antecedent  op:,  i.  e.  vengeance  such  as,  etc. 

C.     CHAPTERS  6  AND   7. 

That  these  two  chapters  as  they  stand  could  not  belong  to  the 
eighth  century  B.C.  has  been  generally  recognised  since  the  days 
of  Ewald.  Opinion  has  been  divided  however  as  to  the  time  to 
which  they  do  belong.  Ew.,  followed  by  many  interpreters,  as- 
signed them  to  the  reign  of  Manasseh  as  a  product  of  Micah's  old 
age.  Recent  scholarship  has  been  more  inclined  to  place  them  in 
the  postexilic  period.  In  any  case  they  do  not  constitute  a  logical 
unit,  but  must  be  interpreted  as  representing  different  points  of 
view  and  reflecting  varying  backgrounds.    For  detailed  discussion 


ii8  itncAH 

of  these  questions  reference  is  made  to  the  Introduction,  §  2,  and 
to  the  introductory  statements  at  the  opening  of  the  various  sec- 
tions into  which  the  chapters  are  here  analysed. 

§  16.     Yahweh's  Controversy  with  Israel  (6**®). 

Fovu-  strs.  of  four  trimeter  lines  each,  seek  to  bring  home  to  the 
conscience  of  Israel  the  obligation  resting  upon  her  to  be  loyal  to 
Yahweh  in  return  for  his  great  goodness  to  her.  Str.  I.  Let 
Israel  in  the  presence  of  the  moimtains  present  her  case.  Str.  II. 
Let  these  mountains  "full  of  memories  and  associations  with  both 
parties  to  the  trial"  be  witnesses  in  the  controversy  between  Yah- 
weh and  his  people.  Str.  III.  Yahweh  has  given  Israel  cause 
not  for  complaint  but  for  thanksgiving;  witness,  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt.  Str.  IV.  Let  Israel  only  recall  the  period  of  the 
wanderings  in  the  desert,  in  order  to  be  reminded  of  the  mighty 
interpositions  of  Yahweh  in  her  behalf. 

UEAR,  now,  the  word 

Which  Yahweh  has  spoken: 

Arise,  plead  unto  the  mountains. 

And  let  the  hills  hear  thy  voice. 
UEAR,  O  mountains,  the  controversy  of  Yahweh; 

Yea,  give  ear,  O  foundations  of  the  earth; 

For  Yahweh  has  a  controversy  with  his  people; 

Yea,  with  Israel  he  will  enter  into  argument. 
TV/TY  people,  what  have  I  done  to  thee? 

And  wherein  have  I  wearied  thee?     Answer  me. 

For  I  brought  thee  up  from  the  land  of  Egypt, 

And  from  the  house  of  bondage  I  rescued  thee. 
lyrY  people,  what  did  Balak  counsel? 

And  what  did  Balaam  answer  him? 

Remember,  now,  "from  Shittim  to  Gilgal," 

That  thou  mayest  know  the  righteous  deeds  of  Yahweh. 

The  poetic  form  of  this  piece  has  been  fairly  well  preserved  by  M. 
It  is  necessary  only  to  add  a  word  in  '»,  with  (8;  to  eliminate  <•  as  a  gloss; 
to  transpose  nj— >;t  from  '•  to  '  =  ;  and  to  omit  'a  I'^s  from  5»  and  "n;3  p 
from  ^''.     The  rhythm  then  becomes  smooth  and  harmonious. 

Marti,  Siev.,  and  Gu  om.  v. '  as  a  historical  expansion;  but  it  consti- 
tutes an  excellent  close  for  this  phase  of  the  thought  and  it  conforms  to 
the  metric  and  strophic  norm.  The  change  from  ist  pers.  (v.  '•)  to  3d  pers. 
(v."*)  is  too  common  in  Heb.  prophetic  utterance  to  serve  as  valid  reason 


0""  119 

for  athetizing  the  verse  in  which  it  occurs.  Du.,  however,  treats  both 
w.  *■  5  (and  Hpt.  vv.^"'  ')  as  a  later  prose  expansion.  But  this  leaves 
vv.  *-'  hanging  in  the  air. 

The  contents  of  vv.  i-'  furnish  slight  evidence  of  any  specific  date  for 
their  origin.  In  themselves,  the  verses  might  belong  to  almost  any  period 
of  prophecy,  Du.,  indeed,  assigns  vv.  '-^  to  Micah,  together  with  the  most 
of  ch.  6.  But  the  fact  that  in  chs.  1-3  the  religious  and  political  leaders 
were  the  objects  of  denunciation  as  leading  the  people  astray,  while  here 
the  people  as  a  whole  is  reproved,  points  to  different  authorship.  More- 
over, the  presence  of  this  passage  in  this  context  and  in  the  collection  of 
oracles  making  up  chs.  6  and  7  is  a  sign  of  late  origin. 

'1JI  ijJDtt']  Siev.  om.  vv.'»-  ^-  *»•  ^  as  superscriptions  forming  no  part 
of  the  poem. — nj]  H  om.. — .^n]  Add,  with  (B,  "^iiri;  so  one  ms.  of 
Kenn.,  Marti,  Now."^,  Gu.. — ni,T>  t^n]  (B^  Kvpios  K^pios.  ^a.  26.  126 
Kvplov  &  6  K^pios. — -\cn]  Rd.  ncN,  with  ®  dwev;  so  Marti,  Now.'^,  Gu.. 
— rx]  Rd.  Sn,  with  05  ivpbs,  and  B  adversum;  so  Hi.,  Stei.,  We.,  Gr., 
Now.,  OortEm-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Du.,  Gu.. — 2.  Dnn]  (g  \aoi,  (g-^Q  ^ovvol. — 
D>j.-iNni]  Rd.  ipiNHi,  with  We.;  so  BDB.,  Or.,  Now.,  OortE""-,  Marti, 
Hal.,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt..  i  and  n  were  sufl5ciently  alike  to  be  easily 
confused  in  the  old  script;  while  D  arose  through  dittog.  of  foil.  d.  Pres- 
ence of  art.  with  pn,  though  lacking  from  Dnn,  makes  JH  suspicious. 
(S  al  (pdpayyes  {mountain  clefts) ;  similarly  g>.  H  fortia.  Cf.  Elh. 
D''jnNn  mn  '1  jn-nx  lyntt*. — 3.  iinNSn  hdi]  (&  t)  tI  iXdirrica  ere  ^  tI 
irap7]vit)x^V<^^  <'■<",  a  double  rendering. — 4.  jnnx]  d  ^  15  =  'ni. — 5. 
Nr-i3T]  Tr.  to  precede  D^acn  p  in  v.  5°;  this  renders  ^a  parallel  in 
structure  to  the  corresponding  line  of  Str.  Ill,  and  also  makes  ^'^  sus- 
ceptible of  sensible  interpretation.  Cf.  Hi.  who  would  repeat  nj— id: 
before 's'n-jD. — TJ?^  nc]  (&  adds  Kara  ffov;  so  ^. — 3N1D  iSd]  Om.  mtr. 
cs.,  with  Now.^  and  Siev.;  so  also  -\v;2  p. — a^Biin  |c]  <S  dirb  tQv  <txoIv<j}v 
{—  rushes),  perhaps  an  error  for  ffxivuv  (=  mastich  trees;  so  Vol.,  Ry.)- 
Mau.  prefixes  "in''tt'P  nm;  so  Taylor,  Elh..  Stei.  prefixes  Ti3"i.  Ew. 
om.  the  whole  phrase  as  a  gloss;  so  Du.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Gu.,  et  al.. — 
m|-ns]  <&  g"  sg.. 

Str.  I  calls  the  world's  attention  to  the  message  of  Yahweh  in- 
trusted to  the  prophet. — 1.  Hear,  now,  the  word  which  Yahweh 
has  spoken]  The  prophet  thus  introduces  Yahweh  to  the  people. 
— Arise,  plead  unto  the  mountains,  and  let  the  hills  hear  thy  voice] 
Yahweh  now  speaks  to  the  prophet.  The  mountains  have  wit- 
nessed the  whole  course  of  Israel's  history,  including  the  benefits 
showered  upon  the  nation  and  the  base  ingratitude  returned. 
These,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  just  judges  concerning  the 


I20  MICAH 

righteousness  or  unrighteousness  of  Yahweh's  case  as  presented 
through  the  prophet.  The  mountains  and  hills  are  not  introduced 
here  merely  for  rhetorical  effect.  It  is  a  part  of  the  prophetic  doc- 
trine that  the  animate  and  inanimate  world  are  ahke  concerned  in 
God's  dealings.  Besides  the  conception  of  nature  as  a  witness, 
represented  here,  we  find  also  that  of  nature  "as  sharing  God's 
feeling  of  the  intolerableness  of  the  evil  which  men  have  heaped 
upon  her,  or  by  her  droughts  and  floods  and  earthquakes  as  the 
executioner  of  their  doom"  (GASm.,  p.  420).     Cf.  Rom.  8^^. 

Str.  II  represents  the  prophet,  in  obedience  to  Yahweh's  be- 
hest, addressing  himself  to  the  hills  with  a  request  for  their  atten- 
tion to  the  statement  of  Yahweh's  case. — 2.  Hear,  O  mountains, 
the  controversy  of  Yahweh]  The  prophet  now  speaks,  turning 
himself  to  the  mountains.  The  figure  in  the  prophet's  mind  is 
that  of  a  case  in  court;  Yahweh  is  the  plaintiff,  Israel  the  defen- 
dant, the  mountains  serve  as  judge  and  jury,  and  the  prophet  is  the 
plaintiff's  counsel. — Yea,  give  ear,  O  foundations  of  the  earth]  M 
reads,  "and  ye,  the  everlasting  ones,  the  foundations  of  the  earth ! ". 
But  this  is  a  clumsily  constructed  phrase,  and  is  also  subject  to 
serious  criticism  on  linguistic  and  grammatical  grounds  {v.  i.). 
The  "foundations"  are  identical  with  the  "moim tains"  in  the 
parallel  line,  which  were  thought  of  as  the  pillars  upon  which  the 
earth  was  supported;  cf.  Dt.  32^^  Ps.  18®  Jb.  18*  (^. — For  Yahweh 
has  a  controversy  with  his  people;  yea,  with  Israel  he  will  enter 
into  argument]  The  phrase  "his  people"  involves  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  a  special  relation  between  Yahweh  and  Israel,  indi- 
cates the  ground  upon  which  Yahweh  bases  his  right  to  enter  into 
argument,  and  suggests  the  many  mercies  already  extended  to 
Israel  by  Yahweh.  The  appeal  here,  as  always  in  prophecy,  is 
made  to  the  intelligence  and  reason  of  Israel;  cf.  Ho.  V*  *  12'  Is. 
i^"  ^-  Je.  25^*.  The  prophet's  recourse  is  not  to  authority,  nor  to 
fanatical  emotion,  but  to  the  self-evidencing  power  of  truth  and 
undeniable  fact. 

In  Str.  Ill  Yahweh  speaks  and  makes  his  appeal  to  Israel's 
history  for  vindication  of  his  right  to  be  grieved. — 3.  My  people, 
wJiat  have  I  done  to  thee?  And  wherein  have  I  wearied  thee? 
Answer  me]  The  tone  is  full  of  entreaty.     The  inquiry  is  that 


O'-"  121 

of  a  parent,  not  that  of  a  judge  or  king.  The  implication  is  that 
Israel's  attitude  toward  Yahweh  is  such  as  would  be  justifiable 
only  on  the  basis  of  unkind  or  unjust  treatment  on  the  part  of 
Yahweh.  But  Yahweh  declares  that  he  is  not  conscious  of  any 
intention  to  injure  Israel  and  challenges  her  to  cite  any  incident 
in  her  history  that  will  convict  him  of  wrong.  He  has  made  no 
unreasonable,  oppressive  demands  upon  his  people  {cf.  Is.  43"^). 
He  calls  upon  Israel  to  defend  herself  by  justifying  her  implied 
charges  against  him.  No  answer  comes  to  the  question,  for  none 
can  be  made. — 4a,  b.  For  I  brought  thee  up  from  the  land  of 
Egypt  and  from  the  house  of  bondage  I  rescued  thee]  Not  only 
has  Yahweh  given  Israel  no  occasion  for  complaint,  but  she 
has  every  reason  for  gratitude.  The  first  and  most  fundamental 
fact  in  Yahweh's  long  record  of  gracious  deeds  is  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt.  Israel's  history,  as  imderstood  by  the  prophets, 
begins  with  an  act  of  redemption  (Am.  2^°  3^  9'  Ho.  2^^  11^  12^-  ^ 
13'  Je.  2«  7='2-  25  ii^.  7  E2.  20^  ^-  Is.  ii»«  52^  63").  This  event  lies 
so  deep  in  the  national  consciousness  and  is  referred  to  so  frequently 
as  the  starting-point  and  basis  of  the  national  development,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  escape  the  conviction  that  it  was  a  historical  fact, 
rather  than  a  product  of  the  religious  imagination.  The  prophet 
indulges  in  paronomasia  in  the  choice  of  the  two  words  ITK^I 
(=  weary,  v.  ^)  and  "ITl^Jjn  {bring  up). — 4c.  And  I  sent  before  thee 
Moses,  Aaron  and  Miriam]  This  is  a  supplementary  note  by  some 
reader,  as  is  clear  from  its  prosaic  form.  This  is  the  only  mention 
of  Miriam  in  the  prophetic  books.  Aaron  and  Miriam  are  given 
a  prominence  here,  as  co-leaders  with  Moses,  which  they  do  not 
have  in  the  earliest  sources;  cf.  Ex.  15^"  ^-  17^^  24^''-  "•  ^^  Nu.  12^ 
Str.  IV  recites  other  examples  of  Yahweh's  kindness  to  Israel, 
this  time  taken  from  the  period  of  wanderings  in  the  desert,  in  or- 
der to  convince  Israel  of  her  total  failure  to  appreciate  Yahweh. 
5.  My  people,  what  did  Balak  counsel?  And  what  did  Balaam 
answer  him?]  An  allusion  to  the  events  recorded  in  Nu.  22-24. 
Familiarity  with  this  story  is  presupposed  by  the  prophet.  By  a 
stroke  of  the  pen  the  writer  brings  vividly  to  mind  one  of  the  most 
striking  episodes  in  Israel's  history.  On  this  occasion  Yahweh 
turned  a  would-be  curse  into  a  blessing.    The  prophet  seems  to 


122  MICAH 

recognise  at  its  full  face  value  the  supposed  destructive  effect  of  a 
curse.  It  was  only  Yahweh's  interposition  that  saved  Israel  from 
destruction.  This  magical,  superstitious  conception  of  religion  is 
sadly  out  of  harmony  with  the  magnificent  ideal  set  forth  in  the 
immediately  following  verses. — Remember,  now,  '^from  Shittim  to 
Cilgal"]  The  verb  is  supplied  here  from  v.  ^*  where  it  is  super- 
fluous. It  is  unanimously  conceded  that  something  must  be  sup- 
plied here,  if  the  words  are  to  be  retained  in  the  text.  Their  pres- 
ence is  required  by  the  parallelism.  Others,  retaining  ''remember 
now"  in  its  place  in  M,  would  supply  such  phrases  as  "thou 
knowest  what  happened  to  thee";*  or  "and  what  I  did";f  or,  re- 
peating ^2T,  "remember  what  happened  to  thee";  J  or  "remember 
the  favours  I  showed  thee  " ;  §  or  "and  thy  crossing  over."  **  A  sim- 
ilar idea  to  that  of  our  text  is  found  in  Dt.  8^.  Shittim  was  the  last 
camping  station  before  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  (Jos.  3^  =  E), 
while  Gilgal  was  the  first  encampment  after  the  crossing  (Jos.  4^" 
=  E).  The  mention  of  these  two  names,  therefore,  would  at  once 
bring  to  mind  the  wonderful  exhibition  of  Yahweh's  goodness  and 
power  in  connection  with  Israel's  entrance  into  the  "promised 
land." — That  thou  mayest  know  the  righteous  deeds  of  Yahweh] 
These  words  are  dependent  upon  the  preceding  admonition  to  "re- 
member," and  they  summarise  what  the  incidents  from  history 
were  intended  to  teach.  If  Israel  could  but  realise  and  appreciate 
the  extent  of  her  obligation  to  Yahweh,  she  would  surely  gladly  do 
his  will.  The  "righteous  deeds"  are  acts  of  Yahweh  which  reveal 
his  just  and  righteous  character  to  the  world  at  large;  cf.  Ju.  5" 
I  S.  12^^-.  They  are  practically  Israel's  God-given  victories  over 
her  foes,  which  vindicate  Yahweh  as  the  strength  and  stay  of  his 
own  righteous  people.  This  is  the  prevailing  sense  of  the  word 
"righteousness"  in  Is.  40-66. 

The  case  rests  here.  The  prophet  has  pointed  out  the  obliga- 
tion resting  upon  Israel,  which  grows  out  of  Yahweh's  goodness  to 
her.  Only  by  implication  is  it  conveyed  that  this  obligation  is  un- 
fulfilled. The  positive,  direct  charge  against  Israel,  together  with 
the  pronoimcement  of  sentence,  remains  unuttered.  The  passage, 
thus,  seems  to  be  only  a  fragment  of  a  longer  address. 

*  Cal..  t  Mau.,  Taylor.  %  Mich.,  Baur,  Kl.,  Ro..  §  Ros..  **  Stei.. 


6"-"  123 

1.  PN  an]  Cf.  Ho.  12",  where  Sn  in  M,  is  an  error  for  tn,  as  appears 
from  I2<  and  <&.  To  suppose  such  an  error  here  is  better  than  to  render 
PN  in  fellowship  with  (Ke.)  which  is  impossible,  or  to  treat  it  as  =  V 
(Mau.,  Hd.,  Ro.),  or  as  =  ^ja'Pn,  in  presence  of,  apud  (BDB.,  86a; 
Elh.). — 2.  D'jPN.-ii]  M  presents  difficulties:  (i)  the  parallel  word  ann 
lacks  the  article;  (2)  if  an  adj.,  'jpn  should /oZ/ou/  its  noun;  (3)  as  a  sub- 
stantive, it  is  usually  used  of  perennial  streams;  (4)  the  awkwardness  of 
the  phrase. — 3 ,  nc]  Ges.  ^ "  ^. — nci]  Adverbial,  Ko.  ^  "^  "=. — T'PN'Tn]  On 
vocalisation,  Ges.  ^"P-  "ee_ — 4a,  b.  Clauses  are  in  chiasm. — 5.  D^a^'n] 
The  exact  location  is  unknown;  the  acacia  grove  near  Khirbet  el- 
Kefrein  may  be  a  survival  of  the  place. — SjSjh]  Probably  represented 
by  the  northern  Tell  Jeljiil,  between  the  Jordan  and  Jericho,  to  the 
SE.  of  the  latter, 

§  17.     The  Character  of  True  Religion  (6^'^). 

A  discussion  of  the  nature  of  Yahweh's  requirements  which 
yields  the  finest  summary  of  the  content  of  practical  religion  to  be 
found  in  the  OT.  The  material  readily  resolves  itself  into  three 
four-line  strs.  in  trimeter  movement;  the  opening  of  Str.  II  is 
marked  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  subject,  while  the  beginning 
of  Str.  Ill  is  indicated  by  the  change  from  question  to  answer. 
Str.  I  represents  an  individual  inquiring  what  type  of  service 
Yahweh  desires.  Will  gifts  satisfy  him?  Str.  II  continues  the 
inquiry  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  that  even  the  most  elaborate  and 
costly  gifts  cannot  secure  Yahweh's  favour.  Str.  Ill  answers  the 
inquiry  with  a  positive  definition  of  "pure  religion  and  undefiled." 

■^/HEREWITH  shall  I  come  before  Yahweh, 

And  bow  myself  before  the  God  of  heaven? 

Shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt-offerings, 

With  calves  a  year  old? 
■^/■fLL  Yahweh  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams, 

With  tens  of  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil? 

Shall  I  give  my  first-born  for  my  transgression. 

The  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul? 
TT  has  been  told  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good. 

Yea,  what  does  Yahweh  seek  from  thee, 

But  to  do  justice  and  to  love  kindness. 

And  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God? 

This  piece  is  well  preserved;  no  textual  changes,  transpositions  or 
omissions  are  required  by  the  poetic  form.  The  metre  is  smooth  and 
regular  all  through,  except  in  '»  and  8°  in  each  of  which  an  extra  tone 


124  MICAH 

appears.  Siev.  omits  a  word  in  each  of  these  two  long  lines,  but  this  is 
arbitrary. 

Since  Ew.'s  time  this  section  has  generally  been  assigned  to  the  days 
of  Manasseh,  either  as  a  product  of  Micah's  old  age,  or  as  the  work  of  a 
writer  of  the  Deuteronomic  School.  The  great  reason  for  this  has  been 
the  allusion  to  human  sacriiice  which  is  supposed  to  reflect  the  evil  days 
when  the  king  set  the  example  by  offering  up  his  own  son  (2  K.  21'). 
But  We.  rightly  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  human  sacrifice  in  our 
passage  is  not  cited  as  a  common  practice,  but  rather  as  a  sample  of 
extraordinary  sacrificial  zeal.  Such  sporadic  cases  of  religion  grown  des- 
perate occur  long  before  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  Hence  we  must  rely 
upon  other  evidence  for  the  date  of  these  verses.  The  tone  and  spirit 
of  the  passage  are  wholly  different  from  those  of  chs.  1-3.  The  calm, 
dispassionate  speech  of  the  teacher  displaces  the  forceful  utterance  of 
the  prophet.  The  same  conception  of  religion  appears  as  in  Am.  5=^ 
Je.  7**  '•  Ho.  6«  Is.  I"-*'  Ps.  40«-8  508-"  5ii8  '•;  and  this  was  never  with- 
out its  representatives  in  Israel  from  the  age  of  Amos  to  the  end.  It  is 
wholly  unwarrantable  to  bring  the  poem  down  to  100  B.C.  as  Hpt.  does, 
on  the  ground  of  its  supposed  reflection  of  the  teachings  of  the  Essenes. 
The  fact  that  the  answer  is  addressed  to  an  individual,  and  to  any  indi- 
vidual of  the  great  human  race,  seems  to  point  to  the  age  when  national 
lines  were  broken  over  and  the  scope  and  appeal  of  the  true  religion  was 
recognised  as  universal.  In  this  respect  the  passage  is  in  harmony  with 
such  writings  as  Jonah,  Ruth,  and  large  sections  of  the  Wisdom  literature. 
On  the  whole,  therefore,  a  date  early  in  the  postexilic  period  seems  the 
most  probable. 

6.  idn]  (S  di/TiXiji|i'o/iai,  treating  it  as  a  denominative  from  "?.  Gr. 
«Tij!<.  Elh.  'n  ~i23N. — 7.  '''^n:]  (6  x'-f^'^P'^"  (so  &);  perhaps  to  be  cor- 
rected to  xc'M'i^pwi',  as  in  (S^Q-  '"•  ^'s  and  Aq.;  but  cf.  Ry..  @'^  apvCsv.  H 
hircorum.  &  strength,  connecting  with  S^n. — jcc]  0  heifers,  probably 
a  free  rendering  "strength  of  fat  ones,"  i.  e.  "heifers";  the  latter  word  is 
a  formation  from  the  root  na-D  "to  anoint  with  oil,  etc.." — 'ui  insr]  & 
/  will  not  offer  my  first-born  (a  sin  is  he  to  me) ;  nor  the  fruits  of  my  body  (o 
sin  of  my  soul  are  they  to  me). — ni03]  ($  =  "'•^133. — 8.  nun]  ^  el  dvr)y- 
7A17;  hence  We.  ^Jp■,  so  Now.,  Oort'^'"-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du..  "B  Indi- 
cabo;  so  &.  Aq.,  0  ^pp^^Tj.— d"»n]  Che.CB,  o^n'?^. — pxni]  (g  Kal  iroifwv 
ttmi;  so  &.     Gr.  j?J3ni.     Che.CB,  '^  ,xjyp  fhj]. 

Str.  I  introduces  an  inquirer  asking  a  series  of  rhetorical  ques- 
tions, evidently  presupposing  a  negative  answer.  The  propliet  by 
the  very  form  of  these  questions  desires  to  suggest  the  absurdity 
of  the  popular  conception  of  Yahweh  and  of  his  desires. — 6. 
Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  Yahweh,  and  bow  myself  before  the 


6"'  125 

God  of  heaven]  A  question  growing  out  of  the  conception  of  Yah- 
weh  as  a  great  and  mighty  king  to  whom  his  subjects  must  bring 
presents  when  they  would  approach  his  presence;  cf.  i  S.  6^  ^-  lo^  ^• 
25"  2  S.  16^  ^•.  It  is  inculcated  by  the  law;  Ex.  23*^  34^°.  It  is 
an  essentially  commercial  view  of  the  relation  between  Yahweh  and 
his  worshippers,  and  its  prevalence  was  consonant  with  an  almost 
total  lack  of  conscience  in  the  sphere  of  morals  and  social  justice; 
cf.  Is.  i^^-  23  28^-  ^  Am.  4^  5^-  "^^  Ho.  6°-»'>  Je.  5^  «•  g'-\  It  oper- 
ated exactly  like  the  sale  of  indulgences  under  the  popes  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  whole  prophetic  teaching  concerning  sacri- 
fices and  offerings  was  an  endeavour  to  show  that  such  gifts  and 
ceremonies  were  of  themselves  without  value  in  the  sight  of  God. 
The  term  "God  of  the  height,"  i.  e.  the  heavens,  is  used  in  contrast 
to  the  verb  ''bow"  to  emphasise  the  humility  and  dependence  of  the 
worshipper.  It  is  in  harmony  also  with  the  priestly  thought  of 
God  as  ineffably  holy  and  transcendent,  far  removed  from  the  sins 
of  men;  cf.  Ho.  5^^  Is.  18^  Mi.  i^  ^-  Je.  25^".  The  title  may  have 
grown  up  in  response  to  the  effort  to  exalt  Yahweh  above  the  host 
of  foreign  gods  clamouring  for  admission  into  Israel.* — Shall  I 
come  before  him  with  burnt-offerings,  with  calves  a  year  old  ?]  The 
fact  that  the  burnt-offering  is  mentioned  rather  than  the  sin-offer- 
ing is  no  satisfactory  proof  of  the  pre-exilic  origin  of  this  passage; 
first,  because  it  is  improbable  that  the  sin-offering  first  came  into 
existence  and  prominence  in  the  exilic  period,  even  if  the  literature 
first  recognises  it  at  that  time.  The  ritual  of  the  Holiness  Code, 
Ezekiel  and  the  Priestly  Code  was  not  the  creation  of  those  writings 
but  was  an  inheritance  in  large  part,  which  it  was  the  task  of  exilic 
and  postexilic  law-makers  to  codify  and  inform  vnth  new  meaning, 
in  so  far  as  it  failed  to  express  the  best  religious  thought  of  the  age. 
Second,  because  the  thought  of  the  prophet  here  is  not  concerned 
with  any  particular  offering  as  such,  but  rather  with  the  whole 
sacrificial  system,  the  eflScacy  of  which  in  and  of  itself  he  wishes  to 
deny.  Calves  were  eligible  for  sacrifice  from  the  age  of  seven  days 
on  (Lv.  22^^);  cf.  Ex.  22'**.  A  yearling  was,  of  course,  relatively 
valuable;  cf.  Lv.  9^  Gn.  15®. 

Str.  II  continues  the  rhetorical  question,  the  possible  gifts  to 

*  Cf.  Westphal,  Jahwes  Wohnstdtlen  (1908),  265. 


126  MICAH 

Yahweh  becoming  more  costly  with  each  succeeding  question. — 
7.  Will  Yahweh  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams,  with  tens  of 
thousands  of  streams  of  oil?]  In  neither  this  nor  the  preceding 
interrogation  does  the  negative  answer  involved  imply  that  the 
prophet  thought  of  Yahweh  as  displeased  vnth  sacrifice  per  se  ;  cf. 
H.^^,  136/..  He  would  merely  repudiate  the  thought  that  sacri- 
fice is  all  that  Yahweh  desires.  For  sacrifices  on  a  large  scale,  cf. 
I  K.  3^  8^.  Oil  was  an  acceptable  gift  to  deity  among  Egyptians 
and  Babylonians  as  well  as  Hebrews;  cf.  Gn.  28**  35"  Ex.  29^-  *^ 
Lv.  2^-  *  7^^  14'°^-.  There  is  no  mention  of  oil  in  connection  with 
the  sin-offering  (Lv.  5*^')-* — Shall  I  give  my  first-horn  for  my 
transgression,  the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  sotd}  Human 
sacrifice  existed  in  Israel  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  a  rela- 
tively late  date;  witness,  the  law  of  the  redemption  of  the  first-ljom 
(Ex.  13");  the  story  of  the  contemplated  sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Gn. 
22*^);  the  fulfilment  of  Jephthah's  vow  (Ju.  11^^  ^■);  the  sacrifice  of 
the  sons  of  Ahaz  (2K.  16^)  and  Manasseh  (2  K.  21^  ^•) ;  the  denun- 
ciations by  the  prophets  (Je.  7^^  19^  Ez.  16^"  20^*  Is.  57^);  and  the 
prohibition  in  the  law  (Lv.  18^^  20^) ;  cf.  also  the  act  of  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab,  and  its  apparent  effect  upon  the  Israelitish  army  (2  K. 
3-^).  The  practice  was  not  equally  prevalent  at  all  times,  but  seems 
to  have  attained  its  greatest  prominence  in  the  days  of  Manasseh. 
Our  passage  evidently  conceives  of  it  as  a  possible  method  of  pleas- 
ing Yahweh,  putting  it  upon  the  same  plane  as  burnt-offerings  and 
libations  of  oil.  A  mere  formal,  external,  mechanical  conception 
of  religion  does  not  give  rise  to  nor  sustain  the  custom  of  human 
sacrifice.  It  is  the  acme  of  religious  zeal.  It  is  the  expression  of 
the  religious  emotions  of  men  who  agonise  with  longing  for  the 
divine  blessing,  and  are  willing  to  yield  their  hearts'  dearest  treas- 
ures in  order  to  secure  it.  The  prophet  here  recognises  this  fact, 
and  his  words,  therefore,  reflect  an  unmistakable  depth  of  sympa- 
thy and  tenderness  toward  his  people.  But  the  practice  grows  out 
of  a  wholly  wrong  idea  of  the  character  of  God,  and  therefore  can 
never  be  pleasing  to  him.  The  phrase  sin  of  my  soul  has  been 
taken  by  many  as  sin-offering  of  my  sold  ;  but  this  cannot  well  be, 
for  the  parallel  word  transgression  never  has  the  meaning  guilt- 

*  On  the  place  of  oil  in  early  ritual  and  its  primitive  significance,  cj.  Now.  Arch.  II,  208  /.. 


6'-''  127 

offering,  and  the  technical  sin-offering  of  the  later  law  certainly 
never  contemplated  the  possibility  of  human  sacrifice  as  one  of  its 
constituent  elements.     The  term  soul  here  designates  the  psychic  it- 
self, the  seat  of  the  desires  and  the  will,  and  is  used  in  deliberate 
contrast  to  the  term/n«7  of  my  body. 

In  Str.  Ill  the  oracle  rises  to  its  climax,  with  the  beautifully 
simple  statement  of  the  essence  of  religion. — 8.  //  has  been  told 
thee,  O  man,  what  is  good]  The  preceding  questions  have  been 
raised  only  to  be  answered  in  the  negative;  the  positive  statement 
is  now  to  be  made.  The  address  is  to  mankind  in  general,  not 
to  any  particular  individual.  The  "good"  referred  to  is  accessible 
to  the  whole  race,  without  restriction.  The  verb  might  also  be 
rendered,  "He  (i.  e.  Yahweh)  has  told  thee";  but  in  view  of  the 
absence  of  any  near  antecedent  for  the  pronoun  and  of  the  fact  that 
a  new  str.  begins  with  this  phrase,  which  should  therefore  be  com- 
plete in  itself,  the  indefinite  form  of  expression  seems  preferable. — 
And  what  does  Yahweh  seek  from  thee]  The  "good"  is  identified 
with  the  performance  of  the  will  of  Yahweh.  This  is  the  view  of 
the  OT.  throughout.  Religion  furnished  the  dynamic  of  ethics. 
The  saints  of  Israel  knew  nothing  of  doing  good  for  good's  sake; 
virtue  was  not  an  end  in  itself,  but  only  a  way  of  approach  to  God, 
the  embodiment  of  the  highest  good. — But  to  do  justice  and  to  love 
kindness  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God  ?]  Nothing  new  is  said  \/ 
here.  Amos  had  emphasised  Yahweh's  insistence  upon  justice 
(e.  g.  f^;  cf.  Dt.  16^^^");  Hosea  had  exhibited  the  virtues  of  love 
(e.  g.  6^)  and  the  whole  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  permeated  by  the 
thought  of  it  (e.  g.  10^^^^  14^^  15^^*  22^"');  reverence  and  humility 
before  God  was  no  new  ideal — Moses  was  credited  with  it  in  a  sur- 
passing degree  (Nu.  12^);  cf  Am.  2'^  Zp.  2^  Is.  6  29^^.  But  it  is, 
nevertheless,  a  great  saying  surpassed  by  nothing  in  the  OT.  and 
by  but  little  in  the  New.  It  lays  hold  of  the  essential  elements 
in  religion  and,  detaching  them  from  all  else,  sets  them  in  clear 
relief.  It  links  ethics  with  piety,  duty  toward  men  with  duty 
toward  God,  and  makes  them  both  coequal  factors  in  reHgion. 
In  this  respect  it  anticipates  the  famous  saying  of  Jesus  (Mt. 
22^^"^°),  and  it  marks  a  wide  breach  with  the  popular  religion  of 
the  prophet's  own  times.     With  the  latter,  religion  was  pre-emi- 

y 


128  MICAH 

nently  a  matter  of  obligation  toward  God,  and  this  obligation  was 
looked  upon  as  consisting  mainly  in  the  proper  performance  of 
sacred  rites  and  in  a  liberal  bestowal  of  sacrificial  gifts.     But  this 

y  prophet  makes  religion  an  inner  experience  which  determines 
whole  sphere  of  human  activity.     Religion  becomes  not  merely 

1/  the  action,  but  also,  and  chiefly,  character. 

6.  nsg]  On  d.  f.  inn,  Ges.  ^'"^K— 7.  ■'Jjc-d]  jnj  with  two  ace.  hav- 
ing the  meaning  "give  something  in  exchange  for,  in  compensation 
for  something";  so  Ez.  271^  (cf.  27^^-  '3.  le.  17.  19. 22).  -phis  is  better  than 
to  make  'd  an  ace.  of  purpose  or  effect  and  to  create  for  it  the  meaning 
'guilt  offering'  which  it  nowhere  else  possesses;  contra  Ko. ^'^'  \ — ns-jr] 
has  the  meaning  'sin-offering'  first  in  2  K.  12'',  where  it  denotes  a  pay- 
ment of  money  to  the  priests.  From  the  time  of  Ezekiel  on,  this  meaning 
is  very  common  in  the  legal  literature  and  in  Chronicles.  But  it  is  not 
appropriate  here  because  of  (i)  the  parallel  word  and  (2)  the  nature  of 
the  gift  here  spoken  of. — 8.  lun]  On  the  indefinite  subj.  expressed  by  3d 
pers.  sg.  mase.,  Ges.  ^^  "^  <>. — noi]  On  change  to  direct  question,  Ko.  ^"7d^ 
— ^yjx.i]  An  adv.  use  of  inf.  abs.,  denoting  here  manner;  cf.  KoJ*"^^- 
89«n.  223  b.  The  meaning  of  |/  seems  to  be  "modest";  cf.  Pr.  11';  it  is 
the  reverse  of  'arrogant,'  'conceited,'  'self-sufficient.'  Its  idea  suggests 
the  parable  of  Lk.  18'"  «• 

§  18.     The  Sin  of  the  City  and  the  Punishment  to  Come  (6®""). 

This  section  gives  a  vivid  poetical  description  of  Israel's  wicked 
life  and  of  the  disasters  which  Yahweh  must  bring  upon  the  nation 
as  punishment.  Yahweh  himself  is  represented  as  speaking,  and 
his  utterance  falls  into  five  four-line  strs.  of  prevailingly  trimeter 
movement,  Str.  I  addresses  the  city  in  Yahweh's  name  and  char- 
acterises it  as  an  abode  of  violence  and  deceit.  Str.  II  asserts  that 
the  riches  of  the  town  have  been  acquired  by  cheating  and  fraud 
in  ordinary  commercial  transactions.  Str.  Ill  announces  that 
Yahweh's  hand  will  soon  begin  the  task  of  chastisement  and  that 
all  attempts  at  escape  vsdll  be  futile.  Str.  IV  details  the  various 
forms  which  the  chastisement  will  assume,  all  of  them  involving 
famine.  Str.  V  states  that  all  this  terrible  wickedness  is  due  to 
persistence  in  the  sins  of  the  past  and  that  the  inevitable  result 
is  destruction.  The  first  two  strs.,  thus,  denounce  the  city's  sins, 
the  second  two  announce  the  consequent  doom,  while  the  last  str. 
summarises  both  sin  and  punishment. 


b"-'"  129 

UARK!     Yahweh  is  calling  to  the  city: 

Hear,  O  tribe  and  assembly  of  the  city, 

Whose  rich  men  are  full  of  violence. 

And  her  inhabitants  speak  falsehood. 
r^AN  I  forget  the  treasures  in  the  house  of  the  wicked, 

And  the  accursed  scant  measure? 

Can  I  treat  as  pure  him  with  the  wicked  balances. 

And  with  the  bag  of  false  weights? 
"RUT  I,  now,  will  begin  to  smite  thee, 

To  lay  thee  in  ruins  on  account  of  thy  sins  and  thy  ...  in  the 
midst  of  thee. 

And  thou  shalt  try  to  remove  but  shall  not  rescue, 

And  what  thou  rescuest  I  will  bring  to  the  sword. 
T^HOU  shalt  eat,  but  not  be  satisfied; 

Thou  shalt  sow,  but  not  reap; 

Thou  shalt  tread  out  the  olive,  but  not  anoint  thyself  with  oil; 

And  the  must,  but  thou  shalt  not  drink  wine. 
■pOR  thou  hast  kept  the  statutes  of  Omri, 

And  all  the  activity  of  the  house  of  Ahab; 

In  order  that  I  may  give  thee  to  ruin, 

And  her  inhabitants  to  mockery. 

This  piece  has  undergone  much  change  in  its  transmission.  The  ar- 
rangement here  given  involves  the  omission  of  w.  ">•  ^^'-  '«"■  ',  and  the 
transposition  of  w.  '^a.  b  to  follow  v. '  and  of  v.  '<»  to  precede  v.  i^.  The 
reconstruction  is  almost  identical  with  that  offered  by  Marti,  but  the 
elision  of  v.  ">  and  the  two  transpositions  were  decided  upon  before  the 
appearance  of  Marti's  commentary.  Siev.  (followed  closely  by  Gu.) 
retains  only  w.  '»•  •=•  '"■  "•  ",  dropping  v. ''  as  a  gloss,  and  athetizes 
w.  •<»•  "  as  a  separate  poem,  dropping  v.^*^-  <=•  ^  as  a  gloss,  and  trans- 
posing V.  '^»-  ^  to  follow  5<,  with  V.  16c.  d.  e  as  a  gloss.  The  passage 
as  it  stands  in  M  defies  all  attempts  to  trace  any  logical  continuity,  but 
such  radical  treatment  is  unnecessary.  The  movement  of  thought  in 
the  poem  as  here  reconstructed  is  perfectly  natural  and  simple;  and  met- 
rical considerations  of  themselves,  unsupported  by  other  evidences,  do 
not  warrant  extreme  measures  in  textual  criticism. 

This  section  is  wholly  independent  of  the  preceding  one.  There  the 
tone  is  one  of  sympathy  and  instruction;  here  it  is  denunciation  of  sin. 
The  date  and  origin  of  this  prophecy  are  problems  that  have  not  been 
solved.  Stk.,  van  H.  and  Du.  assign  it  to  Micah;  Marti  places  it  in  the 
postexilic  period,  urging  the  linguistic  usage  and  the  historical  reminis- 
cence in  V.  •«  as  evidences  of  late  date;  while  We.,  Now.  and  GASm.  are 
undecided  as  to  its  time.  The  fact  is  that  the  utterance  might  belong 
to  any  period  of  Israelitish  history  subsequent  to  the  reign  of  Ahab, 
Parallels  to  it  may  be  found  all  through  the  history  of  prophecy.  The 
sins  specifically  mentioned  are  characteristically  urban  and  would  argue 


130  ivncAH 

equally  well  for  the  authorship  of  Micah  who  was  indignant  against  the 
oppression  and  vice  of  the  great  city,  or  for  the  last  days  when  Jerusalem 
was  the  centre  of  all  Jewish  interests  and  trade  and  commerce  had  come 
to  occupy  a  large  place  in  Jewish  life.  The  prophecy  would  seem  most 
fitting  at  a  time  when  some  disaster  to  the  city  was  imminent,  or  was 
thought  to  be  so;  but  such  periods  were  only  too  frequent  both  before 
and  after  the  exile.  Tradition  claims  the  passage  for  Micah  and  cannot 
be  proved  wrong;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  surrounding  context,  which 
is  certainly  not  due  to  Micah,  is  likewise  claimed  for  him  by  tradition; 
hence,  the  question  must  remain  open. 

9.  Kip"']  05  iTriK'Kr]6ricr€Tai. — n'',;'iPi]  (B  xal  ffilxxei  =  3;''U*ini.  Hal.  ns 
"^  "^t^- — ^^y]  Rd.  nN-)>,  with  Ew.,  Hi.,  Pont,  Gr.,  Or.,  Now.,  GASm., 
Oort^'"-,  Marti,  van  H.,  Gu.,  Du.;  cf.  (&  <t>o^ovix^vovs;  so  13  &.  Four  codd. 
of  Kenn.  and3  of  de  R.  ■'NT';  so  Theiner,  Rosenm.,  Gu..  Taylor,  "'NI/'^. 
We.  nN-;\— nD!£']  (S  &  ®  =  ^cf;  so  Ro.,  Taylor,  Pont,  We.,  Gr.,  Gu., 
OortE™.,  Now..— lycB-]  (gg'Ulsg.;  so  Du..  Ro.,  Gu.  v.?V'-— ™-]  ®  *  B, 
vocative.  Ro.  inBD. — mj?  nnyi  ici].  Rd.,  with  We.,  T'j;n  n}:;ni;  so  Perles, 
GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Du.,  Hpt..  <S  Kal  rls  KOfffii^a-ei  irdXiv  = 
1'^  ni52  'O-i-  IS  ^'  Quis  approhabit  illud?  ^  and  who  bears  witness?  = 
nTj?]  '•Di.  S  and  the  rest  of  the  people  of  the  land  =  n-i2.>ci.  Ro.  TiS'  >ip 
n>j?n.  Gr.  T'^jS  mjj''  ici.  Hal.  pin  n^c-).  Oort^'"-  om.  'n  iij?  as  dittog. 
from  mj7>.  Siev.  and  Gu.  n-ijJiis-i  T';?ri  ntJD.  Elh.  T'jr.n  ij;^  13  mapi. — 
10.  Viir\]  Rd.,  with  We.,  n;i;*Nn,  impf.  of  r^z':;  so  Now.,  Mard,  Siev.,  van 
H.,  Hpt.,  Gu..  <S  fJ-T)  T-vp  =  c-xn;  so  ^  B,  but  vnth  n.  Schnurrer, 
connecting  with  foil,  word,  rou'N'H;  so  Oort^'"-.  Du.  nu'n^. — no]  One 
cod.  each  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.  noa;  cf.  g-B.  Du.  nn.  Elh.  n^r. — ;-u--j] 
Oort^'"-  om.  as  dittog..  Du.  om.  with  p3  as  a  variant  of  'n  'sn.  Elh. 
nrj;. — nnss]  Rd.  ni^xs,  with  Marti,  Now.^^,  Siev.,  Gu..  <5  inserts 
Otja-avpi^uv  =  n-\.xs. — j'-jn]  Om.  as  dittog.  with  Marti,  Now."^,  Siev., 
Gu.. — ^v\]!i  ]V\  nB''Ni]  (B  Kal  fierh  (probably  an  error  for  fiirpa;  so 
Ro.;  cf.  Am.  8^)  i)/3pews  6.5iKla;  cf.  B  et  mensura  minor  irae  plena. 
Elh.  niH''  oyr  ]^v  na^Ni.  Gr.  jn-  Oort^™-  ayrs. — 11.  nsixn]  Rd.,  with 
We.  injTNn;  so  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Gu..  C5  d  SiKauodi^ffeTai. 
=  ^?.r.^',  so  Ew.,  Che.,  Gr.,  Gu..  &  21  similarly,  but  in  pi..  B  numquid 
justificabo.  Ro.  i7.?!^:^^;  so  Elh.,  Pont,  Hal.,  Du..  GASm.  n?!?'!;- 
Oort^™-  n?TNn.  Hpt.  nriNn. — >'tt'-\  ijixca]  (K  ^i*  fuTv  dvofios  =  a'jiNCj 
j?B*-\. — 12.  n^nicj']  <S  Thv  irXovrov  avrdv  =  D~>\:";. — n>n-\]  (go  yxj/iisd-q-ri-^ 
(gAQ  {j\l/(!)dr]. — 13.  ipi^nn]  Rd.  v7''Snn,  with  QJ  (Sp^oMat;  so  B  &  Aq., 
Bauer,  Struensee,  Ro.,  Elh.,  We.,  Pont,  Gu.,  GASm.,  SS.,  Oort"^'"-, 
Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Du..  Cf.  11  codd  (Kenn.)  viSnn;  9  Kal  air  dpxv^ 
iyd)  elp.1  6s  ^KdXeaa.  S  tTifi(j)py)<r6.p.rtv. — DDi'n]  (^  &<f>avtu)  ae;  so  &. 
B  perditione;  so  Aq.,  2  .  9  i^iar-rjcrav. — 14.  "inu'M]  ($  9  ffKorda-ei  = 
^ot;!!.     (SQ,  several  mss.  and  ft"  Ka2  i^ilxrui  ae.     Aq.,  /cai  /cara^ureiy^w 


6"-"  131 

<re  =  ^S,•^^'^*'l.  S  dXXA  Kal  Sia<pOepeT  tre  =  ^nntJ»1.  B  humiliatio 
tua.  &  dysentery.  Che.  icmd  (c/.  Ps.  109^).  Elh.  qnB';i.  Gr.  qz'npii. 
Oort^™-  P'C'n\  Marti,  lU's.  Marg.  rt2-\p2  ^^a'^{1.  Hpt.  jn  vi].  Du. 
TlNC'^i. — JDri]  05  fai  ^/cvei5(ret  =JiDni.  H  apprehendes  =  J''P'1'i  =  J''P'ni; 
so  ^  01  Aq.,  S.  Six  codd.  J-^m.  Gr.,  Du.  Jtt'n.  Marti,  J'>pn,  Hpt.  jd:\ 
— aSon]  Ro.  io^'SDn;  so  Ry.,  Elh.. — 15.  pi  nnt:^^]  (S  om.  noun  and  has 
vb.  in  pi.,  perhaps  reading  ivnu'n;  so  Ro.,  Ry.,  Taylor.  S>  also  om.  ]••% 
but  retains  vb.  in  sg.. — 16.  -i?3nB'ii]  Rd.  -\bvr\-\,  with  Ro.,  We.,  Gu., 
Or.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Oort^™-,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Du.,  Hpt.;  foil. 
(8  &  ®  B  6.  "B  custodisti;  so  &  01  6.  C5  has  a  double  rendering  of 
the  phrase,  viz.  Kal  d(f>avi(xd'qcTeTai  v6fii.ua  'KaoO  fwv  Kal  i(ptj\a^as  ri 
diKaic!)fjLaTa  Zafx^pel.  One  cod.  of  Kenn.  iccii.  Taylor,  '\'\^'C'\\  Elh. 
ncu'M.  Gr.,  Marg.  nprni. — najpo]  (5  &  01  Aq.,  pi.. — loSm]  We.,  Or. 
and  Gu.  sg.. — ipn]  &  =  nns;  so  Now..  Hal.  ddpn. — n^aa"']  Hartmann, 
yzy^;  so  Pont,  OortE">.,  Du.. — noin]  ^  01  pL. — ^cy]  Rd.  o^d;:,  -with  (S 
Xowv;  so  Schnurrer,  Struensee,  Hartmann,  Bauer,  Ro.,  Che.,  Taylor, 
Elh.,  Pont,  We.,  Gr.,  Gu.,  Or.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Oort^n'.,  Marti,  Hal., 
Siev.,  Du.,  Hpt.. 

In  Str.  I  the  prophet  introduces  Yahweh  who  addresses  the 
city,  declaring  it  to  be  full  of  oppression  and  trickery. — 9.  Hark  1 
Yahweh  is  calling  to  the  city]  Jerusalem  is  certainly  meant,  as 
the  city  par  excellence  for  all  Jews.* — And  it  is  success  to  fear  thy 
name]  A  glossf  as  is  clear  from  its  parenthetical  character  and 
the  use  of  the  word  "success"  which  is  characteristic  of  the  wis- 
dom literature,  though  found  also  in  Is.  aS'**.  M  can  only  be  trans- 
lated, "and  he  who  sees  thy  name  is  strong";  and  this  unique 
expression  has  given  rise  to  a  wide  variety  of  explanations,  none  of 
which  are  satisfactory.  With  the  thought  of  the  text  as  corrected, 
cf.  Pr.  i'  9^°  14^^  Ps.  34"  1 11^*'. — Hear,  O  tribe,  and  the  assembly 
0/  the  city]  Judah  is  the  tribe  addressed,  and  the  assembly  is  the 
general  meeting  of  the  citizens  of  Jerusalem  for  the  consideration 
of  all  matters  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  city  as  a  whole.  It  prob- 
ably corresponds  roughly  to  the  "  to^vn-meeting  "  of  New  England. 
The  presupposition  of  the  prophet  that  in  addressing  the  popula- 
tion of  Jerusalem  he  speaks  practically  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  seems 
to  reflect  a  period  when  Jerusalem  had  come  to  be  the  centre  of 
Jewish  interest  and  life.     M  is  to  be  translated  "hear  the  rod  and 

*  Cj.  The  use  of  urbs  =  Rome,  cited  by  Marti. 

t  So  Hartmann  (1800),  Grimm  (7.405.  XXII,  36),  GASm.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt.. 


132  MIC\H 

tfae  one  who  a^^ninted  it,"  '*  the  rod  "  being  a  cancrete  designation 
of  the  dusdaoneiit  to  be  inflicted  by  Yahweh;  but  this  involves 
asmg  *'hear"  in  the  double  sense  ''hear  about"  and  "listen  to," 
il  makes  the  feminine  suffix  refer  to  a  masculine  antecedent,  and 
ittreats  the  indefinite  noun ''rod"  as  definite.  Hence  the  text  as 
correctjed,  in  accordance  with  <S  and  5,  is  preferred  by  many  recent 
ainbis. — 12.  Whose  rich  men  are  full  of  lioJence]  The  transfer 
€if  ▼. "  to  this  position  furnishes  the  feminine  suffixes  of  v.  "  the 
leqpned  antecedent,  which  is  lacking  when  it  foDows  v.  " ;  and  also 
jidds  the  two  lines  necessary  to  complete  Str.  I.  leaving  v.  ^^  to  go 
vidi  T.  ^  into  Str.  11  where  they  belong  together.  The  charge 
aguist  Jerusalem's  rich  is  that  they  have  gained  their  wealth  by 
oppRsaon  and  injustice,  a  not  infrequent  complaint  of  the  proph- 
ets; ^.  Am.  3"  6'  Zp.  1*  Ez.  7=^  S'"  Is.  S9^.—And  her  inhabiianls 
sfeak  fdsdi»9i\  Wtnie  violence  was  predicated  only  of  the  rich, 
&eaA  is  charged  against  all  without  discrimination.  This  is 
pnctkaBy  sajmg  that  aH  are  equally  bad;  the  poor  would  be  as 
oppressive  as  the  rich  had  they  but  the  power.  Trickery  which  is 
pnggMi*  for  all  is  onn fined  to  no  especial  class. — A  nd  their  tongue 
is  dePeH  m  Ihar  mgmiks\  A  vivid  way  of  saying  that  not  a  word 
Ihey  speak  can  be  trusted.  Lying  is  a  common  oriental  vice  even 
at  the  present  day,  and  apparently  always  has  been;  cf.  Ho.  7*  10* 
Je.  6°  9^  Zc  5*  Lv.  19".  This  phrase  is  to  be  set  aside  as  a  gloss 
on  die  preceding  Hne;*  cf.  Ps.  120*-  '.  It  adds  nothing  and  is 
superfluous  to  the  str.  and  the  parallelism. 

Str.  n  points  out  the  impossibility  of  Yahweh's  condoning  or 
jusdfying  a  certain  kind  of  cheating  commonly  practised  in  the 
commercial  transactions  of  his  day. — 10.  Can  I  forget  the  treasures 
SB  the  hoiLse  cf  the  ^"iched]  These  ill-gotten  gains  must  always 
arise  as  an  ugjy  reminder  of  the  injustice  through  which  they 
•were  obtained  and  so  render  it  imjxssible  for  Yahweh  to  be  gra- 
cious. M  is  corrupt  here  and  obscure.  It  has  been  variously 
rendered:  e.  g.  "Are  there  yet  treasures,  etc-,''t  with  the  variaticMS 
"are  there  not  yet?"  and  "there  are  yet":  but  this  is  improbable 
grammatically  (r.  i.).     Or,  "the  great  man  is  yet  in  the  palace, 

•  So  Mird.  Ntjr*.  I>n-. 

t  So  CaL,  IteriK.  R Jirmn  ,  ffi.,  Mao..  Ew..  Tm..  ILL.  Or.,  Hd_  Casj^  tc  a  dL 


etc.";*  or  "fire  devours  the  houses,  etc.,"  cf.  (S-f  Or,  yet  again, 
"are  there  yet  foundations  in  the  house,  etc. "J  For  the  corrected 
text,  V.  s.. — And  the  accursed  scant  measure?]  In  days  when  no 
fixed  and  unvarying  standard  for  weights  and  measures  was  known 
and  when  no  police  power  existed  for  the  enforcement  of  such  laws, 
knavery  of  this  type  was  doubtless  very  common;  cf.  Am.  8^  Dt. 
25".  But  Yahweh's  curse  is  upon  all  such  dealings  (Dt.  25^^); 
he  demands  justice  and  fair  dealing  between  one  man  and  another. 
11.  Can  I  treat  as  pure  him  with  the  wicked  balances,  and  with  the 
bag  0/ false  weights  ?]  Cf  Dt.  25^^  Ps.  18^^  This  closes  Yahweh's 
appeal  to  the  moral  consciousness  of  Israel.  He  has  pointed  out 
the  moral  impossibility  of  his  permitting  wickedness  to  go  vmpun- 
ished.  According  to  m  the  verb  must  be  rendered,  "can  I  be  pure 
with,  etc."  This  has  usually  been  interpreted  either  as  repre- 
senting Yahweh  asking  how  he  could  be  considered  pure  and  holy, 
if  he  permitted  such  unfair  practices;  or  as  dependent  upon  an 
unexpressed  thought  such  as  "let  each  one  ask  himself."  But 
neither  interpretation  makes  good  Hebrew  usage. 

Str.  Ill  begins  the  description  of  the  punishment  involved  by 
the  sins  just  exposed.  A  hostile  army  will  invade  Israel. — 13. 
But  I,  indeed,  will  begin  to  smite  thee]  For  a  similar  idiom,  cf. 
Dt.  2^^  The  pronoun  refers,  not  to  the  individual  guilty  of  the 
offences  just  described,  but  to  the  "tribe"  (v.  ^)  as  a  whole.  M 
reads,  "but  I,  indeed,  will  make  sore  thy  smiting";  cf  Na.  3** 
Je.  30".  But  this  use  of  the  verb  "make  sick"  is  not  paralleled 
elsewhere,  hence  the  change  of  pointing  suggested  by  C|  seems 
preferable. — To  lay  thee  in  ruins  on  account  of  thy  sins]  The  pro- 
nominal object  is  not  expressed  in  the  Hebrew  text,  but  is  clearly 
implied  in  the  context: — 14b,  c,  d.  And  thy  .  .  .  in  ilie  midst  of 
thee]  The  meaning  of  the  main  word  in  this  phrase  is  wholly  vm- 
known ;  no  help  is  to  be  derived  from  the  Vrss..  In  its  present  con- 
text, parallel  as  it  is  \\ath  "thy  sins,"  some  such  meaning  as  "trans- 
gressions" or  "abominations"  seems  called  for.  In  its  context  as 
in  M,  the  meaning  "hunger"  or  "emptiness"  is  usually  conjec- 
tured for  the  noun;  but  the  presence  of  the  sufl5x  is  hardly  in 
harmony  with  such  a  rendering.     The  cognate  languages  know 

*  So  AE.,  Ra.,  Abar.,  Struensee.  t  So  Mich..  J  So  Ro.. 


134  MICAH 

no  such  word.  Hence  no  assurance  is  possible  as  to  its  meaning, 
— And  thou  shall  try  to  remove  hut  shalt  not  deliver  ;  and  what  thou 
dost  deliver,  I  will  give  to  the  sword]  The  first  part  of  the  state- 
ment apparently  refers  to  property,  none  of  which  will  be  saved; 
the  second,  to  the  women  and  children  who,  though  temporarily 
carried  to  a  place  of  refuge,  will  finally  meet  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  enemy.  Margolis,  following  Ibn  Ganah,  adopts  the  rendering, 
"and  she  shall  conceive,  but  shall  not  bear;  and  whomsoever  she 
beareth  I  will  give  to  the  sword."  On  the  basis  of  this  Margolis 
suggests  for  the  preceding  phrase,  "and  thy  wife  in  her  body" 
(v.  s.).  But  against  this  must  be  urged  the  harshness  of  the  idiom, 
"thy  wife  shall  conceive  in  her  body";  and  the  fact  that  3Dn 
nowhere  else  in  the  OT.  approximates  the  meaning  'conceive'; 
the  regular  verb  for  this  idea  is  ""in. 

Str.  IV  continues  the  description  of  the  coming  disaster,  by 
pointing  out  with  a  few  bold  strokes  how  all  of  Israel's  labour  shall 
count  for  naught. — 14a.  Thou  shalt  eat,  but  not  be  satisfied]  The 
thought  of  an  invading  enemy  is  still  in  the  prophet's  mind.  Pent 
up  in  the  city  by  siege  and  reduced  gradually  to  the  last  extremi- 
ties, Israel  will  know  all  the  agonies  of  starvation;  cf.  2  K.  6^  Je. 
52®  Lv.  26^  ^•.  The  transference  of  this  line  to  this  place  in  Str. 
IV  is  made  imperative  by  the  break  which  it  causes  in  the  connec- 
tion between  v.  ^^  and  v.  "'',  by  the  admirable  connection  thereby 
established  between  v.  "^  and  v.  *^,  and  by  the  ease  with  which  it 
solves  the  problem  of  the  strophic  structure. — 15.  Thou  shalt  sow, 
but  not  reap]  The  process  of  harvest  will  be  prevented  by  the  ad- 
vance of  the  enemy;  cf.  Dt.  28^*  ^•. — Thou  shalt  tread  out  the  olive, 
but  not  anoint  thyself  with  oil]  This  is  the  only  direct  mention 
of  the  treading  out  of  olive-oil;  cf.  Jo.  2^*.  The  finest  oil  was 
"beaten"  (Ex.  27^"  Lv.  24^);  but  the  bulk  of  the  olive  crop  was 
trodden  out  into  oil  vats.  Anointing  with  oil  was  a  toilet  custom 
common  to  all  hot  climates;  cf.  Am.  6^  2  S.  12^"  14^  Ru.  3'  2  Ch. 
28'^. — And  the  must,  but  thou  sJialt  not  drink  wine]  All  the  joy  of 
life  will  be  cut  oflF.  Allusions  to  the  treading  out  of  wine  are  very 
common;  cf.  Ju.  9"  Am.  9*^  Is.  i6*°  63^  Je.  25^"  Jb.  24"  Ne.  I3^^ 

Str.  V  closes  the  poem  summarising  the  sin  of  Israel  and  declar- 
hig  it  to  be  the  occasion  of  the  disaster  which  Yahweh  will  send. — 


16.  For  thou  hast  kept  the  statutes  of  Oniri]  No  special  *•  statutes 
of  Omri  "  are  elsewhere  mentioned,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  this 
expression  is  meant  to  apply  to  definite  laws.  Omri  is  harshly 
condemned  by  the  Deuteronomist  in  i  K.  16^  ^•.  But  he  is  prob- 
ably mentioned  here  as  the  founder  of  the  strongest  dynasty  of 
northern  Israel,  and  thus  as  representative  of  the  type  of  life 
characteristic  of  that  kingdom  and  responsible  for  its  downfall  in 
721  B.C.  In  Assyrian  records  after  the  reign  of  Omri,  the  northern 
kingdom  was  commonly  designated  bit  Humri. — And  all  the  work 
of  the  house  of  Ahab]  In  view  of  the  charges  made  in  w.  ^''"^^, 
it  is  probable  that  reference  is  had  here  to  the  judicial  murder  of 
Naboth  (i  K.  21),  as  typical  of  the  methods  of  self-aggrandise- 
ment common  to  Ahab  and  the  tyrannical  rich  men  of  Jerusalem. 
— And  ye  walk  in  their  counsels]  This  adds  nothing  to  the  thought, 
is  extraneous  to  the  metrical  form,  and  uses  the  plural  of  the  verb, 
whereas  the  preceding  and  following  context  has  the  singular. 
Hence  it  is  best  considered  as  a  gloss.*  For  similar  phraseology, 
cf  2  K.  16^  Je.  f*  Ps.  i^  81^-  I  S.  8^. — In  order  thut  I  may  give 
thee  to  ruin]  In  accordance  with  a  common  Hebrew  usage,  the 
prophet  ironically  attributes  what  was  an  inevitable  but  unde- 
signed consequence  of  a  course  of  action  to  the  deliberate  pur- 
pose of  the  actor. — And  her  inhabitants  to  mockery]  The  pronoun 
must  refer  to  the  city,  as  in  v.  ^^^;  the  sudden  change  of  person  is 
abrupt  and  confusing,  but  finds  many  parallels  in  Hebrew;  cf. 
Gn.  49*  I  K.  i^"  Is.  22^^  23^  31^.  That  there  may  be  no  possible 
doubt  as  to  the  source  of  the  mockery,  a  reader  has  added  the 
gloss,f  and  the  scorn  of  the  peoples  ye  shall  bear]  The  evidence  for 
the  secondary  character  of  this  line  is  identical  with  that  for  the 
later  origin  of  the  addition  to  v.  ^^^.  This  threat  represents  the 
lowest  depths  of  humihation  to  the  proud  and  sensitive  Hebrew 
spirit,  m's  "scorn  of  my  people"  has  occasioned  great  fertility 
of  exegetical  ingenuity,  e.  g.  Israel  will  not  be  pimished  as  heathen 
are  but  far  more  severely  in  proportion  to  their  privileges,!  or  the 
suffering  brought  upon  the  people  of  God  by  their  rich  oppressors 
will  now  be  inflicted  upon  the  rich  themselves  by  the  foreign  foe;§ 

*  So  Marti,  Now.^,  Siev.,  Du.. 

t  So  now  Du.;  but  v.  AJSL.  XXIV,  187  f}.,  where  this  suggestion  was  first  published. 

t  Cal..  §  Dathe,  Rosenm.. 


136  MICAH 

or,  the  heathen  will  delight  in  humiliating  the  nation  representing 
the  ideal  of  "the  people  of  God,"  but  this  disgrace  will  justly  be 
endured  by  the  present  representatives  of  the  ideal  who  are  re- 
sponsible for  its  being  brought  into  disrepute;*  or,  the  disgrace 
which  my  people  has  brought  upon  my  name  will  be  borne  by 
you;f  or,  Israel  must  bear  the  disgrace  of  being  the  people  whom 
I  have  rejected;!  or,  the  chastisement  borne  by  the  people  as  a 
whole  will  also  be  borne  by  each  one  of  you  individually. §  But 
none  of  them  are  satisfactory  solutions  of  the  difficulty  occasioned 
by  the  essential  identity  of  the  subject  of  the  verb  and  the  phrase 
"my  people." 

9.  n>s'in]  On  meaning  and  etymology,  cf.  Grimm,  JAOS.  XXII, 
35-44,  who  rightly  connects  it  with  Assy,  asd,  "to  support,  to  help,"  as 
a  tuqtilat  form. — hni^]  Ko.  ^  'O"  ■•  explains  IM  as  due  to  the  Masso- 
retes  having  supposed  an  ellipsis  of  i:"n;  cJ.  Ko.  ^k":,  where  all  infs.  in 
n  _  are  cited. — .itac]  Of  masc.  gender  ace.  to  Ex.  4";  the  fact  that  the  pi. 
ending  is  ni_  (Nu.  17")  is,  of  course,  no  indication  of  fem.  gender;  cf, 
niaN  ,  ,"nND. — 'd]  Usually  rendered  him  who,  but  this  would  require 
ns'N;  <D  always  has  interrog.  force,  direct  or  indirect.  For  the  meaning 
assembly  given  to  the  emendation  n>;;c,  cf.  Jb.  30"  Nu.  16-  Is.  14"  Lam. 
i'5. — 10.  CNH  ni>']  'y  precedes  interrogative  only  in  Gn.  19",  but  there  in- 
terrogative is  a  pronoun  which  often  yields  first  place  in  the  sentence  to 
some  more  important  word.  If  Vii  =  B*;,  cf.  Ges.  ^  <">  on  interchange 
of  K  and  %  and  the  regular  usage  in  Aram..  2  S.  14"  is,  perhaps,  an- 
other example  of  the  confusion  of  these  two  words,  but  the  text  there  is 
by  no  means  certain;  cf.  also  Pr.  iS^^. — yv-\  no]  =  '-\  n^aa;  cf.  -\->2,  Ho. 
6»;  an  ace.  of  place  in  which,  Ges.  ^"'8. — natN]  The  Pi'el  does  not  else- 
where have  the  forensic  force  of  "declare  pure"  or  "treat  as  pure";  but 
since  it  occurs  only  three  times,  and  since  the  Qal  does  carry  the  fo- 
rensic idea  (Ps.  5i«),  this  can  hardly  be  considered  a  serious  objection 
to  the  reading  proposed. — ''J3n]  Weights  were  commonly  of  stone,  as 
may  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  fine  collection  in  the  Haskell 
Museum. — nnnc]  Very  common  in  the  Psalms,  and  Wisdom  Literature; 
but  also  in  early  books,  cf.  Am.  S'  Ho.  12 •  Je.  5".— 13.  oss-n]  In  M 
both  this  and  man  are  substs.  and  in  relation  of  obj.  to  ■•n^'^nn;  but  in  cor- 
rected text,  they  are  supplementary  infins.  with  verb,  force. — 14.  ins"] 
B  derives  from  ■\/  nrvv,  as  a  noun  formation  with  prefix  \  Old  ety- 
mology was  to  connect  it  by  metathesis  with  Ar.  i£j,^.j,  he  famished 
(soc.  g.  Ges.,  Hi.,  Ew.);  Hd.  proposed  ^-^;  =the  Syr.,  dysentery;  but 
•  Ke.,  Casp..  t  Ry-  X  Schegg.  S  Hi.,  Reinke,  van  H.. 


6"-"  137 

neither  of  these  meanings  combines  well  with  the  sufl5x,  and  the  context 
as  reconstructed  demands  an  entirely  different  sense. — JpnV]  On  juss. 
in  protasis,  cf.  Dr.  ^^  isss-Jics  obs._  Hiph.  of  jid  elsewhere  is  always  used 
of  the  displacement  of  a  boundary;  but  Hiph.  occurs  in  all  only  7  times, 
and  in  the  Qal,  Niph.  and  Hoph.  no  such  restriction  of  its  scope  of  ac- 
tivity appears. — aSon  .  .  .  O'''7on]  Hiph.  only  here  and  Is.  5^';  used  for 
sake  of  variety;  there  is  no  necessity  for  correcting  the  text  to  produce 
identity  of  form;  the  related  vb.  c'^d  likewise  shares  the  meaning  "de- 
liver" between  Hiph.  and  Pi'el. — 15.  liD.-^]  Always  of  the  anointing  in 
the  toilet;  with  the  ace.  of  material  here  and  2  S.  14*  Dt.  28^".  nrc  is 
used  of  both  secular  and  religious  anointing;  cf.  Am.  6^  Je.  22"  Lv.  7'6. — 
16.  lanc'M]  Masc.  sg.  of  vb.  with  two  subjects,  nearer  of  which  is  in 
fem.  pi.,  Ko. ^*" i .  M9 »;  but  this,  difficult  as  it  is,  is  not  in  keeping  with  the 
meaning  of  the  Hithp.  in  Ps.  iS^^  (=  2  S.  22");  nor  can  mpn  be  treated 
as  ace.  after  the  Hithp..  The  consecution  of  vb.  forms  in  Ul  of  w.  '5.  i«  js 
abnormal,  viz.  simple  impf.,  impf.  with  ],  impf.  with  \  Impf.  with  \  is 
better  at  beginning  of  v.  '«  since  reference  is  to  a  definite  fact  of  the  past 
and  present. — i;?""^]  On  force  of  purpose  clause,  cf.  Dt.  29"  Ho.  8^  Am. 
2\  and  K6. 5s96e, — ,i|-nr]  Always  in  parall.  with  ncu>.  Cf.  Wkl.  AOF. 
II,  "jifff.  who  connects  it  with  the  Assy,  larraku,  to  which  he  assigns  the 
value  "desert,"  "wilderness";  but  see  Muss-Arnolt,  Diet.  s.  v.,  where  the 
meaning  "thief"  is  clearly  established  for  iarraku  by  the  passages  cited. 

§  19.  Israel's  Lamentation  Over  the  Faithlessness  Among  Her 
People  (7'-"). 

This  section  is  a  group  of  six  four-line  strs.  which  bewail  the 
general  depravity  in  Israel.  Str.  I  laments  the  state  of  general 
weakness  into  which  Israel  has  fallen.  Str.  II  accounts  for  this 
weakness  by  describing  the  wickedness  universal  in  Israel.  Str. 
Ill  exposes  the  covetousness  and  bribery  prevalent  among  the 
ruling  classes.  Str.  IV  declares  their  condition  to  be  hopeless 
and  their  day  of  punishment  to  be  close  at  hand.  Strs.  V  and  VI 
rise  to  a  chmax  in  the  denimciation  of  sin,  by  showing  that  no  man 
dare  trust  even  his  most  intimate  friends  and  nearest  relatives. 

YVOE  is  me!  for  I  am  become 

Like  the  gatherings  of  summer  fruit,  like  the  gleanings  of  the  vintage. 

There  is  not  a  cluster  to  eat, 

Not  an  early  fig  that  my  soul  desires. 
TTHE  pious  has  perished  from  the  land, 

And  of  the  upright  among  men  there  is  none. 

All  of  them  lie  in  wait  for  blood, 

Each  hunts  his  brother  with  a  net. 


138  MICAH 

nrO  do  evil  they  have  made  ready  their  hands; 

The  prince  demands  a  bribe, 

And  the  great  man  expresses  the  desire  of  his  soul; 

He  .  .  .  and  they  weave  it. 
'T'HE  best  of  them  are  like  a  brier; 

The  most  upright  of  them  like  a  hedge. 

The  day  of  their  visitation  comes; 

Now  will  be  their  havoc. 
pUT  no  confidence  in  a  friend; 

Trust  not  an  intimate; 

From  her  that  lies  in  thy  bosom, 

Guard  the  doors  of  thy  mouth. 
T70R  a  son  insults  his  father; 

A  daughter  rises  up  against  her  mother; 

The  daughter-in-law  against  her  mother-in-law; 

A  man's  enemies  are  the  men  of  his  own  house. 

The  measure  of  the  poem  is  prevailingly  trimeter,  falling  occasionally 
to  dimeter  as  in  Str.  IV,  lines  i  and  2,  and  rising  once  to  tetrameter,  viz, 
Str.  II,  line  4.  The  text  of  Str.  Ill  is  badly  preserved  and  has  thus  far 
defied  restoration.  The  strophic  norm  of  the  piece  is  already  fixed  by 
vv.  '•  2  which  fall  naturally  into  four  lines  each  (c/.  Siev.,  Du.);  the  same 
metre  fits  well  throughout,  with  the  exception  of  Str.  Ill,  where  the  text 
is  beyond  recovery. 

The  fact  that  the  style  changes  in  v.  ^  from  that  of  a  lament  to  that  of 
an  address  is  insufiicient  reason  for  separating  w.  «•  •  as  a  parallel  from 
the  original  piece  (w.  •■*),  with  Marti  {cf.  Du.,  Hpt.),  or  for  eliminating 
V.  5  and  transposing  v.  «  to  follow  v. ',  with  Siev.  and  Gu..  Change  of 
persons  is  a  very  common  phenomenon  in  Hebrew  discourse  {cj.  Ko. 
Slilistik,  238  ff.),  as  is  also  the  change  from  one  style  of  address  to  an- 
other, e.  g.  from  apostrophe  or  direct  address  to  narrative  (Ps.  34<-«  45'--'* 
Is.  24"  '■).  Looked  upon  as  an  announcement  of  coming  disaster,  the 
piece,  of  course,  finds  its  most  natural  conclusion  in  Str.  IV.  But  dis- 
aster is  only  incidental  in  this  prophecy.  Its  main  burden  is  rather  that 
of  grief  for  Israel's  pitiable  plight.  Vv.  ^- «  consequently  form  an  emi- 
nently fitting  conclusion.  The  picture  of  universal  disloyalty,  even  in 
the  most  sacred  and  intimate  human  relationships,  is  the  true  climax. 
What  can  compare  with  this  as  a  just  cause  for  lamentation  ? 

The  time  to  which  the  prophecy  belongs  is  difficult  to  discover.  This 
section  is  wholly  independent  logically  of  both  the  preceding  and  the  fol- 
lowing. Yet  it  is  generally  conceded  that  6'-'^  and  7'-'  might  easily  have 
come  from  the  same  time  and  the  same  pen.  The  same  moral  and  re- 
ligious situation  in  general  is  reflected  in  both  passages.  The  fact  that  the 
judgment  is  looked  upon  as  still  to  come  (7*)  is  consistent  with  origin  in 
the  time  of  Micah;  but  it  is  not  inconsistent  with  postexilic  origin  (cf. 
Zc.  13'  "■  14'  '■  Mai.  3^  '  ).     The  charge  against  the  ruling  classes  (v.  ») 


yl-«  139 

is  likewise  explicable  upon  either  basis  {cf.  3'  «•  Zc.  ii^  «•  Zp.  3').  The 
general  condition  of  depravity  pictured  here,  and  especially  the  faithless- 
ness so  widely  prevalent  are  more  easily  accounted  for  in  the  postexilic 
period  than  at  any  previous  time  {cf.  Is.  59'-'  56^-57=  Mai.  2"  «•  4=  Ps. 
12,  14).  But  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Israelitish  life  than  is 
now  accessible  to  us  might  show  other  periods  when  such  conditions 
prevailed. 

1.  •'SpNr]    (g  evvdyuv;    so  13;   hence   Elh.  nps^  or  ^DDsr;    so  Now., 
van  H.,  Du.,  Hpt..     Siev.  >n?Dsp,  i.  e.  prtc.  with  old  fem.  ending;  so  Gu.. 
Hal.  >DDN3.— nSS>'D]  Now.  nSSpi.'  Hal.  rh^m  so  van  H..  Elh.nSSy  \ops3. 
Pont,  nSSjj,  dropping  3.     Siev.  ^-pSSyn?,  fem.  prtc;  so  Gu..   Hpt.  ^SVyp. 
— nmx]  <&  otfjioi  =  HMN,  or  >ix.— mioa]  Gu.  '3  r^*— 'B-sJ]  Marti,  VDi, 
foil.  (S.     Nine  codd.  of  (S  have  a  double  rendering,  viz.  v  ^pvxv  l^ov  otfwi 
fvx-^.—2.  ^3N]  Aq.,   S  O  eKXA.onr€^.— 3>c-i'-]  &  om.  but  substitutes 
the  cog.  ace.  after  i3-ik\— mx^]  (g  SiKd^ovrat  =  13^1;.— pn]  Gr.  Sx.— 
nix']  (S  iKdMpovffiy  =  nix\— ain]  «S  ^/c6'Xi^5,  perhaps  a  free  rendering.   H 
ad  mortem.  (S  S>  to  destruction.  Aq.,  "2,  dvad^fiarL.   Du.  mnn.   Perles,  D:n; 
soMarti,Now.K(?),Gu..— 3.  pin  h-;]  Rd.,  with  Marti,  ynn';';  so  Now.k 
Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.,  Hpt..   H  treats  as  in  cstr.  with  'fl3,  notwithstanding  the 
article,  and  makes  the  whole  phrase  the  obj.  ace.  of  3>a>n.— 0^33]  Rd. 
Dn>23,  with  «  H  *;  so  Dathe,  Bauer,  Seb.,  We.,  Ru.,  Now.,  OortEn>., 
Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Hpt..    Hal.  a^jb.— 3>D^nS]  Rd.  o^a^n,  with  (S  iroi- 
lui^ovffiv,  H   dicunt  bonum;    so  Bauer,  Taylor,  We.,  Marti,  Now.k 
Siev,,  Gu.,  Hpt..    g-  ul  insert  a  negative  before  the  inf.  and  treat  inf.  as 
a  prtc.  or 'finite  form.     »  has  double  rendering  of  3vo^n,  viz./or  evil  they 
make  ready  their  hands,  and  they  do  not  ^ooi.— Vxtf]  §>  adds,  give.— 
'3  Ba-i'ni]  Om.,  with  Marti,  as  a  gloss  on  Ti-n;  so  Now.^,  Siev.,  Gu.. 
S>  SI  and  the  judge  says.     Now.  adds  car.    Van  H.  om.  1  and  makes  'v 
obj.  ace.  of  Snc— BiSc'3]  (&  eipvvLKois  Uyovs.     1  in  reddendo  est.     S 
iv  avTairodSffei.     B  give  a  &n&e.— Snjn]  (g  om.— ->3i]  ^  i'Kd\v<T€i>.     S 
XaXe?.— mn]   One  cod.  mx;  so  Gr..     Mard,  Now.^    v-jn.     Siev.,  Gu. 
p-,n._j,in  ^z^D:]    Marti,   L^rf  ?n;    so    Now.^.    Siev.,    Gu.    ^E'b:?  osrci. 

mP3);M]  eg  Kai  i^e\ovfmi.     3  conturbaverunt  earn.     &  connects  with 

v.  ■>  and  renders,  and  they  reject  their  good  =  i3i-n^i.  S  Kal  kotA  rds 
daffeU  V  Sacri^Tijs  avrov.  We.  ninirv,  so  Gr.,  Marti,  Now.^.  Siev.,  Gu. 
n-ir-  Hal.  -mnixii.  Ro.  miry,  so  Elh.,  Pont,  van  H..  Du.  mir;.— xin] 
Hpt.  vm\ — 4 .  D31B]  Ro.  connects  with  v.  \  foil.  &,  and  reads  D>3ion,  using 
the  suffix  of  the  preceding  vb.;  so  Elh.,  Pont,  van  H.,  Hpt..— pinD]  (g 
<bs  ffrjs  iKpiIiyuv  =  pihr.  Aq.  ws  /SoXis  K  quasi  paliurus.  B  like  a 
rag.  ®  as  from  a  thornbush.  We.  pinn.— itr^]  Rd.  mr^,,  with  Jus., 
Houb.,  Dathe,  Bauer,  We.,  Gr..  Now.,  OortE'"-,  Marti,  Hal.,  Siev., 
Gu.  Du..  (g  Kal  ^aSl^wv.  &  which  is  torn  in  pieces. — nsiDCC]  Rd. 
npiDC?;  so  Taylor,  Pont,  Gr.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.,  Du.;  3  and  D 


140  ]^nCAH 

have  been  confused  here  as  in  i'^;  cj.  !P,  2,  CI.  <S  ^t2  Kavhw^  = 
.T^iipps.  2  ws  i^  ifKppayfiov.  ^  by  the  moth,  a  conjectural  render- 
ing of  a  misunderstood  text.  "B  quasi  spina  de  sepe. — dv]  (6  iv  rjfj.4p(^. 
Marti,  Siev.,  Gu.  om.  as  gloss. — I'DXc]  Om.  as  gloss,  with  Marti, 
Now.*^,  Siev.,  Gu..  (&  ffKonias.  B  speculationis  tuae.  &  thy  watchmen. 
Taylor,  q\2xc.  Ru.  on'sxp.  Gr.  ^''px. — I'T^pfl]  Rd.  onpo,  with  Marti, 
Siev.,  Now.'^,  Gu.,  Du..  Ru.  and  Now.  om.  as  gloss  upon  i^dxo,  <S  oial 
oval,  al  iKdiKi^ffeis  aov;  hence  Marti,  Siev.,  Now."^,  Du.  and  Gu.  insert 
^in  before 'pD. — onsiac]  (6K\av6iJiola^C>v,denv'mgiTom.ri22,weep;  sim- 
ilarly &.  B  vastitas  eorunt.  Cod.  17  (Kenn.)  Dnoian;  so  Ru..  Hal. 
npiac, — 6.  IiSn  .  .  .  p->]  (5  &  pi.. — (K  B  render  v.  ">  very  freely,  e.  g. 
(&,  from  thy  bedfellow,  beware  of  entrusting  anything  to  her — 6.  'J'n] 

Str.  I  introduces  Zion  bewailing  in  figurative  speech  the  total 
absence  of  righteousness  and  truth  among  her  people. — 1.  Woe  is 
me !  for  I  am  become  like  the  gatherings  of  the  summer  fruit,  like 
the  gleanings  of  the  vintage]  Zion  is  the  speaker;  the  language 
is  wholly  inappropriate  in  the  mouth  of  Yahweh ;  nor  is  it  to  be 
easily  attributed  to  the  prophet  himself.  Zion  is  as  when  the  fruit 
harvest  and  the  vintage  are  completely  gathered. — There  is  not  a 
cluster  to  eat,  not  an  early  fig  that  my  soul  desires]  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  drop  the  suflSx  and  render  "that  any  one  desires,"  with 
Marti.  The  figure  is  perfectly  intelligible  as  it  stands  in  UJ.  This 
clause  shows  that  Zion  does  not  identify  herself  with  or  liken  herself 
to  the  bare  vineyards  and  orchards,  but  rather  to  one  appearing 
upon  the  scene  seeking  fruit  after  it  is  all  gone.  This  pregnant  use 
of  the  particle  of  comparison  is  common  in  Hebrew,  e.  g.  Ps.  18^^ 
Jb.  38^«  Gn.  34^^ 

Str.  II  expresses  the  same  thought  as  Str.  I,  but  in  plain,  im- 
mistakable  terms.  "There  is  none  that  doeth  good,  no  not  one." 
— 2.  The  pious  has  perished  from  the  land,  and  of  the  upright  among 
men  there  is  none]  CJ.  Ps.  12^  Is.  57*.  The  term  "pious"  does 
not  appear  prior  to  the  time  of  Jeremiah  and  Deuteronomy;  it 
occurs  chiefly  in  Psalms.  It  emphasises  the  practical  side  of  re- 
ligion as  it  finds  expression  in  kindness  and  loyalty  toward  men. 
The  "pious"  and  "upright"  are  the  grapes  and  figs  of  Str.  I.  The 
term  "land"  applies  to  Israel  only,  not  to  the  world  at  large;  and 
the  comprehensive  term  "man"  includes  only  such  representa- 


7'-'  141 

tives  of  the  race  as  are  to  be  found  in  Israel.  The  prophet  has  no 
concern  here  with  the  world  in  general  and  passes  no  judgment 
upon  it.  Israel  absorbs  all  his  interest. — All  of  them  lie  in  wait  for 
blood]  Cf.  Ho.  6^-  ®.  The  figure  of  the  hunter  and  his  prey  is 
here  applied  to  the  devices  whereby  one  Israelite  takes  advantage 
of  another  for  his  own  profit. — Each  hunts  his  brother  with  a  net] 
Cf.  Hb.  i^^  ^-  Ec.  f\  The  hunter's  net  rather  than  the  fisher- 
man's is  probably  meant  here.  The  greed  of  the  people  stops 
short  at  nothing;  fraternal  obligations  are  ignored  and  violated 
in  the  mad  rush  for  gain. 

Str.  Ill  specifies  distinctly  the  kind  of  crimes  the  prevalence  of 
which  Zion  is  bewailing,  viz.  bribery  of  the  courts  of  justice  and 
consequent  perversion  of  law  and  justice. — 3.  To  do  evil  they 
have  made  ready  their  hands]  iH  is  untranslatable.  It  has  been 
rendered:  "besides  doing  evil  thoroughly  with  their  hands";* 
"on  account  of  the  misdeed  of  the  hands — to  make  it  good — the 
prince,  etc."  ;f  "their  hands  go  out  to  evil,  to  do  it  earnestly";  J 
"they  reach  out  both  hands  after  evil  to  make  it  good";§  "their 
hands  are  upon  that  which  is  evil  to  do  it  diligently."**  But  the 
grammatical  diflficulties  are  insuperable.  The  thought  of  the  text 
as  emended  is  that  of  Je.  4^^  13^.  It  is  the  deliberate  purpose  of 
the  accused  to  do  evil;  they  have  trained  and  equipped  themselves 
to  that  end. — The  prince  demands  a  bribe]  i.  e.  in  his  capacity  as 
judge;  cf.  2  S.  15^  *^-  i  K.  3*^  ^•.  Bribery  is  still  the  outstanding  vice 
of  oriental  governments.  M.  inserts  and  the  judge  after  "the  prince," 
a  gloss  indicating  the  prince's  judicial  function.  An  interesting  at- 
tempt to  interpret  M,  is  that  of  Prof.  Morris  Jastrow,f  f  who  would 
assign  to  the  participle  7Xty  the  meaning  "priest,"  i.  e.  one  who 
seeks  oracles,  and  would  treat  Dl^w^^  as  a  corruption  of  some  verb, 
so  getting  the  rendering,  "the  prince,  the  priest  and  the  judge.  .  .  ." 
But  ingenious  as  this  is,  it  fails  because  such  a  use  of  this  parti- 
ciple in  Hebrew  cannot  be  established,  and  because  the  parallel 
by^ypi  with  its  participle  "I^IH  demands  a  similar  construction 
here. — And  the  great  man  expresses  the  desire  of  his  soul]  The  rich 
and  powerful  make  known  their  wishes,  and  these  are  carried  into 

*  Rosenm..  t  Ew..  t  Or.. 

§  Urn.;  similarly  Casp.,  Ke..  ♦*  RV..  tt  JBL.  XIX,  95  /.. 


142  MICAH 

eflfect  by  the  courts,  whose  judgments  are  for  sale  to  the  highest 
bidder.  The  word  "desire"  is  always  used  of  evil  wishes.  It  is 
possible  that  "the  great  man  "  is  an  official  and  that  the  meaning  of 
the  phrase  is,  "the  great  man  decides  according  to  his  own  wicked 
desires."  The  pronoun  t^in  must  be  taken  with  this  line  if  M  is 
correct;  the  rendering  then  would  be,  "and  as  for  the  great  man,  he 
expresses  the  desire  of  his  soul,"  the  pronoun  being  emphatic;  but 
the  length  of  the  line  thereby  produced  and  the  unnecessary  em- 
phasis are  against  iK's  arrangement.  The  pronoun  has  been  taken 
as  intensifying  the  suffix,  viz.  "desire  of  his  own  soul";  but  this  is 
un-Hebraic.  It  seems  best  to  regard  i<in  as  a  fragment  of  the  first 
part  of  the  following  line  which  has  been  lost  or  corrupted  beyond 
recognition. — He  .  .  .  atid  they  weave  it]  This  line  is  partly 
missing,  and  what  remains  is  obsciu-e.  The  verb  occurs  only  here, 
and  its  meaning  must  be  conjectured  from  the  substantives  "leafy" 
and  "cord,"  formed  from  the  same  root,  and  from  the  context  here. 
The  emendation  "pervert"  (v.  s.)  is  attractive,  but  in  so  uncertain 
a  context  no  certainty  as  to  details  is  possible.  The  suffix  ap- 
parently refers  to  the  wicked  desire  of  the  great,  while  the  subject 
must  be  the  combined  classes  represented  by  "the  prince"  and 
"the  great  man,"  who  together  overcome  all  opposition  and  cir- 
cumvent the  righteous  poor. 

Str.  IV  in  its  first  half  summarises  the  denunciation  up  to  the 
present  point,  and  in  its  second  half  threatens  the  wicked  oppres- 
sors \vith  punishment. — 4.  The  best  of  them  are  like  a  brier]  Cf. 
2  S.  23^-  ^.  The  comparison  is  probably  double-edged,  having 
reference  to  the  roughness  and  sharpness  of  briers  and  also  to  their 
susceptibility  to  quick  combustion;  cf.  Ex.  22*  Is.  9*^  lo*^ — The 
most  upright  of  them  like  a  hedge]  For  text,  v.  s..  iJI  =  "more 
just  than  a  hedge,"  which  is  nonsense.  RV.  "the  most  upright 
is  worse  than  a  thorn-hedge"  cannot  possibly  be  derived  from  iE; 
while  RVm.,  "the  straightest  is  as  it  were  taken  from  a  thorn- 
hedge  "  is  no  better.  Whether  the  hedge  is  mentioned  as  suggest- 
ing an  obstruction  or  injurious  roughness  cannot  be  determined; 
cf.  Pr.  15^". — The  day  of  their  visitation  comes,  now  will  be  their 
havoc]  The  day  of  Yahweh  is  here  before  the  prophet's  mind,  that 
great  day  of  judgment  that  engaged  the  attention  of  the  prophets 


7*"'  143 

from  first  to  last;  cj.  Is.  22^.  Hence  a  gloss  makes  M,  read,  the 
day  of  thy  watchmen  {i.  e.  thy  prophets),  thy  visitation  comes]  which 
is  poor  Hebrew.  The  suffix  must  agree  with  those  of  the  preced- 
ing and  following  lines. 

Str.  V  abandons  the  form  of  the  lament  wholly  and  passes  over 
into  direct  address,  cautioning  each  Israelite  to  beware  of  treachery, 
even  in  the  heart  of  his  most  dearly  beloved. — 5.  Put  no  confidence 
in  a  friend;  trust  not  an  intimate]  From  the  friend  in  general  (J?*)) 
to  the  bosom  friend  (f)"17i5)»  ^^^  prophet  proceeds  in  ascending 
scale;  none  is  worthy  of  confidence,  not  even  a  man's  wife. — From 
her  that  lies  in  thy  bosom  guard  the  doors  of  thy  mouth]  There  is 
no  hint  here  of  any  intention  to  cast  a  slur  upon  womankind  in  gen- 
eral as  unable  to  keep  a  secret;  it  is  simply  the  crowning  proof  of 
the  universal  faithlessness.  Roorda's  view  that  v.^  depicts  not  exist- 
ing conditions,  but  those  that  shall  supervene  in  the  "day  of  their 
visitation,"  is  wholly  without  foundation;  cf.  v.  ^^. 

Having  uttered  the  warning  in  Str.  V  the  prophet  proceeds  in 
Str.  VI  to  state  the  facts  which  warrant  his  advice. — 6.  For  son 
insults  father]  A  heinous  offence  in  Semitic  eyes;  cf.  Code  of 
Hammurabi,  §§  186,  192,  195;  Ex.  20'^  gjis.  "  Dt.  2i'«^-  Lv.  20« 
Pr.  20^". — Daughter  rises  up  against  her  mother]  The  submissive- 
ness  of  the  daughter  to  her  parents  is  well  illustrated  by  the  mar- 
riage customs  in  accordance  with  which  the  daughter's  hand  was 
absolutely  at  the  disposal  of  her  father;  cf.  Gn.  31^^.  Her  sub- 
jection was  more  complete  than  that  of  the  son ;  consequently  her 
insubordination  would  be  correspondingly  more  shocking. — The 
daughter-in-law  against  her  mother-in-law]  The  ideal  relationship 
between  mother-in-law  and  son's  wife  is  revealed  to  us  by  the 
story  of  Ruth  and  Naomi.  The  mother  was  granted  absolute 
authority  over  her  son's  wife. — A  man's  enemies  are  the  men  of 
his  own  house]  Not  merely  his  servants  or  slaves;  but  also,  and 
chiefly,  his  nearest  relatives,  the  members  of  his  ov\ti  family. 
With  vv.  ^-  ^,  cf.  Ovid,  Metamorph.  I,  144/.. 

1.  •'S'^n]  Again  in  Jb.  lo'^;  both  times  expressive  of  grief;  cf.  Assy. 
allil;  Ko.  "•  p- 338.— 'edn]  On  d.,  cf.  Sta.  ^  "•  2).— 's-x  r»<]  Circum- 
stantial clause,  with  the  force  of  the  negative  continuing  in  foil,  clause. — 
SsnS]  Inf.  with  S  has  force  of  a  gerundive;  cf.  Ko.  ^^o^a^ — 'j  nriN]  Rel. 


144  MICAH 

clause  with  rel.  particle  omitted;  Ges.  ^'"". — 2.  oin]  Ace.  of  instrument 
Ges.  5 1"  »•  Ko.  5  332  u  J  this  is  the  sole  example  of  this  construction,  but 
analogous  usage  is  found  in  Ju.  19'  Ps.  5"  51". — 3.  Di'^fj]  Ace.  to  M 
this  is  dependent  upon  Sxc,  which  is  to  be  understood  with  acfn;  but 
'a  Swa'  always  applies  to  the  consulting  of  deity  through  oracles,  which 
is  unsuitable  here.  '2  is  probably  due  to  the  editor  who  inserted  Oijcn 
and  was  intended  by  him  as  2  of  price. — Nin  it:'3j]  Treated  by  Ges. 
§  135  /.  K.6.  ^  "  as  a  pron.  strengthening  the  sf.;  but  such  prons.  are  usually 
introduced  by  dj  {cf.  i  K.  zi'");  cf.,  however,  Zc.  7^  Dt.  5'. — 4.  nso] 
Agreeing  with  the  nearer  noun,  rather  than  with  Dv,  the  real  subj.. — 
6.  'n  P33i:']  Genitive,  instead  of  ace.  of  place,  or  prep.  3,  seems  to  im- 
ply a  closer  relationship ;  cf.  Ko.  ^ "« p. — ^nnc]  The  pi.  by  metonymy, 
instrument  for  product;  cf.  Ko.  ^ ""  •. 

§  20.     The  Discomfiture  of  the  Foe  (7'"^"). 

In  four  strs.  of  four  lines  each,  the  prophet  expresses  his  con- 
viction that  Yahweh  will  vindicate  his  people  by  overthrowing 
their  enemies.  The  poem  sovmds  somewhat  like  an  imprecatory 
psalm.  Str.  I  warns  the  enemy  not  to  rejoice  too  prematurely, 
for  Israel's  distress  is  only  temporary.  Str.  II  expresses  the  res- 
olution to  bear  Yahweh's  chastisement  imcomplainingly,  since  it 
is  due  to  sin  and  will  end  in  Israel's  vindication.  Str.  Ill  declares 
that  the  tables  are  to  be  turned  upon  Israel's  enemies;  those  who 
have  reviled  her  will  themselves  be  put  to  shame. — Str.  IV  an- 
nounces a  time  when  those  who  scoffed  at  Israel's  God  because  of 
Israel's  calamities  will  in  their  turn  be  groimd  down  by  oppression. 

"DEJOICE  not,  O  mine  enemy,  over  me! 

Though  I  am  fallen,  I  shall  arise. 

Though  I  sit  in  darkness, 

Yahweh  will  be  my  light. 
npHE  anger  of  Yahweh  I  must  bear — 

For  I  have  sinned  against  him — 

Until  he  shall  take  up  my  cause, 

And  execute  my  right. 
T-IE  will  bring  me  forth  to  the  light; 

I  shall  gaze  upon  his  righteousness. 

And  mine  enemy  will  see, 

And  shame  will  cover  her; 
CHE  that  said  unto  me. 

Where  is  Yahweh,  thy  God? 

Mine  eyes  will  gaze  upon  her; 

Now  will  she  be  for  trampling. 


7'-'"  145 

There  are  traces  of  the  qina  rhythm  in  this  poem;  but  the  interchange 
of  trimeter  and  dimeter  is  too  irregular  to  permit  us  to  classify  the  poem 
as  elegiac.  This  may  be  seen  from  Siev.'s  attempt  (cf.  also  Du.)  at  such 
an  arrangement  which  involves  three  changes  for  metrical  reasons  only 
as  well  as  the  omission  of  the  first  two  lines  of  Str.  Ill  as  a  gloss  in 
tetrameter.  The  parall.  is  beautifully  regular  and  the  logic  unfailingly 
indicates  the  strophic  divisions. 

The  general  period  to  which  the  poem  belongs  is  manifest.  Israel 
is  no  longer  awaiting  punishment  as  in  7'-«,  but  is  already  enduring  it, 
and  is  hoping  for  deliverance.  This  points  naturally  to  exilic  or  post- 
exilic  conditions.  There  is  the  same  acknowledgment  of  the  justice 
of  the  punishment  as  in  Is.  40-55,  and  the  same  conviction  that  de- 
liverance will  come.  But  the  attitude  toward  the  heathen  foe  is  not 
that  of  the  Servant  passages  toward  the  world  in  behalf  of  which  Israel 
suffers,  but  rather  that  of  the  later  prophets  who  had  become  bitter 
against  their  oppressors;  cf.  Is.  63'  '^-  Zc.  14"  ff-  Ob.  "  '•.  No  satis- 
factory connection  can  be  found  for  v.  ^  either  with  the  preceding  sec- 
tion or  with  this.     It  seems  to  be  a  misplaced  fragment. 

7.  ijNi]  Siev.  om.. — nS''niN]  ©  yiiN,  deriving  it  from  Sin. — ^•;z'>]  (jg 
T(J3  (TUTTJpl  fiov;  so  &  U.  Siev.  supposes  the  omission  of  a  trimeter  line 
from  £11  at  this  point. — 8.  '>S]  Siev.  tr.  to  precede  ''PTH;  cf.  (5. — •'S  -iin] 
(g  (puTiei  |iot;  so9JiI&;  several  mss.  <^ws  fi.oi. — 9.  t^'n  ly]  Du.  ^1>. — 
nN-\N]  Some  Heb.  mss.  nN^NV,  so  B. — 10,  vn]  We.  n>N;  so  Now.,  Oort^™-, 
Siev.. — nini]  ^  om.. — n.-ijj]  Oort^'"-  nj;.     Siev.  13. 

Str.  I  serves  warning  upon  Israel's  foes  that  her  present  mis- 
fortunes will  soon  give  place  to  honour  and  glory  from  Yahweh, 
her  God. — 7.  But  I  will  watch  expectantly  for  Yahweh,  I  will  hope 
for  the  God  of  my  deliverance ;  my  God  will  help  nte]  The  original 
connection  of  this  verse  with  another  context  is  shown  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  evidently  contrasts  "I"  with  something  that  has 
gone  before,  though  there  is  no  fitting  contrast  in  the  present  con- 
text.* The  presence  of  this  fragment  here  may  be  due  to  an 
effort  to  establish  some  connection  between  w.  ®  and  *.  The 
speaker  here  is  apparently  not  an  individual,  but  the  oppressed 
community,  which  gives  expression  to  its  unquenchable  faith  in 
Yahweh  as  the  source  of  ultimate  deliverance.  For  similar  phra- 
seology, cf  Ps.  5^  18"  255  38'^  43^  Hb.  3l^  The  original  poem 
begins  with  v.®. — 8.  Rejoice  not,  O  mine  enemy,  over  me!]  "En- 
emy" is  collective  here,  including  all  of  Israel's  foes;  cf.  Ob.  '^^• 

*  Cj.  Du.  -who  attaches  v.  '  to  vv.  ^-  ^ 


146  MICAH 

Ps.  25^  35'^ — Though  I  am  fallen,  I  shall  arise]  Faith  under  diffi- 
culties, the  certainty  of  6nal  vindication,  was  characteristic  of  all 
the  exilic  and  postexilic  prophets;  cf.  Is.  60*  ^-  Ez.  37-39  Zc.  14. — 
Darkness  .  .  .  light]  A  common  figure  for  calamity  and  pros- 
perity; cf.  Am.  5'«  Is.  62>«-  9'«f-  58">  59»  Jb.  ^o^^ 

In  Str.  II  the  speaker  declares  himself  ready  to  bear  patiently 
the  well-merited  punishment  of  Yahweh  until  such  time  as  Yah- 
wch  may  choose  to  release  him. — 9.  The  anger  of  Yahweh  I  must 
bear]  This  is  in  accord  with  all  Semitic  thought  which  always 
explained  disaster  as  due  to  divine  wrath.*  From  the  time 
of  Josiah's  untimely  death  on,  the  consciousness  of  being  under 
the  wrath  of  Yahweh  was  a  heavy  burden  upon  Israel;  cf.  2  K. 
23^^  ^-  24-°  Is.  42^*  ^•. — For  I  have  sinned  against  him]  A  par- 
enthetical statement  of  the  occasion  of  the  divine  anger.  Sin 
and  pimishment  are  indissolubly  united  in  Hebrew  and  Semitic 
thought.  There  is  in  this  ascription  of  the  disasters  of  Israel 
to  Yahweh's  anger  because  of  her  sin  a  direct  rebuke  of  the  foes 
who  have  failed  to  realise  in  their  unholy  glee  that  they  are  but  in- 
struments in  the  hand  of  a  just  God. — Until  he  shall  take  up  my 
cause  and  execute  my  right]  There  is  a  limit  to  Yahweh's  wrath; 
cf  Ps.  103^.  Though  he  is  now  angry  at  Israel,  yet  when  his 
punitive  purpose  is  accomplished  he  will  take  his  place  as  Israel's 
avenger  over  against  her  foes.  As  compared  vvdth  them,  Israel  is 
righteous;  Yahweh  therefore  will  not  allow  them  to  push  her  to 
destruction;   cf.  Zc.  i'^  ^•. 

Str.  Ill  contrasts  the  fact  of  Israel's  vindication  with  its  neces- 
sary corollary,  the  public  humiliation  of  her  foes. — 9e,  f.  He  will 
bring  me  forth  to  the  light ;  I  sliall  gaze  upon  his  righteousness]  The 
"righteousness"  of  Yahweh,  as  in  Is.  40-55,  is  here  identical  with 
the  vindication  of  Israel.  Israel  being  more  nearly  in  accordance 
with  the  divine  will  than  the  nations  are  who  triumph  over  her,  it 
is  required  of  the  justice  of  Yahweh  that  he  deliver  his  people  and 
punish  their  oppressors  who  have  exceeded  their  commission  of 
chastisement  upon  Israel.  The  destruction  of  Israel  by  the  heathen 
nations  would  be  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  character  of  the 
God  of  justice.     His  righteousness  demands  Israel's  triumph  over 

*  Cj.  Mesa-Inscriplion,  1.  s ;  the  Stele  oj  Nabonidus,  I.  i  fj. 


her  foes. — 10a,  b.  And  mine  enemy  will  see,  and  shams  wUl  cover 
her]  Israel's  vindication  would  be  incomplete  apart  from  the  dis- 
grace of  her  enemies.  The  latter  is  involved  in  the  former.  But 
to  say  with  Caspari  that  Israel's  joy  is  a  holy  exultation  over  the 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  God  does  not  tell  the  whole  story. 
Such  an  element  is  imdoubtedly  present,  but  there  is  coupled  with 
it  the  element  of  revenge  for  wanton  and  gross  insults  long  en- 
dured; cf.  Na.  3  Ps.  109  and  Ob.. 

Str.  IV  announces  the  complete  and  final  overthrow  of  the  ene- 
mies of  Israel  and  Yahweh. — lOc-f.  Where  is  Yahweh,  thy  God  ?] 
A  proverbial  expression  indicative  of  the  powerlessness  of  Yahweh; 
cf.  2  K.  18'^  Jo.  2^^  Ps.  79***  115^.  Among  peoples  entertaining  a 
limited  conception  of  deity  as  the  champion  of  a  particular  nation, 
the  continuous  disaster  of  a  nation  must  always  be  interpreted  as 
due  to  the  weakness  of  its  patron  deity. — Mine  eyes  will  gaze  upon 
her]  She  who  doubted  Yahweh's  power,  if  not  his  very  existence, 
will  now  feel  that  power  in  her  own  person.  The  "gaze"  is 
one  of  gloating  hatred;  cf.  Ob.  '^-  *^  Ez.  28"  Ps.  22^^ — Now  will 
she  be  for  trampling]  A  final  note  of  triumph  over  the  prostrate 
foe. — Like  the  mire  of  the  streets]  An  editorial  expansion,  as  is 
shown  by  the  metre;*  for  similar  additions,  cf.  1*. 

8.  ^na^N]  Fem.  as  collective,  Ges.  ^"^s^ — 9,  t^yq  Of  anger  of  '1,  only 
here  and  Is.  30'";  a  stronger  term  than  the  more  common  qN  ,a;'i  and 
may. — •'•iDdvo  hb'j;]  i.  e.  do  me  justice,  give  judgment  in  my  favour  ;  cf.  Ps. 
9^ — 10.  N^ni]  An  abnormal  form  and  accentuation,  but  found  also 
in  Zc.  95  and  Gn.  41"  (in  some  mss.).  According  to  Ges.  ^"p  due  to 
desire  to  avoid  hiatus  before  foil,  n;  but  perhaps  better  treated  as  re- 
flecting Aramaic  usage,  Ges.  ^"hh,  On  the  force  of  the  tense,  cf.  Ko. 
§364  f., — vn]  Correction  to  n>N  is  unnecessary  in  view  of  2  K.  19"  Is. 
19"  Je.  37";  the  sf.  vividly  anticipates  the  subj.;  cf.  Ko.  ^s^"'. — nrNnn] 
D.  f.  affectuosum,  as  in  nj:3?n,  Ju.  5";  Ges.  ^  "  ".  There  is  no  room  here 
for  a  sf.. 

♦  So  Marti,  Now.^,  Siev.,  Hpt..    But  c}.  Du.,  who  retains  it  and  drops  "  mine  eyes  will  gaze 
upxjn  her." 


148  MICAH 

§  21.     The  Restoration  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Return  of 
Exiles  (f'-'^). 

A  single  eight-line  str.  tells  of  the  time  when  the  city's  walls  will 
be  rebuilt,  her  borders  extended  and  her  citizens  brought  back  from 
every  quarter  of  the  earth;  while  the  heathen  world  will  receive 
drastic  punishment  for  the  sin  of  its  inhabitants. 

A   DAY  will  there  be  for  rebuilding  thy  walls. 
On  that  day  the  border  will  be  distant. 
A  day  will  there  be  when  unto  thee  will  they  come, 
From  Assyria  even  unto  Egypt, 
And  from  Egypt  even  to  the  river, 
And  from  sea  to  sea  and  from  mountain  to  mountain. 
But  the  earth  will  become  a  desolation, 
On  account  of  its  inhabitants,  because  of  the  fruit  of  their  deeds. 

Tetrameter  rhythm  prevails  in  this  oracle  as  it  is  found  in  iH;  but 
the  text  is  doubtful  at  several  points.  The  connection  within  the  str. 
is  very  close,  except  between  vv.  "  and  •',  where  contrast  must  be  under- 
stood to  make  any  connection  possible.  But  since  good  connection  may 
be  secured  in  this  way,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  separate  v.  ",  either  in 
order  to  connect  it  with  v.  "  (Marti)  or  with  v.  *  (Siev.).  There  is  not 
the  slightest  link  of  connection  between  this  passage  and  its  context  on 
either  side.  The  proposition  of  Marti  (so  also  Now."^)  to  secure  connec- 
tion with  vv.  '■">  by  changing  the  sf .  of  the  2d  pers.  here  to  that  of  the  ist 
pers.  does  not  commend  itself,  for  such  promises  for  the  future  are  ordi- 
narily spoken  to  the  community  or  concerning  it  by  a  prophet  and  do  not 
emanate  from  the  community  itself.  Van  H.'s  proposal  to  place  w. 
iib-13  immediately  after  v. ',  involves  an  impossible  exegesis  of  v.  ".  The 
passage  is,  therefore,  a  fragment  lacking  close  relationship  to  the  other 
fragments  of  which  chs.  6  and  7  are  composed  (so  also  Du.). 

The  time  of  the  writing  of  this  piece  is  clearly  revealed  as  falling 
within  certain  limits.  The  terminus  a  quo  for  its  origin  is  necessarily 
the  fall  oi  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C.,  at  which  time  the  walls  of  the  city  were 
razed  (2  K.  2  5 '") ;  the  terminus  ad  quem  is  evidently  the  year  of  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  walls  under  Nehemiah.  The  prophet  apparently  looks  for- 
ward to  the  rebuilding  as  close  at  hand;  hence  we  might  place  the  proph- 
ecy shortly  before  that  task  was  actually  begun.  But  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  many  times  prophetic  hopes  of  this  character  may  have  been 
kindled  only  to  meet  with  disappointment.  It  is  unsafe,  therefore, 
to  specify  any  time  within  the  first  century  and  a  half  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  for  the  utterance  of  this  prophecy. 


7"-"  149 

11.  Dv]  Add  Nin,  with  Marti  and  Now. '^i  as  copula;  cf.  v.  •*.  Che.^^, 
Sinn  DV3. — mnS]  05  dXoi^^j  -kXIvBov  =  nuaS  Siev.  nu3n. — T'■^^J]  (S 
i^iXei\f'ls  ffov.  Marti,  "''\V,;  so  Now.*^,  Siev..  Hal.  T?.V- — f*^^^  ov] 
Siev.  om.. — pn  pm>]  (&  Kal  &-n-0Tpl\pfraL  v6fjiifid  <tov.  ^  that  thou  be  taken 
away,  omitting  pn.  H  longe  fiet  lex.  Aq.  iJMKpvvOT^ffeTai  i]  aKpurla.  S 
imKpkv  ecrrat  ^  iiriTayrj.  Gr.  pHT  pni\  Oort^™-  TjipriT^.  Marti,  'n^ 
li^n;  so  Now. '^j  Siev..  Hpt.  pn  3-\p\  Du. 'n  in-i\ — 12.  ri^^V]  Rd.  "[^^T^Jt., 
in  agreement  with  v.  •';  so  Now.,  Hpt..  <S  Q  Kal  al  7r6\etj  <tov  =  inpi.  & 
<Ay  /zwe.  Marti,  ^■tj?i;  so  Now.'^,  Siev.. — ni3i]  Rd.  ■ini3\  with  (S,  We., 
Taylor,  Gr.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Hpt.. — ijdS]  (&  eti  oixaXia-fibv  Kal  els 
8ia/j.€ptffix6v. — i-ijji]  Rd.  i^J7i,  with  Aq.  0Ew.,  Hi.,  Mau.,  Ro.,  Now.,  Elh., 
We.,  Gu.,  GASm.,  OortE™.,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Du.,  Hpt..  Taylor, 
•"l!?!.  Gr.  ni"i. — -iisd]  $  9  H  QI  take  as  common  noun. — msD  'jdSi]  <g 
e/s  Sia/xepurtJjbv  dirb  TiJpou  =-)vxp  >jd'7;  so  iJ. — D'i]  Elh.  nD>i. — nni]  & 
=  nni;  c/.  Nu.  20«.  Elh.  nnni. — inn]  Rd.  nnp,  with  05  H,  Taylor, 
Elh.,  We.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  van  H.,  Du.,  Hpt.. 

This  short  poem  is  full  of  movement, — the  rebuilding  of  walls, 
the  exiles  returning  in  great  numbers  from  every  quarter,  and  over 
against  this  scene  of  joyous  activity  the  desolation  of  destruction 
upon  the  pagan  world. — 11.  A  day  will  there  be  for  rebuilding  thy 
walls]  The  city  of  Jerusalem  is  addressed.  The  language  of  the  str. 
as  a  whole  shows  that  the  literal  rebuilding  of  the  city's  walls  is  meant, 
rather  than  any  such  general  idea  as  the  restoration  of  the  fortunes 
of  Israel. — On  that  day  will  tJie  boundary  be  far  distant]  i.  e.  Is- 
rael's territory  will  be  very  extensive.  For  pm  as  applied  to  the 
extension  of  boundaries,  cf.  Is.  26*^.  The  boundary  referred  to 
may  be  either  that  of  the  city  or  that  of  the  land;  cf.  Zc.  2*.  The 
text  here  is  somewhat  suspicious;  pn  without  the  article  or  other 
token  of  definiteness  is  unusual,  and  the  repetition  of  QT'  and  DT* 
t<in  in  the  first  three  lines  is  suggestive  of  dittography.  Some  would 
drop  Itin  as  a  dittograph  from  the  verb;  but  the  resulting  sentence, 
"that  day  is  far  distant,"  is  wholly  out  of  harmony  with  the  opti- 
mism of  the  passage.  Other  interpretations  of  this  phrase  are: — 
"that  day — distant  is  the  date  (pn)";*  "the  decree  shall  be  ex- 
tended," i.  e.  to  include  not  only  Babylon  but  all  the  countries 
arotmd  Judea  and  to  provide  for  great  numbers  becoming  prose- 
lytes to  Judaism  ;t  the  limit  separating  Israel  from  the  nations  will 
be  set  aside  and  all  the  nations  will  come  flocking  to  the  people  of 

*  Ew.,  Um..  t  Hd., 


150  MICAH 

God  ;*  the  Mosaic  law  will  be  surperseded  ;f  pn  =  the  principles  of 
the  heathen — after  the  captivity  idolatry  will  be  abolished;  J  pn  = 
law  and  order — in  the  time  foretold  in  w.  *'®,  with  which  w.  "*'"'' 
should  be  connected,  all  restraint  will  be  cast  off  and  anarchy  will 
prevail. §  But  these  are  all  open  to  serious  objection  and  are  now 
generally  abandoned  in  favour  of  the  view  adopted  here. — 12.  A 
day  will  there  he  when  unto  thee  will  they  come  from  Assyria  even 
unto  Egypt]  Not  a  prediction  of  foreign  invasion,**  nor  a  promise 
of  the  conversion  of  the  nations  ;ff  but  an  assurance  of  the  return 
of  the  Jewish  exiles.  The  language  of  the  verse  presupposes  the 
wide  extent  of  the  diaspora;  the  exiles  are  sojourners  among  all 
peoples.  Assyria  and  Egypt  are  the  extremities  of  the  prophet's 
world  on  the  east  and  west. — And  from  Egypt  even  unto  the  river] 
The  river  in  question  is  the  Euphrates;  hence  this  clause  is  prac- 
tically identical  with  the  preceding. — And  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from 
mountain  to  mountain]  The  order  of  words  is  vmusual  in  fH  and 
the  text  of  the  last  word  imintelligible  in  this  context;  v.  s..  No 
particular  sea  is  alluded  to;  the  expression  is  rather  general  and 
indefinite,  and  so  intended  to  convey  the  impression  of  vastness 
of  expanse.  The  interpretation  of  Hitzig  and  Orelli,  which  identi- 
fies the  seas  as  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the 
mountains  as  a  northern  Hor  (Nu.  34')  and  a  southern  Hor  (Nu. 
20^^),  makes  Canaan  the  whole  of  the  territory  covered  by  the  de- 
scription of  V.  *^'^-  ^\  but  this  is  an  anti-climax  after  v.  '*^.  For 
similar  descriptions  of  a  world-wide  restoration  from  exile,  cf. 
Ez.  34'^  Zc.  10^  ^-  Is.  2f^  Ps.  107-  ^-.—13.  But  the  earth  wUl  he- 
come  a  desolation]  In  its  present  context,  the  land  thus  threatened 
cannot  be  Canaan;  but  must  be  the  heathen  world  in  general,  the 
land  of  Israel's  foes;  cf.  Je.  49^^-  ^^  50^^  Zp.  2'^-  ^^  Jo.  3^". — Because 
of  its  inhahitants,  on  account  of  the  fruit  of  their  deeds]  That  the 
land  should  suffer  because  of  the  sins  of  its  occupants  is  a  common 
thought  in  the  Scriptures;  cf.  2  S.  21*^-  Is.  24^  Lv.  18*^  Rom.  8". 
The  final  phrase  more  specifically  defines  the  occasion  of  the  land's 
devastation;  for  other  examples  of  the  phrase,  v.  Is.  3*°  Je.  17'"  21" 


32'^  cf  Je.  6'«. 

*Ke.. 

tKl.. 

t  Baur,  Hal.. 

§  Van  H.. 

**  Van  H.. 

tt  Cal.,  Rosenm.,  Hcssclbcrg,  Mau.,  Kl., 

11.  rm^  av]  For  nn  =  rebuild,  cf.  Ez.  36"'-  ''.  The  lack  of  cop- 
ula would  make  it  necessary  to  draw  Ninn  cr  to  this  clause  as  its 
predicate  (so  Now.);  but  this  violates  the  metrical  norm;  it  is  better  to 
insert  Kin. — Ninn  or]  An  ace.  of  time  when.  For  lack  of  art.  with 
av,  cj.  Ges. 5"««'. — 12.  Nin  ov]  Lack  of  art.  explained  by  Ges. 5'26»» 
as  due  to  corrupt  text;  by  Ko.  ^  "4  ^  as  due  to  prominent  character 
of  ar.  But  it  is  much  better  taken  with  av  as  subj.  of  sentence 
and  Nin  as  copula  {contra  Hpt.). — l'i>i]  "and  unto  thee,"  i.  e.  "when 
unto  thee";  cf.  H.  44,  3. — iixc]  EIsw.  only  Is.  196  2  K.  19!^  (=  Is. 
37").  Perhaps  intended  to  suggest  by  its  pointing  the  common  noun, 
siege.  Wkl.^'"'-,  170,  proposes  to  point  -nx^p  or  ivi-::,  which  he  would 
connect  with  Ali-is-sa-ri  of  the  Tel-el-Amarna  letters;  v.  Letter  of 
Ashur-uballit,  1.  2,  and  that  of  Tar-hundaras  of  Arsapi,  1.  i. — ->nj]  Ab- 
sence of  art.  =  poetic  usage,  Ko.  *  "s  g.  For  similar  refs.  to  the  Euphrates, 
cf.  Zc.  pio  Ps.  728  I  K.  4"-  2<  1415  2  S.  ioi6  Gn.  i5'8  Dt.  i'.— 13.  y\nn] 
As  denoting  all  non-Israelitish  territory,  cf.  the  corresponding  use  of  din 
in  contrast  with  huTZ'^  in  Je.  32'",  cited  by  Stei.  and  Now.. 

§  22.     A  Prayer  for  Yahweh's  Intervention  (7""^"). 

Three  strs.  of  four  lines  each,  in  qina  rhythm,  call  for  Yahweh's 
manifestation  as  the  deliverer  of  his  people  and  base  the  appeal  for 
deliverance  upon  his  mercy.  Str.  I  is  a  prayer  to  Yahweh  for  the 
resumption  of  his  former  attitude  of  favour  toward  his  people. 
Str .  II  prays  for  the  utter  humiliation  of  the  heathen  nations  and 
their  complete  subjection  to  Yahweh.  Str.  Ill  recalls  the  well- 
known  character  of  Yahweh  and  reminds  him  of  his  oath  to  the 
patriarchs  concerning  the  glory  of  Israel. 

CHEPHERD  thy  people  with  thy  staff,  the  flock  of  thine  inheritance, 

That  dwells  alone  in  a  jungle,  in  the  midst  of  a  garden. 

May  they  feed  in  Bashan  and  Gilead,  as  in  the  days  of  old. 

As  in  the  days  of  thy  coming  forth  from  Egj'pt,  show  us  wonderful  things. 
TVTAY  the  nations  see  and  be  ashamed  of  all  their  might. 

May  they  lay  hand  upon  mouth,  and  may  their  ears  be  deaf. 

May  they  lick  dust  like  the  serpent,  like  crawlers  of  the  earth. 

May  they  come  trembling  from  their  dens,  may  they  quake  and  fear  on  account 
of  thee. 
'VX/'HO  is  a  god  like  unto  thee,  forgiving  iniquity  and  passing  by  transgression  ? 

And  thou  wilt  cast  into  the  depths  of  the  sea  all  our  sins. 

Thou  wilt  show  faithfulness  to  Jacob  and  kindness  to  Abraham, 

As  thou  hast  sworn  to  our  fathers  from  days  of  yore. 

The  qtna  rhythm  is  clearly  marked  in  this  poem.     Only  three  lines 
need  pruning  to  bring  them  within  the  limits  of  the  metre  {v.  i.),  and  the 


152  AnCAH 

gloss-like  character  of  these  additions  is  very  apparent.  The  three  strs. 
are  sharply  differentiated  one  from  another,  the  first  dealing  with  Israel, 
the  second  with  the  nations,  and  the  third  with  God.  Siev.  sets  Str. 
Ill  apart  as  an  independent  poem,  but  the  identity  of  form  and  the 
good  logical  connection  seem  to  require  its  junction  with  w.  '<••',  Sta. 
{ZAW.  XXIII,  164  ff.),  followed  by  Now.  and  Marti,  has  recognised 
that  vv.  '">•  "•  interrupt  the  close  connection  between  w.  '»»  and'"" 
{v.  i.).  But  these  fragments  have  no  real  connection  with  v.  ",  where  they 
are  attached  by  Sta.  and  Marti.  To  put  them  there  involves  the  appli- 
cation of  v.  "  to  the  land  of  Israel,  and  a  contrast  between  the  condition 
portrayed  in  vv.  "■'*  and  that  actually  existing  as  described  in  v.  ", 
which  is  hardly  conceivable  in  the  absence  of  any  particle  indicating 
the  changed  time  relations.  They  are  better  treated  as  a  variant  or 
parallel  to  vv.  "»•  '"'. 

The  general  tone  of  this  passage  marks  it  as  belonging  to  the  later 
days.  Israel  is  in  distress;  the  land  is  only  partly  in  its  possession;  the 
people  have  suffered  many  things  at  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  upon 
whom  they  call  down  vengeance.  The  attitude  of  the  author  is  quite 
similar  to  that  revealed  in  vv.  '-"',  and  the  two  passages  might  well  come 
from  the  same  period,  if  not  from  the  same  pen.  The  return  from  exile 
seems  to  lie  in  the  past;  the  people  are  dwelling  in  Canaan,  but  their 
territory  is  of  narrow  limits.  The  days  when  Bashan  and  Gilead  were 
occupied  (eighth  century  B.C.)  are  "days  of  old."  This  indicates  a  time 
after  the  return  movement  under  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  and  the  accom- 
panying development  of  particularism.  Many  terms  common  in  the 
later  Psalms  occur  in  these  few  verses  (v.  t.). 

14.  >j3B']  <g  »  B  01  pi.  =  ^JSir;  so  Ro.,  Sta.  {ZAW.  XXIII,  169), 
Elh.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Hpt.. — ij."]  *  =  sheep.  Hal.  y^\  Or. 
■nj>3.  Van  H.  nj?;,  may  it  be  established. — 15.  inKx]  f^  21,  sf.  in  3d 
pi.. — o>-iXD  \-\'t<r<\  Rd.  anxDC,  omitting  V">f<  with  (8;  so  Marti,  Siev.,  Du.; 
the  metre  supports  this. — ijnix]  Rd.  iJN-;n;  so  We.,  Taylor,  Elh., 
Pont,  Or.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Che.,  Oort^™-,  Marti,  Hal.,  Siev.,  van  H., 
Du.,  Hpt..  (&  SftaOt.  ^  01  sf.  of  3d  pers.  pi..  Some  codd.  of  05  5e/|w 
airols.  Ro.  UNin;  so  Gu.. — 16.  Sac]  <S  =  San. — i^]  <8  &  01  pi.. — 
on'jTN]  &  01  (8*  and  3  Heb.  mss.  'mi;  so  Taylor,  Pont. — 17.  e-nja] 
<8  B  pi.,  but  <S^  sg.. — •'Snta]  (S  cm.  3. — on^mjDDc]  (8  B  =  'oca;  <& 
also  has  noun  in  sg..  ^  from  their  paths. — nno'  M^rhn  hlt'-Sn]  Om. 
U'hSn  ''-'^n,  with  Marti,  Now.*^,  Siev.,  as  a  gloss;  this  is  shown  by 
the  use  of  3d  pers.  as  compared  with  r\m,  and  by  the  metre.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  entire  phrase  including  nno'  is  an  editorial  citation 
from  Ho.  3*.  This  would  leave  a  smoother  text  and  an  easier  metre 
{cf.  Siev.). — ik-im]  Siev.  om.  mtr.  cs.. — nnc]  ft  om.. — 18.  i^cs]  Siev.  adds 
nin>,  mtr.  cs.. — ivo  .  .  .  p>](8  0Ipl..  Siev.  adds  Tcy  after  ru",  mtr.  cs.. 
— inVnj  nous's]  Om.  as  gloss,  with  Now.,  Marti,  Du..     Siev.  and  Gil. 


7"-"  153 

•\rhr\3  DHan-hy,  and  omit  remainder  of  verse  as  gloss. — pvnn]  ^  2d  pers.  sg. 
— IV*?]  OJ  eli  tuapripiov  =  ^yh. — yon]  &  has  2d  pers.  sg.  of  vb.. — 19.  Siev. 
and  Gu.  insert  nnN  at  opening  of  verse,  and  change  all  vbs.  to  2d 
pers.  sg.. — \P^22^]  9  and  he  will  gather  together. — I'Sfni]  &  ST  H  3d 
pers.  sg.  active.  (6  xal  iiropi<pi^(rovrai;  but  in  some  codd.  of  (6,  as  in 
M.  Ro.  om.  t;  so  Marti. — anNon]  Rd.  -ij^nNHn,  with  (6  ^"B;  so  Ro., 
Elh.,  Pont,  We.,  Gr.,  Gu.,  Now.,  OortE^"-,  Marti,  Hal.,  Siev.,  van  H., 
Du.. — 20.  jnp]  (&  Siiffu,  H  dabis,  so  some  codd.  of  (6.  Siev.  inn% — 
nif k]  Gu.  ntt'«3. — 'cd]  (6  /card  tAj  iniipas  =  'D'3,  confusing  D  and  D  as 
in  i». 

Str.  I  is  a  prayer  for  Yahweh's  favour  upon  Israel  in  the  restora- 
tion to  her  of  the  territory  once  occupied  by  her. — 14.  Shepherd 
thy  people  with  thy  staff,  the  flock  0/  thine  inheritance]  Yahweh  is 
addressed  as  the  shepherd  of  Israel;  cf.  Ps.  23  28°  80^  Gn.  49^*. 
On  "flock  of  thine  inheritance,"  cf.  Is.  63^^  Je.  10^°  Ps.  74^  95'  100'. 
Israel  is  frequently  designated  as  Yahweh's  "  inheritance,"  i.  e.  as 
his  possession,  in  Deuteronomy  and  subsequent  writings;  cf.  Dt. 
^20  ^26.  29  ^^9 — Diuelling  alone  in  a  jungle  in  the  midst  of  a  garden] 
This  is  not  a  prayer  that  Israel  may  be  kept  apart  from  the  pagan 
nations,*  but  a  statement  of  fact  (as  is  shown  by  the  participle) 
which  serves  as  the  occasion  for  the  request  of  the  previous  line. 
Nor  is  it  a  description  of  Yahweh  as  having  his  home  in  a  forest- 
shrine  on  Carmel,  the  sacred  moimtain.f  It  rather  represents 
Israel  as  occupying  the  hill-tops  of  Judah,  while  access  to  the 
surrounding  fertile  plains  is  denied  them,  because  the  latter  are 
in  possession  of  powerful  enemies.  The  sense  is  not  materially 
changed  if  we  translate,  "dwelling  alone,  (like)  a  jungle  in  the  midst 
of  a  garden";  but  this  division  of  the  line  is  against  the  metre  of 
the  qina.  The  "jungle"  (GASm.)  is  here  used  as  a  symbol  of 
barrenness  and  desolation,  as  in  3*^  Ho.  2"  Is.  21*^  and  in  Is.  29" 
32^^,  where  it  is  contrasted  with  "garden"  as  here;  cf.  2  K.  19^. 
A  reference  to  Israel  as  dwelling  in  the  midst  of  Mt.  Carmel  would 
be  unintelligible  here. — May  they  feed  in  Bashan  and  Gilead,  as  in 
days  of  old]  The  reference  to  these  regions  is  not  necessarily  in- 
dicative of  the  recent  loss  of  this  territory,  and  so  proof  of  the 
origin  of  this  prophecy  before  the  fall  of  Samaria.J  The  phrase 
"days  of  old"  renders  this  out  of  the  question.    The  prophet  liv- 

♦  Ccmlra  Sta.  ZAW.  XXIII,  169.  t  So  Hi..  t  So  van  H.. 


154  ancAH 

ing  at  a  late  day  prays  for  the  restoration  of  former  glory,  vnth  re- 
united Israel  once  more  occupying  all  of  its  long-lost  territory,  even 
that  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan. — 15.  As  in  the  days  of  thy  going 
forth  from  Egypt,  show  us  wonders]  iH  "I  will  show  him"  is 
impossible  in  this  connection.  The  prophet  longs  for  a  miracu- 
lous intervention ;  nothing  else  can  give  Israel  the  honour  due  her 
as  Yahweh's  people.  The  exodus  of  Israel  is  designated  as  a 
going  forth  of  Yahweh,  just  as  in  Ju.  5*;  cf.  2  S.  5^*  Ps.  60'°. 

Str.  II  indicates  the  character  of  the  wonders  which  Israel 
desires  Yahweh  to  perform,  ^iz.  the  complete  humiliation  and 
demoralisation  of  the  enemies. — 16.  May  the  nations  see,  and  he 
ashamed  of  all  their  might]  i.  e.  because  their  vaunted  strength  will 
seem  so  puny  in  comparison  with  the  mighty  deeds  of  Yahweh. 
— May  they  lay  hand  upon  mouth]  i.  e.  keep  silent  in  astonishment 
and  terror;  cf.  Ju.  18'*  Jb.  21®  29^  40*  Pr.  30^  Is.  52^^. — And  may 
their  ears  be  deaf]  Deprived  of  both  speech  and  hearing  by  the 
"thimder  of  his  power"  (Jb.  26"). — 17.  May  they  lick  dust  like 
the  serpent,  like  crawlers  of  the  earth]  i.  e.  prostrate  themselves  to 
the  earth  before  Yahweh  in  reverence.  Cf.  Gn.  3^^  Ps.  72®  Is. 
49-^. — May  they  come  trembling  from  their  dens]  into  which  they 
have  fled  terror-stricken.  Cf.  Ps.  18^^. — Unto  Yahweh  our  God 
may  they  come  quaking]  The  phrase  "unto  Yahweh  our  God" 
belongs  with  this  verb  rather  than  vidth  the  preceding,  as  appears 
from  the  idiom  hi^  nnS  which  occurs  also  in  Ho.  3^;  this  is  recog- 
nised in  m  by  the  position  of  the  verse  accents. — And  may  they  fear 
on  account  of  thee]  A  fitting  state  of  mind  for  those  who  have  long 
jeered  at  Yahweh  and  oppressed  his  people;  cf.  Ps.  33^  67^  102*®. 

Str.  Ill  closes  the  prophecy  and  the  book  with  a  tender  appeal 
to  Yahweh  as  the  God  of  mercy  and  pardon  that  he  will  be  gra- 
cious toward  Israel  in  accordance  with  his  ancient  Covenant. — 
18a.  Who  is  a  god  like  unto  thee]  A  common  thought  in  Psalms, 
e.  g.  Ex.  15"  Ps.  71^^  77"  86^  89'-  ^  96*  97^  Elsewhere,  the  point 
of  the  comparison  is  always  the  power  of  Yahweh;  here  only  is 
it  found  in  his  quality  of  mercy.  But  Yahweh's  power  is  the  theme 
of  vv.  '^""  and  thus  constitutes  the  background  of  the  thought 
here.* — Forgiving  iniquity  and  passing  by  transgression]    Also 

♦SoSta.  ZAW.  XXIII,  171. 


7"-'»  155 

a  common  thought  in  the  Psalter,  e.  g.  86^-  ^^  99*  103^-  ^^  I3o^ — 
To  the  remnant  of  his  inheritance]  A  gloss  specifying  and  lim- 
iting the  application  of  Yahweh's  forgiving  spirit  to  Israel,  his 
chosen  people.  The  inference  to  be  drawn  from  this  phase  of 
Yahweh's  character  is  plainly  stated  in  the  following  comments  at- 
tached by  some  editor. — 18b.  He  will  not  retain  his  anger  for  ever, 
for  he  delights  in  kindness]  The  change  from  the  qina  measure 
to  simple  trimeter  and  from  the  2d  person  in  address  to  Yahweh 
to  the  3d  person  show  the  secondary  character  of  this  material. 
Similar  phrases  are  frequent  in  the  Psalter,  e.  g.  25^°  30^  32^"  33^ 
34^  57^-  ". — 19a.  He  will  again  show  us  mercy]  Israel's  past 
experience  of  Yahweh's  grace  warrants  this  conviction  as  to  his 
purpose  for  the  future. — He  will  tread  down  our  iniquities]  The 
sins  of  Israel  are  poetically  pictured  as  enemies  of  Yahweh  whom 
he  will  subdue  and  render  powerless.  The  figure  is  striking  and 
without  parallel  in  the  OT..  19b.  And  thou  wilt  cast  into  the  depths 
of  the  sea  all  our  sins]  This  is  the  continuation  of  v.  ^^^.  The 
prophet  employs  the  strongest  terms  to  express  the  conviction  that 
Yahweh  will  fully  forgive  his  people  and  restore  them  to  the  en- 
joyment of  prosperity  and  power. — 20.  Thou  wilt  show  faithful- 
ness to  Jacob,  kindness  to  Abraham]  The  names  of  the  forefathers 
of  the  nation  are  here  applied  to  their  descendants;  the  kind  of 
treatment  accorded  the  former  may  be  confidently  expected  by  the 
latter.  Cf  Ex.  34^. — As  thou  hast  sworn  to  our  fathers  from  days 
of  old]  Referring  specifically,  perhaps,  to  Gn.  22*^^-  28^^^-,  and 
in  general  to  all  the  promises  through  patriarchs  and  prophets 
throughout  Israel's  history. 

14.  'jDtt']  So-called  hireq-compaginis,  really  the  old  genitive  end- 
ing retained  in  thecstr.;  cf.  Ges.  ^  ^om;  Ko.^"2  b.  c_  On  account  of  diffi- 
culty of  masc.  prtc.  agreeing  with  jsx  (fem.),  the  reading  as  cstr.  pi.  is 
commonly  accepted  {v.  s.),  in  agreement  with  coll.  noun;  cf.  y;^\  But 
masc.  may  be  explained  as  due  to  the  force  of  D>',  the  main  noun  to  which 
INX  is  added  parenthetically;  or  as  due  to  ]xx  itself  being  treated  as 
masc,  as  in  Gn.  30^9%  because  of  its  relation  to  d>'. — ij?^]  Ace.  of  place 
in  which,  as  after  2Z'^  in  Gn.  i8'. — 15.  un^.s']  Treated  by  Ew.  ^"s  as 
Aram,  form  of  imv. ;  this  was  objected  to  by  Ew.'s  contemporaries  because 
an  Aramaicism  in  the  language  of  Micah  was  improbable;  but  this  objec- 
tion loses  its  force  with  the  prevalence  of  the  view  of  the  late  origin  of  this 


156  MICAH 

material.  In  any  case  it  might  have  been  due  to  a  scribe  who  spoke 
Aram..  But  more  probably  it  was  intended  as  first  person  of  impf.  by  a 
scribe  who  conceived  of  v.  '*  as  the  beginning  of  Yahweh's  answer  to 
Israel's  petition,  a  view  which  is  irreconcilable  with  the  presence  of  the 
sf.  in  1DD  (v.  "), — 16.  no  Sy  i^]  A  common  idiom,  hence  without  art., 
Ko. ^"^'•. — 18.  'd]  An  example  of  the  near  relation  of  question  to  ex- 
clamation, Ges.^'"". — I'cn]  Verbal  adj.,  rather  than  Qal  pf.,  as  shown 
by  addition  of  Nin. — 19.  cod^]  This  isolated  usage  of  no  3  suggests  the 
possibility  of  a  confusion  with  D33,  which  would  furnish  excellent  sense 
here  and  an  idiom  frequent  in  the  OT.;  cf.  Is.  i'^  Je.  4'<  Ps.  5i<-  •.  033 
is  used  with  the  sense  wash  away,  only  in  Lv.  13"  '•;  cf.  v^"',  Is.  4*. 
Hpt.  makes  this  same  suggestion  in  AJSL,  July,  1910;  but  the  preceding 
sentences  were  written  a  year  before  the  appearance  of  that  article. — 
20.  nc'N]  =  niPto,  as  in  Je.  332*  48'  Is.  54"  Ps.  lod^. 


A  CRITICAL  AND 

EXEGETICAL  COMMENTARY  ON  THE 

BOOK  OF  ZEPHANIAH. 


INTRODUCTION   TO   THE    BOOK   OF 
ZEPHANIAH. 

§  I.    FROM   THE   FALL  OF  THEBES  TO  THE  FALL 
OF   NINEVEH. 

These  two  termini  include  the  period  of  the  decline  and  fall  of 
the  Assyrian  empire.  Within  its  limits  belong  the  prophecies  of 
both  Zephaniah  and  Nahum.  The  difficulty  and  the  greatness  of 
their  work  can  be  properly  appreciated  only  as  we  obtain  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  course  of  events  of  which  it  formed  a  part. 
Judah,  under  Manasseh,  continued  the  vassalage  to  Assyria  that 
had  been  inaugurated  by  Ahaz,  through  his  panic-stricken  recourse 
to  the  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser  HI,  and  had  been  riveted  upon  Heze- 
kiah  by  Sennacherib.  Esarhaddon  and  Ashurbanipal  maintained 
the  high  prestige  of  Assyria  throughout  western  Asia.  The  former 
had  established  her  dominion  over  lower  Egypt  as  far  south  as 
Memphis  in  670  B.C.,  and  had  died  (668  B.C.)  while  on  the  march 
to  Egypt  to  drive  back  the  Ethiopian  Taharka,  who  had  incited  the 
Delta  to  revolt  and  was  actively  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  free 
Egypt  from  the  Assyrian  yoke.  Ashurbanipal  (668-626  b.c.)  im- 
mediately took  up  the  unfinished  task  of  his  predecessor.  His  reign 
was  the  last  blaze  of  Assyria's  glory.  Taharka  was  driven  back 
into  Nubia  and  Assyria's  sway  re-established  over  the  Delta. 
Twenty  kings  of  the  Mediterranean  littoral  and  the  neighbouring 
islands,  including  Manasseh  of  Judah,  hastened  to  renew  their 
submission  to  Assyria.  The  irrepressible  Taharka  resumed  his 
intrigues  with  the  princes  of  the  Delta  soon  after  Ashurbanipal's 
return  home  and  again  stirred  up  revolt.  The  traitors  were  all 
severely  punished  by  Ashurbanipal,  with  the  exception  of  Necho, 
prince  of  Sais,  who  was  shown  honour  and  appointed  Assyria's 
representative  in  charge  of  the  whole  of  the  Delta,  being  granted 
a  body  of  Assyrian  troops  with  which  to  maintain  his  authority. 

159 


l6o  ZEPHANIAH 

This  plan  of  organisation  worked  well  for  some  time  after  the  death 
of  Taharka  (663  b.c).  But  in  the  third  year  of  his  successor, 
Tanutamon,  negotiations  were  again  opened  between  the  princes 
of  the  Delta  and  the  Ethiopian  king,  who  attacked  Necho  and  his 
Assyrian  soldiers,  inflicting  defeat  upon  them  and  slaying  Necho 
himself.  In  661  B.C.,  Ashurbanipal  despatched  an  expedition  to 
Egypt  which  drove  Tanutamon  back  into  Ethiopia  and  seized  and 
plundered  Thebes,  the  ancient  stronghold  and  capital.  From  this 
blow  Thebes  never  recovered;  though  Tanutamon  re-entered  the 
city  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Assyrian  army  and  remained  there 
until  654  B.C.,  when  Psamtik,  son  of  Necho  and  king  of  Sais  and 
Memphis,  expelled  the  Ethiopians  and  restored  Thebes  to  Egyp- 
tian ownership. 

While  the  Egyptian  campaigns  were  draining  Assyria  of  blood 
and  treasure,  Ashurbanipal  was  also  compelled  to  wage  a  bloody 
war  against  Elam,  which  had  resumed  her  former  hostility  shortly 
after  his  accession.  Two  campaigns  reduced  Elam  to  temporary 
submission,  under  the  rule  of  princes  appointed  as  Assyrian  vas- 
sals (665  B.C.).  Another  draught  upon  Assyria's  resources  was 
occasioned  by  troubles  in  the  far  west,  where  Ba'al  of  Tyre  had 
to  be  besieged  and  Arvad  and  Tabal  brought  to  submission  and 
tribute.  Shortly  afterward,  Assyria's  aid  was  besought  by  Arvad, 
Tabal  and  Lydia  against  the  Cimmerians  who  had  become  ag- 
gressive. 

An  irremediable  injury  was  done  to  the  life  of  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire by  the  civil  war  instituted  through  the  revolt  of  Ashurbanipal's 
brother,  Shamash-shum-ukin,  king  of  Babylon.  The  struggle  was 
fierce  and  of  seven  years'  duration,  ending  in  647  b.c.  with  the  com- 
plete triumph  of  Ashurbanipal,  who  became  king  of  Babylon  under 
the  name  Kandalanu.  Thereupon  followed  a  series  of  campaigns 
against  Elam,  which  had  aided  Shamash-shum-ukin.  These  re- 
sulted about  640  B.C.  in  the  total  destruction  of  Elam  as  a  nation. 
The  western  peoples,  who  had  eagerly  seized  upon  the  opportunity 
offered  by  the  revolt  of  Babylon  to  rid  themselves  of  the  oppressive 
burden  of  vassalage  to  Nineveh,  also  required  chastisement.  The 
Arabian  tribes,  including  the  Kedarenes  and  Nabata^ans,  who  had 
aided  Shamash-shum-ukin,  were  brought  into  subjection  by  Ashur- 


FROM   66l    TO   606  B.C.  161 

banipal  in  a  series  of  battles,  in  the  course  of  which  his  troops 
overran  the  territory  of  the  Kedarenes,  Nabatasans,  Edom,  Moab, 
Ammon  and  the  Hauran.  Ushu  and  Acco,  in  Phoenicia,  were  also 
unmercifully  punished.  If  any  credence  may  be  given  to  the 
Chronicler's  story  of  the  captivity  of  Manasseh  of  Judah,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  events  which  brought  it  about  must  be  placed  in 
connection  with  this  same  revolt  of  the  western  peoples.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  foes  on  the  east  and  west,  the  peoples  of  the  north 
and  north-west  initiated  hostilities  and  persisted  in  them.  Among 
others  the  Mannai  and  the  Cimmerians  were  smitten  by  Ashurban- 
ipal.  Not  until  about  640  B.C.  was  peace  restored  throughout  the 
Assyrian  empire.  For  twelve  years  Assyria  had  been  engaged  in  a 
desperate  struggle  for  life,  which  she  won,  but  at  terrible  cost. 
Meantime,  Egypt,  left  to  her  o'wn  devices  and  led  by  the  energetic 
Psamtik  I,  had  expelled  the  Ethiopians,  made  alliance  with  Gyges 
of  Lydia  and  so  strengthened  herself  and  increased  her  resources 
that  Ashurbanipal  made  no  further  efifort  to  reduce  her  to  sub- 
mission. The  last  fourteen  years  of  the  reign  of  Ashurbanipal  are 
shrouded  in  obscurity. 

Since  the  accession  of  Manasseh,  Judah  had  been  passing 
through  a  period  of  reaction.  The  ideals  exalted  by  prophets  like 
Isaiah  and  Micah  had  suffered  eclipse.  A  relation  of  vassalage  to 
Assyria  had  been  inherited  from  Hezekiah's  reign.  Heavy  tribute 
taxed  the  resources  of  the  people  to  the  utmost  and  fretted  the 
freedom-loving  spirit  of  these  hill-dwellers  almost  beyond  endur- 
ance. It  is  probable  that,  when  the  neighbouring  peoples  entered 
into  the  conspiracy  with  Shamash-shum-ukin  against  Ashurbani- 
pal, Judah  did  not  stand  aloof.  In  any  case,  high  hopes  were 
raised  by  the  general  revolt  throughout  the  empire  only  to  be 
dashed  to  the  ground  with  the  collapse  of  the  whole  movement. 
This  political  maelstrom  of  dissatisfaction,  restlessness,  intrigue, 
hope  and  despair  was  intensified  by  the  cross-currents  of  the  social 
and  religious  life  which  ran  fast  and  furious.  Foreign  customs  and 
practices  were  welcomed  with  open  arms.  Manasseh  himself  led 
the  reactionary  movement  in  religion  which  sought  to  reinstate  the 
old  deities  and  shrines  that  had  been  discredited  by  Sennacherib's 
invasion.    The  Baalim  and  Asherah,  so  generally  worshipped 


1 62  ZEPHANIAH 

throughout  Syria,  were  restored  to  favour  in  Judah.  Sun-worship 
too  was  officially  approved  and  practised.  That  all  this  was  due 
to  something  more  than  mere  religious  indifference,  easy-going 
toleration  or  even  diplomatic  acceptance  of  the  cults  of  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples  allied  with  Judah  in  the  common  desire  and  pur- 
pose to  obtain  freedom  from  Assyria,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
Manasseh  is  said  to  have  offered  up  one  of  his  own  sons  as  a  burnt- 
offering.  .  This  means  agonising  endeavour  on  the  part  of  a  super- 
stitious and  idolatrous  people  and  its  king  to  secure  the  favour  and 
help  of  Heaven  in  their  endeavour  to  better  their  lot.  Despairing 
of  success  with  the  aid  of  Yahweh  alone,  they  turned  eagerly  to  the 
other  gods  of  the  local  pantheon  in  the  hope  of  securing  their  co- 
operation. They  were  willing  to  pay  the  highest  price  for  such 
aid,  withholding  not  their  own  heart's  blood.  The  precise  sig- 
nificance of  the  statement  in  2  K.  21^^  that  "Manasseh  shed  inno- 
cent blood  very  much,  till  he  had  filled  Jerusalem  from  one  end  to 
another"  is  undiscoverable.  It  may  refer  to  frequent  resort  to  in- 
fant sacrifice,  though  it  is  imlikely  that  Manasseh  would  have  been 
held  solely  accountable  for  this;  or  to  a  bloody  persecution  of  the 
prophets  of  Yahweh  (r/.  Je.  2^°) ;  or  even  to  acts  of  tyranny,  like 
the  judicial  murder  of  Naboth  the  Jezreelite  in  Ahab's  time,  oc- 
casioned by  the  desire  to  replenish  the  royal  treasury  or  to  remove 
influential  opposition  to  the  royal  policy.  The  interplay  of  such 
conditions  and  influences  produced  a  high  degree  of  ferment  in 
Jerusalem.  With  the  passing  of  Manasseh  and  Amon  and  the 
accession  of  Josiah  about  638  B.C.,  new  influences  began  to  come 
to  the  fore  in  Judah.  The  principles  inculcated  by  the  earlier 
prophets  were  bearing  fruit  and  were  to  receive  official  endorse- 
ment when  the  boy  king  came  to  maturity  of  judgment. 

While  the  new  regime  was  establishing  itself  in  Judah,  new  forces 
and  strange  faces  began  to  appear  in  the  larger  arena  of  western 
Asia.  The  Scythians,  breaking  loose  from  their  mountain  fast- 
nesses in  the  north,  came  pouring  down  upon  Assyria's  territory, 
sweeping  everything  before  them.*  In  the  extreme  west  they  en- 
countered Psamtik  I  of  Egypt,  who  had  for  years  been  occupied 
with  the  siege  of  Ashdod,  which  he  was  now  forced  to  abandon  by 

*  Hdt.,  I,  103  jj.. 


FROM   66 1    TO   606   B.C.  163 

the  advance  of  the  new  foe.  Crowded  back  across  his  own  border, 
there  he  held  the  barbarians  at  bay,  whether  by  force*  or  by  pay- 
ment of  a  large  amount  of  goldf  is  an  open  question.  They 
seem  to  have  left  Jerusalem  untouched,  both  on  the  way  down  to 
Egypt  and  on  the  return.  But  echoes  of  their  march  are  heard  in 
the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah,  both  of  whom  were 
called  into  public  life  probably  by  this  great  invasion.  In  the 
eastern  half  of  Assyria's  domain,  Nineveh  was  undergoing  a  siege 
at  the  hands  of  Cyaxares,  the  Mede,  when  the  Scythians  appeared 
upon  the  scene.  Cyaxares  was  continuing  a  struggle  between 
Media  and  Assyria,  the  opening  stage  of  which  had  closed  with 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Phraortes,  his  father.  The  son,  again  tak- 
ing the  aggressive,  had  gathered  a  new  army,  defeated  the  Assyrian 
forces  in  pitched  battle  and  encamped  before  the  walls  of  Nine- 
veh itself  (625  B.C.).  The  entrance  of  the  Scythians  into  Media 
forced  Cyaxares  to  raise  the  siege  of  Nineveh  and  return  to  the 
defence  of  his  own  land. J  There  he  was  defeated  and  rendered 
hors  de  combat  for  nearly  twenty  years,  while  the  Scythians  held 
his  kingdom.  This  timely  relief  for  Nineveh  did  but  postpone  for 
a  little  the  inevitable  downfall  of  Assyria.  The  successors  of 
Ashurbanipal,  viz.,  Ashur-etil-ili  and  Sin-shar-ishkim,  were  unable 
to  recreate  the  blood  and  treasure  that  had  been  so  lavishly  ex- 
pended by  their  predecessor  on  the  one  hand,  and  so  ruthlessly  de- 
stroyed by  the  Scythians  on  the  other.  The  damage  done  to  the 
fabric  of  Assyrian  power  was  irreparable.  Weakened  as  Nine- 
veh was,  Babylon  under  Nabopolassar  was  able  once  more  to  as- 
sert her  independence  and  to  maintain  it. 

The  exact  course  of  events  immediately  preceding  the  fall  of 
Nineveh  is  not  on  record.  It  can  only  be  conjectured  from  three 
varying  sources  of  information,  viz.,  the  narrative  of  Herodotus, 
the  Babylonian  tradition  received  by  Berossus  and  preserved  in 
citations  from  him  by  later  Greek  writers,  and  the  cuneiform  rec- 
ords of  Babylonia.  §  Herodotus  relates  that  Cyaxares,  the  Mede, 
treacherously  murdered  his  Scythian  masters,  drove  out  their  fol- 

*  Cf.  Breasted,  History  oj  Egypt,  581.  t  So  Hdt.,  /.  c.  %  Hdt.,  /.  c. 

§  The  Persian  tradition  preserved  by  Ctesias  is  wholly  untrustworthy.  The  tradition  of 
Berossus  was  copied  by  Polyhistor  {c.  50  B.C.)  and  transmitted  by  Abydenus.  The  latter, 
however,  vitiated  the  tradition  by  combining  it  with  the  tales  of  Ctesias  in  such  a  way  as  to 
render  practically  futile  any  attempt  to  dififerentiate  precisely  between  the  two  elements. 


l64  ZEPHANIAH 

lowers  from  his  land  and  then  proceeded  once  more  against  Nine- 
veh which  now  fell  into  his  hands.  Berossus  tells  us  that  Sin-shar- 
ishkun  (Saracus)  heard  of  the  approach  of  a  numerous  army  from 
the  sea  toward  Nineveh.  Thereupon,  he  sent  his  general  Busa- 
lossorus  to  check  their  advance.  The  latter,  however,  deserted 
his  king,  made  alliance  with  the  Medes,  giving  his  son  in  marriage 
to  the  daughter  of  the  Median  leader,  and  then  turned  against 
Nineveh.  Sin-shar-ishkun  then  set  fire  to  his  own  capital  and 
perished  in  the  flames.  Still  another  strand  of  the  tradition  of 
Berossus  represents  the  king  of  Assyria  as  having  been  shut  up 
in  his  capital  for  three  years  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Medes 
and  the  Babylonians.  The  Tigris  then  swept  away  part  of  the 
city's  walls  and  the  king  offered  himself  and  his  wives  upon  the 
fimeral  pyre. 

The  stele  of  Nabonidus,  the  last  king  of  Babylon,  in  relating 
the  overthrow  of  Assyria  says  that  the  king  of  the  Umman-manda 
came  to  the  help  of  Babylon  and  that  he  laid  waste  the  land  of 
Assyria  like  a  cyclone,  ruined  the  temples  of  the  Assyrian  gods  and 
destroyed  the  cities  on  the  border  of  Babylonia  which  had  not  sup- 
ported Babylon  in  the  struggle.  The  vandalism  of  this  ally  is 
said  to  have  grieved  the  king  of  Babylon,  who  had  himself  re- 
frained from  desecrating  any  of  the  shrines.  The  league  between 
the  Medes  and  Babylonians  seems  to  have  been  brought  about  by 
the  fact  that  while  Nabopolassar  was  absent  in  the  north  of  Meso- 
potamia attacking  the  Subaru,  the  Assyrian  king  had  taken  ad- 
vantage of  the  opportunity  to  enter  Babylonia  and  cut  off  the  re- 
turn of  the  absent  king  and  his  army.*  In  this  dilemma,  Nabopo- 
lassar called  upon  the  Umman-manda  for  aid,  which  they  were 
only  too  glad  to  give.  Whether  or  not  the  Babylonians  partici- 
pated in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Nineveh  itself  is  uncertain;  but 
it  is  quite  clear  that  the  fall  of  the  empire  was  directly  due  to  the 
combined  efforts  of  the  Babylonians  and  Medes  (with  whom  the 
Umman-manda  are  probably  to  be  identified;  at  least,  the  Medes 
constituted  the  most  influential  element  in  the  hordes  of  the  Um- 
man-mandaf).     The  view  that  Babylon  aided  in  the  overthrow 

♦  So  Mcsscrschmidt,  Mitlhrilunf^en  der  vorderasiatischcn  Gesellschajl,  I  (1896),  7  ff.. 
t  But  Rogers,  History  oj  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  II,  289,  identifies  the  Umman-manda  with 
the  Scythians;  so  also  Sayce,  Lchmann,  el  nl.. 


FROM   66 1    TO   606   B.C.  165 

of  Assyria  is  corroborated  by  two  Neo-Babylonian  letters  which 
seem  to  refer  to  the  events  of  this  period.*  One  of  them  reports 
to  the  king  concerning  a  campaign  against  Assyria  which  has  re- 
sulted in  victory  for  Babylon;  the  other,  probably  referring  to  the 
same  campaign,  makes  it  clear  that  there  were  two  commanders 
of  Babylon's  forces  and  that  one  of  them  was  a  foreigner, — per- 
haps a  general  of  the  Medes. 

Even  before  life  was  extinct  in  the  body  politic  of  Assyria,  greedy 
hands  were  laid  upon  her  estate.  Necho  II,  successor  of  Psamtik 
in  609  B.C.,  set  out  at  once  to  seize  Assyria's  possessions  in  the 
west.  Gaza  and  Askalon  fell  before  him.  On  his  way  to  the 
north  he  was  met  by  Josiah  of  Judah,  probably  at  Megiddo  (608 
B.C.).  The  inhabitants  of  Judah,  knowing  of  course  that  Assyria 
was  powerless  and  almost  certainly  doomed,  were  in  a  state  of  ex- 
ultant confidence  in  themselves  and  in  Yahweh,  their  God.  He 
who  had  at  last  brought  the  proud  foe  and  cruel  tyrant  to  ruin  was 
with  them  and  ready  to  protect  them.  In  this  frame  of  mind,  the 
prospect  of  replacing  Assyria's  yoke  now  broken  with  one  of 
Egyptian  make  was  not  to  be  tolerated.  But  the  result  of  the 
battle  with  Necho  dashed  all  their  hopes  to  the  ground.  Necho 
proceeded  on  his  victorious  way  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  bringing 
the  entire  west  into  subjection  to  Egypt  and  upon  his  return  march 
placing  an  Egyptian  vassal  upon  the  throne  of  David.  With  her 
territory  already  gone  on  every  side  into  the  hands  of  Egyptians, 
IMedes  and  Babylonians,  Nineveh  herself  gave  up  the  hopeless 
struggle  about  606  B.C.  and  the  Assyrian  empire  fell  to  rise  no  more. 
Two  hundred  years  later,  when  Xenophon  led  his  band  of  Greek 
adventurers  past  the  site  of  Nineveh  (401  B.C.),  he  found  no  recol- 
lection of  the  name  of  the  former  mistress  of  the  world  (A  nabasis, 
III,  4,  8-i2).t 

*  Published  in  Cuneiform  Texts  on  Babylonian  Tablets  in  the  British  Museum,  XXII,  46  /.. 
C/.  Meissner,  OLZ.,  IX  (1906),  444  #.,  who  first  connected  them  with  the  fall  of  Assyria. 

t  An  excellent  study  of  the  last  half  century  of  Assyrian  history  is  furnished  by  P.  Kleinert, 
Nahum  und  der  Fall  Nineves,  SK.,  LXXXIII  (1910),  soi  ff-  Cj.  also  T.  Friedrich,  Nineve's 
Ende  und  die  Ausgdnge  des  assyrischen  Reiches,  in  Festgaben  zu  Ehren  Max  Biidinger's  von 
seinen  Freunden  und  Schiilern  (1898),  where  a  close  study  of  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  is  made  and 
the  conclusion  reached  that  the  fall  of  the  city  was  caused  by  a  flood  due  to  the  high  waters  of 
the  Tigris  and  its  tributary  streams.  So  also  Lehmann-Haupt,  Israel :  Seine  Enlwicklung 
im  Rahmen  der  Weltgeschichte  (igu),  p.  149,  who  testifies  to  a  tradition  among  the  natives 
that  the  wall  of  Nineveh  was  broken  through  by  the  river  Khusur. 


/^ 


l66  ZEPHANIAH 

§  2.     ZEPHANIAH  AND   HIS  TIMES. 

I.     The  Man. 

The  traditions  regarding  Zephaniah,  aside  from  the  super- 
scription of  his  book,  are  wholly  valueless.  His  prophecies  con- 
stitute the  only  other  source  of  information ;  and  what  they  furnish 
is  painfully  slight.  As  in  the  case  of  so  many  of  the  prophets,  his 
personality  lies  hidden  behind  his  message.  He  seems  to  have  been 
an  inhabitant  of  Jerusalem,  in  view  of  his  familiarity  with  the 
topography  of  his  capital  (i^"^),  his  knowledge  of  religious  and 
social  conditions  within  the  city  and  the  fact  that  he  identifies  it  as 
his  own  standing-place  in  i^  The  apparent  claim  of  the  super- 
scription that  he  was  a  member  of  the  royal  family  is  supported 
somewhat  by  the  fact  of  his  familiarity  with  the  manner  of  life 
in  the  princely  households  and  his  courage  in  denouncing  the  upper 
classes  (i*-  ^  3^) .  Moreover,  his  complaint  is  almost  wholly  against 
these  privileged  classes,  the  rich  and  the  powerful ;  yet  he  does  not 
pose  as  the  spokesman  of  the  poor  and  there  is  lacking  in  his 
utterances  that  note  of  sympathy  with  their  sufferings  which  is  so 
evident  in  Amos  and  Micah,  a  lack  easily  explained  if  he  himself 
were  a  member  of  the  aristocracy  and  had  never  felt  the  pinch  of 
poverty, 

Pseudepiphanius  {de  vitis  propheiarum,  ch.  19)  declares  him  to  have 
been  "of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  from  the  field  (or  hill)  of  Sabaratha  (or 
Baratha)"  and  to  have  "died  in  an  apocalypse  of  the  Lord  and  been 
buried  all  alone  on  his  own  land."^  An  apocalypse  ascribed  to  Zephaniah 
is  known  to  have  existed  by  reason  of  a  quotation  from  it  preserved  in  the 
Stromala  (V,  11,  §  77)  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  vi^.,  "And  a  spirit  took 
me  and  carried  me  into  the  fifth  heaven,  and  I  saw  angels,  called  lords, 
whose  diadem  was  placed  upon  them  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  throne 
of  each  of  them  was  seven  times  brighter  than  the  light  of  the  rising  sun 
and  they  were  dwelling  in  temples  of  salvation  and  singing  hymns  in 
praise  of  the  inexpressible  God,  most  high."v  Pseudo-Athanasius  re- 
fers to  the  same  apocalypse.  Two  fragments  of  an  apocalypse  in 
Coptic,  ascribed  to  Zephaniah  and  discovered  at  Akhmim  [published 
by  Bouriant  in  Mcmoires  de  la  mission  archcologique  an  Caire  (1885); 
cf.  Stern,  Zeilschrift  Jiir  Mgypt.  Sprache  (1886)]  may  also  have  belonged 


ZEPHANIAH  AND  HIS   TIMES  167 

to  it;  V.  Schiirer,  Gesch.  d.  jud.  Volkes^,  III,  271/.  According  to  Din'' 
ni3N,  his  tomb  was  in  Gibeah  of  the  Lebanons.  The  traditional  rep- 
resentation of  him  in  art  shows  him  carrying  a  lamp  in  his  left  hand;  but 
cf.  Sargent's  Frieze  of  the  Prophets  in  the  Boston  Public  Library. 

Schw.  seeks  to  discount  the  probability  of  the  ancestor  Hezekiah  hav- 
ing been  the  king,  which  arises  from  the  unusual  length  of  the  genealogy, 
by  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  long  genealogies  are  frequent  in  the 
OT.  and  that  their  lack  in  the  superscriptions  of  the  prophets  may  be 
purely  accidental.  However,  when  only  one  of  sixteen  prophetic  books 
exhibits  a  striking  variation,  the  probability  seems  to  lie  on  the  side  of 
that  variation  having  been  deliberate  rather  than  accidental.  Further- 
more, long  genealogies  are  indeed  characteristic  of  priestly  writings 
(Ezr.,  Ne.,  i,  2  Ch.),  but  are  not  common  in  the  corresponding  pro- 
phetic histories  (Ju.,  i,  2  S.,  Ki.),  being  found  only  in  i  S.  i>. 


2.     The  Times. 

The  date  of  Zephaniah's  prophetic  activity,  according  to  the 
superscription,  was  in  the  reign  of  King  Josiah  (639-608) .  Scholars, 
with  one  exception,*  have  accepted  this  as  correct.  There  is  no 
good  reason  to  suspect  the  statement;  it  accords  well  with  the  con- 
tents of  the  book,  yet  it  could  not  easily  have  been  conjectured  upon 
the  basis  of  the  book.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  it  rests  upon 
an  independent  tradition  that  goes  back  to  fairly  early  times.  The 
question  that  may  profitably  be  discussed  concerns  itself  with  the 
particular  portion  of  Josiah's  reign  to  which  the  prophecy  should 
be  assigned.  Did  Zephaniah  do  his  work  before  or  after  the  cul- 
mination of  the  great  Deuteronomic  reform  in  621  B.c.Pf  The 
answer  to  this  question  must  be  sought  in  the  prophet's  own  state- 
ments as  to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Judah  in  his  day  and  in 
his  outiook  for  the  future.  His  denimciations  of  syncretism  in 
worship,  apostacy  from  Yahweh,  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bod- 
ies, the  aping  of  foreign  customs  in  religion  and  in  dress  (i*"®-  *•  ^), 
and  the  practical  scepticism  rebuked  in  i^  seem  to  accord  per- 
fectly with  the  state  of  affairs  as  it  was  during  the  reigns  of  Manas- 
seh  and  Amon  (2  K.  21^®-^^  ^■).  and  as  it  may  be  supposed  to  have 

*  Viz.,  Ko.Einl.,  who  places  him  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim. 

t  In  favour  of  the  later  period  may  be  cited  De.  (on  Habakkuk),  Kl.,  Schw.,  Schuiz  and 
Lippl.  But  the  great  majority  of  scholars  is  in  favour  of  the  earlier  period;  so,  e.  g..  Hi., 
We.,  Or.,  Dav.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Beer,  Cor.,  Kennedy  (£>£.). 


l68  ZEPHANIAH 

continued  during  the  early  portion  of  Josiah's  reign,  before  he  had 
arrived  at  an  age  when  he  could  exercise  any  powerful  influence 
upon  the  currents  of  life  and  thought  in  his  kingdom.  It  is  unsafe 
to  argue,  as  Lippl  does,  that  the  movement  for  reform  must  have 
begun  with  Josiah's  accession,  since  the  conspirators  who  slew 
/-^  Amon  were  supported  by  the  prophets  and  priests.  The  motive 
for  the  assassination  of  Amon  as  a  matter  of  fact  is  unknown  and 
need  have  had  no  connection  with  his  attitude  toward  religion. 
The  intricacies  of  the  politics  of  Jerusalem  at  that  time  are  hid- 
den from  us.  Opposition  on  Amon's  part  to  some  policy,  home 
or  foreign,  endorsed  by  popular  sentiment  may  well  have  caused 
"the  people  of  the  land"  to  rise  against  him.  The  lad  Josiah  was 
an  unknown  quantity  and,  perhaps,  developed  into  a  totally  differ- 
ent kind  of  ruler  from  what  those  who  enthroned  him  had  hoped 
for.  In  any  case,  during  his  early  years  religious  interests  prob- 
ably remained  for  the  most  part  in  the  hands  of  those  who  had  con- 
trolled them  under  Manasseh  and  Amon. 

Effort  has  been  made  to  account  for  the  conditions  reflected  by 
Zephaniah's  utterances  as  indicative  of  the  period  of  Josiah's  reign 
after  621  B.C.  But  it  seems  improbable  that  such  irregularities 
of  cultus  could  have  been  openly  practised  and  tolerated  in  the 
period  immediately  after  a  reform,  the  main  outcome  of  which  was 
the  purification  of  the  cultus.  Josiah  was  a  zealous  worshipper 
of  Yahweh  and  no  record  has  reached  us  of  any  cooling  of  his  zeal 
after  the  reform.  Passages  from  Jeremiah  are  sometimes  cited 
to  show  that  conditions  were  as  bad  in  Judah  after  the  reform  as 
they  are  declared  to  have  been  by  Zephaniah  in  his  day.  Three 
facts  render  this  argument  inconclusive.  Jeremiah's  early  denun- 
ciations apparently  lay  relatively  little  stress  upon  the  impurity  of 
the  cultus  which  is  emphasised  by  Zephaniah.  Many  of  Jere- 
miah's prophecies  so  confidently  assigned  to  the  first  years  after 
the  reform  probably  belong  to  his  latest  work.  None  of  his  proph- 
ecies  were  viTitten  dowTi  until  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  (36^  ^■), 
and  it  is  practically  certain  that  in  the  process  of  transcription  they 
were  largely  coloured  by  the  prophet's  later  thought  and  by  the 
conditions  amid  which  they  were  written. 

Other  considerations  urged  in  favour  of  the  post-reformation 


ZEPHANIAH   AND   HIS   TIMES  169 

date  fail  to  make  it  probable.  The  phrase  "remnant  of  Baal" 
(i^)  is  said  to  presuppose  the  almost  complete  destruction  of  Baal- 
ism in  621  B.C.  But  the  phrase  is  equally  well  translated  "Baal- 
ism to  the  last  vestige"  as  in  Am.  i^.  Cf.  n''inX  in  Am.  4^  9^  In 
like  manner,  the  phrase  "sons  of  the  king"  (i*)  is  under  no  com- 
pulsion to  mean  the  sons  of  Josiah.  In  accordance  with  a  very 
common  usage  of  the  word  "son  "  in  Hebrew,  it  may  and  probably 
does  denote  those  characterised  by  the  fact  of  membership  in  the 
royal  family,  viz.,  imcles  and  cousins  of  Josiah  and  the  like.  CJ.  the 
similar  phrase  "sons  of  the  prophets. "  Again,  the  total  silence  of 
Zephaniah  as  to  the  king,  though  denouncing  other  members  of 
the  royal  family,  is  just  as  easily  understood  on  the  basis  of  the 
king's  youth  as  it  is  on  the  supposition  that  Josiah's  well-known 
piety  after  621  B.C.  rendered  him  immune  from  all  criticism.  Nor 
does  the  fact  that  counsel  was  sought  of  Huldah,  the  prophetess,  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  book  of  the  law  force  us  to  con- 
clude that  at  that  time  Zephaniah  was  not  yet  known  as  a  prophet. 
The  same  kind  of  reasoning  would  dispose  of  Jeremiah  who  had 
then  been  in  public  life  for  eight  years.  Zephaniah  may  have  died 
before  621  B.C.,  or  have  been  absent  from  the  city  at  that  particu- 
lar juncture,  or  not  have  been  in  the  confidence  of  the  party  push- 
ing the  reform.  Anything  which  would  account  satisfactorily  for 
Jeremiah  having  been  ignored  would  be  equally  applicable  to  the 
case  of  Zephaniah. 

The  occasion  of  Zephaniah's  appearance  as  a  prophet  seems  to 
have  lain  in  some  imminent  danger  to  his  nation.  He  evidently 
regarded  the  day  of  Yahweh  as  close  at  hand  (i^).  In  accord- 
ance with  the  character  of  earlier  prophecy  in  general  and  of 
the  day  of  Yahweh  prophecies  in  particular,  it  is  probable  that 
Zephaniah  interpreted  the  approach  of  some  foreign  army  as 
heralding  the  dawn  of  Yahweh 's  day.*  The  event  that  best  meets 
the  requirements  of  the  situation  is  the  Scythian  invasion.f  The 
exact  date  of  the  appearance  of  the  Scythians  upon  the  horizon  of 
Palestine  cannot  be  surely  fixed.     Psamtik  I  of  Egypt  began  his 

*  V.  JMPS.,  The  Day  oj  Yahweh,  AJTh.,  V  (1901),  s°5  ff-\  <^f-  Gressmann,  Der  Vrsprung 
d.  isr.-jud.  Eschalologie  (1905),  142  J.. 

t  This  connection  was  first  suggested  by  C.  F.  Cramer,  Scythische  Denkmdler  in  Paldstina 
(1778);  it  is  now  the  prevailing  view. 


lyo  ZEPHANIAH 

operations  in  western  Asia  in  640  B.C.;  and  since  the  Scythians  put 
an  effectual  stop  to  his  advances  in  Syria,  and  Herodotus  reports 
that  Psamtik  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Ashdod  for  twenty-eight 
years,  it  is  practically  certain  that  his  encounter  with  the  Scythi- 
ans was  nearer  620  than  640  B.C.  Cyaxares,  the  Mede,  who  became 
king  in  625  B.C.,  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Nineveh  about 
620  B.C.  by  the  descent  of  the  Scythians  upon  his  own  territory. 
Somewhere  then  between  630  and  620  B.C.  it  is  probable  that  the 
Scythian  raid  upon  the  north  and  west  provinces  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  took  place.*  The  Greek  tradition  declares  the  Scythian 
domination  of  western  Asia  to  have  lasted  twenty-eight  years. 
Since  their  final  expulsion  was  effected  somewhere  between  599 
and  590  B.c.,f  this  gives  627  B.C.  as  the  earliest  date  for  their  ap- 
pearance in  that  region.  This  coincides  with  the  year  of  Jere- 
miah's call  (Je.  i^)  and  furnishes  the  necessary  external  stimulus  for 
the  emergence  of  both  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah.  The  widespread 
activity  of  the  Scythians  corresponds  with  Zephaniah's  vision  of 
the  coming  judgment  as  extending  from  Assyria  on  the  north-east 
to  Ethiopia  on  the  south-west.  The  speed  with  which  the  Scyth- 
ian hordes  swept  everything  before  them  seems  reflected  in  certain 
of  Zephaniah's  utterances  {e.  g.,  i"  2*).  That  neither  Assyria  nor 
Egypt  was  thought  of  by  Zephaniah  as  the  agent  or  forenmner  of 
the  coming  judgment  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  they  both  are  rep- 
resented as  falling  victims  to  it.  J  These  being  out  of  the  question, 
the  Scythians  remain  as  the  most  likely  candidate  for  the  doubtful 
honour  of  world-destroyer.  The  Babylonians  cannot  have  bulked 
large  in  the  prophet's  mind  until  shortly  before  606  B.C.,  and  other 
considerations  render  it  unlikely  that  the  prophecy  belongs  to  so 
late  a  date  (v.  s.).  The  fact  that  neither  Assyria  nor  Egypt  was 
destroyed  by  the  Scythians,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  Nineveh  was 
temporarily  saved  by  them,  only  proves  that  the  expectations  of 
the  prophet  were  not  fully  realised.    Ezekiel  (38*^)  distinctly  im- 

*  V.  J.  V.  PrdSek,  Gesck.  der  Meder  u.  Perser,  I  (1006),  141 )?..  Hdt.,  indeed,  makes  the  march 
against  Egypt  jolUnu  the  attack  upon  the  Medes;  but  it  seems  difficult  to  reconstruct  the  history 
on  that  basis. 

t  PrdSek,  op.  cil.,  152. 

X  Schw.,  in  spite  of  this,  seeks  to  identify  the  expected'destroyer  with  Egypt.  This  would  be 
possible  only  by  eliminating  i'^  or  by  discriminating  sharply  between  Ethiopia  and  Egypt  as 
Zephaniah  probably  did  not  do. 


2EPHANIAH  AND  HlS   TIMES  17I 

plies  that  certain  former  prophecies  of  disaster  had  not  been  ful- 
filled and  looks  to  Gog,  of  the  land  of  Magog,  as  destined  to  bring 
the  final  realisation  of  these  predictions.  Gog  and  his  hosts,  more- 
over, very  closely  resemble  the  Scythians  in  their  character  and 
actions.  The  reference  of  Zephaniah  to  the  inability  of  Jerusalem 
to  ransom  herself  from  the  coming  foe  (i^*;  cj.  i")  is  no  proof  that 
he  knew  of  the  success  of  Egypt  in  buying  herself  free  from  the 
Scytliians,  as  Herodotus  reports.  He  may  well  have  arrived  at 
his  conclusion  on  the  basis  of  the  reports  that  reached  him  of  the 
ruthlessness  of  these  barbarians.  Indeed,  Herodotus's  statement 
regarding  Egypt's  escape  may  not  tell  the  whole  story.  At  any 
rate,  threats  similar  to  that  of  Zephaniah  were  made  by  other 
prophets  who  certainly  did  not  have  any  thought  of  the  Scythians 
{e.  g.,  Is.  13^^  Ez.  7^^   cf.  Je.  4^). 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  seems  probable  that  Zephaniah 
prophesied  on  the  verge  of  the  Scythian  invasion  of  Syria.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  suppose  that  he  conceived  of  them  as  exhausting 
the  divine  anger  in  their  chastisement  of  the  nations.  They  seem 
rather  to  have  been  thought  of  as  furnishing  the  prelude  to  the 
great  drama  of  destruction.  Human  and  divine  forces  were  to 
co-operate  in  this  as  in  other  judgment  scenes  depicted  by  the 
prophets  (e.  g.,  Am.  5"  8^-  ^).  In  the  approach  of  the  Scythians, 
Zephaniah  saw  signs  of  the  breaking  up  of  the  existing  world- 
powers  and  hastened  to  proclaim  it  as  the  great  judgment  day  of 
Yahweh,  the  God  of  Israel  and  the  God  of  justice. 


§  3.     THE  BOOK  OF  ZEPHANIAH. 
I.     The  Contents. 

The  thought  of  the  book  is  centred  upon  one  great  theme,  the 
coming  of  the  day  of  Yahweh,  As  the  book  now  stands,  this 
theme  is  presented  under  four  successive  phases.  Ch.  i  sets  forth 
the  first  of  these,  viz.,  the  announcement  of  the  near  approach  of 
the  great  day  with  its  overwhelming  terrors  which  are  to  involve 
the  world  in  general  and  Judah  in  particular.  The  prophet's 
primary  interest  naturally  is  in  the  fate  of  his  own  people;  hence 


172  ZEPHANIAH 

his  message  is  addressed  to  them.  Ch.  2,  the  second  phase  of  the 
subject,  announces  the  coming  of  this  same  great  day  upon  the 
neighbouring  peoples,  viz.,  the  Philistines,  Moabites,  Ammonites, 
Ethiopians  or  Egyptians,  and  Assyrians.  In  the  third  division, 
ch.  3*-^,  the  prophet  returns  to  his  own  people  and  contrasts  their 
sinfulness  with  the  righteousness  of  Yahweh.  In  this  contrast  lies 
the  cause  of  the  disaster  coming  upon  Jerusalem.  In  the  fourth 
and  final  stage  of  the  presentation,  ch.  3^"^*^,  the  thought  leaps  for- 
ward to  the  future,  and  declares  that  after  the  process  of  the  puri- 
fication of  the  people  of  Yahweh  is  completed,  the  nation  will  en- 
joy world-wide  fame  as  the  redeemed  of  Yahweh,  the  mighty  God. 

2.    Later  Additions. 

Critical  study  of  the  contents  of  the  book  during  the  last  half 
century  has  resulted  in  the  setting  apart  of  certain  portions  of  the 
text  as  belonging  neither  to  Zephaniah  nor  to  his  times,  but  as  due 
to  accretion  in  later  days.  A  presentation  of  the  considerations 
which  have  produced  this  change  of  opinion  may  be  found  in  the 
following  commentary  in  connection  with  the  various  passages  in- 
volved. Here  we  may  present  only  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  this 
critical  movement  and  a  summary  of  the  conclusions  reached  in 
this  commentary. 

The  process  of  criticism  began  with  Eichhorn  (1824),  Einl.*,  and 
Theiner  (1828),  who  decided  against  2'3-'5  as  alien  to  the  thought  of 
Zephaniah.  Forty  years  later,  Oort,  in  Godgeleerde  Bijdragen  for  1865, 
pp.  812  ff.,  set  aside  2'"  and  3»-2o  as  secondary  matter.  His  view  of 
the  latter  passage  has  now  won  general  recognition.  Sta.*^^'  (1887), 
644,  followed  by  denying  the  whole  of  ch.  3  to  Zephaniah  and  question- 
ing 2>-'-  ".  Kue.,  Ofiderzoek  (1889),  responded  by  denying  the  force 
of  the  arguments  against  all  but  3X-2".  In  1890,  Schw.  made  an  elab- 
orate investigation  of  chs.  2  and  3,  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  Zeph- 
aniah wrote  only  2"-'5  and  possibly  2'-<,  while  an  exilic  hand  con- 
tributed 25-'2  and  a  postexilic,  3'-'".  We.  endorsed  the  views  of  Sta. 
and  Schw.  on  ch.  3,  athetized  also  2'"  and  expressed  doubt  as  to  2'-  '. 
Bu.  {SK.,  1893,  pp.  393  ff.;  so  also  in  Gesch.,  1906)  separated  2<'5 
2».  10.  i4.!o  from  the  genuine  material.  Dav.  made  a  careful  examination 
of  the  arguments  of  all  his  predecessors  and  was  content  to  give  Zepha- 
niah credit  for  all  except  3'"-  '<-2».     Now.  eliminated  only  23-  '••«•  s-'i 


THE  BOOK   OF   ZEPHANIAH  173 

214-20  (similarly  also  Baudissin,  Einl.,  553  ff.  and  Selbie,  art.  Zephaniah, 
DB.).  GASm.  accepted  Bu.'s  view  of  ch.  3,  but  dissented  as  to  ch.  2, 
regarding  all  but  a^-'i  as  genuine.  Dr.  [EB.,  IV  (1903),  5406  /.;  so  also 
in  his  commentary  (1906);  in  Intr.  (1910)  he  adds  3I8-20  to  the  passages 
that  are  "very  probably  later  additions"],  with  customary  caution,  con- 
ceded the  probability  of  the  late  origin  of  2"'.  u  39.  10  and  refused  to  de- 
cide as  to  3"-'"',  the  latter  part  of  which,  viz.,  3"-^'',  he  considered  "more 
open  to  suspicion  than  3»-n,"  Marti,  with  enviable  certainty  as  to  the 
exact  dates  of  the  various  additions,  agreed  with  Sta.  in  taking  away 
from  Zephaniah  the  whole  of  ch.  3,  but  in  ch.  2  deprived  him  only  of 
23.  8-11.  15^  aside  from  numerous  glosses.  Cor.  accepted  the  view  of 
Now.  for  the  most  part,  setting  aside  2'''-  <=•  s"  314-20,  Van  H.,  a  schol- 
arly Catholic,  contended  for  the  unity  of  the  book  as  the  product  of 
Zephaniah's  preaching,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  glosses  (e.  g.,  2'-'<'-  n). 
In  the  same  year  (1908),  Beer  gave  essential  adherence  to  Sta.'s  position, 
rejecting  2 '»-"'•  '*,  with  the  whole  of  ch.  3,  and  questioning  2'-^.  The 
conclusions  of  Fag.  are  practically  the  same.  Lippl,  with  Catholic 
caution  and  sound  learning,  concedes  the  later  origin  of  only  2'"-  °-  '^^ 
3'9-  '0,  though  granting  a  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  originality  of  28-11  j^ 
its  present  form.  Du.,  the  most  recent  writer,  follows  closely  after  We., 
dropping  2'"-  *>.  6b.  c.  s-ii.  is  and  the  whole  of  ch.  3. 

In  this  commentary,  the  foUowang  materials,  in  addition  to  minor 
glosses,  are  treated  as  of  secondary  origin.  The  oracle  against 
Moab  and  Ammon  (2^-  ^)  is  relegated  to  later  times  since  its  phrase- 
ology presupposes  the  conditions  of  the  exile  as  actually  existing. 
An  expansion  of  this  oracle  is  found  in  2^"-  ".  The  fall  of  Nine- 
veh is  taken  for  granted  in  2^^,  which  is  therefore  placed  after  that 
event.  In  the  third  chapter  the  only  original  matter  is  found  in 
vv.  *'^.  Vv.  ^-  ^  may  possibly  be  old  material;  but  in  that  case 
they  are  out  of  place  in  their  present  context.  Vv.  ^""  are  a  post- 
exilic  addition,  in  which  is  now  included  a  gloss  (vv.  ^^^)  revealing 
a  different  attitude  toward  the  heathen  and  interrupting  the  con- 
tinuity of  thought  between  w.  ^  and  ".  Vv.  "'^^  are  another  ad- 
dition from  postexilic  times,  which  has  likewise  undergone  some 
inner  expansion. 

The  allowance  of  time  necessary  for  the  various  additions  to  the 
book,  together  with  the  still  later  glosses  upon  those  additions, 
necessitates  placing  the  completion  of  the  prophecy  in  its  present 
form  well  along  in  the  postexilic  period.  The  final  touches  may 
have  been  given  as  late  as  the  Greek  period.     The  history  of  the 


174  2EPHANIAH 

growth  of  OT.  books  shows  that  they  were  all  subject  to  this  kind 
of  treatment,  at  least  until  they  were  recognised  as  canonical.  In- 
deed, it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  canonicity  in  its  early  stages 
guaranteed  immunity  from  such  modifications.  The  Book  of  the 
Twelve  was,  in  all  probability,  the  last  candidate  to  secure  ad- 
mission to  the  prophetic  canon. 

3.    Poetic  Form. 

The  honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  announce  the  discovery 
of  a  special  poetic  metre  in  the  book  of  Zephaniah  belongs  to 
Budde,*  who  declared  that  2*'^^  and  3''"  were  written  in  the  dirge- 
rhythm,  i.  e.,  in  lines  of  3-^-2  beats  each. 

In  18S6,  Dr.  C.  A.  Briggs  {Messianic  Prophecy,  221-225)  had  printed 
a  translation  of  Zp.  i'-  '•  "-"  2'-'  3'--°  arranged  in  poetic  lines,  but 
without  special  consideration  of  the  question  of  poetic  form.  The 
next  scholar  to  discuss  the  question  was  D.  H.  Mtiller  {Die  Propheten 
in  ihrer  ursprilnglichen  Form,  1896),  who  hailed  this  book  as  the  first 
prophecy  to  which  it  had  been  possible  to  apply  his  scheme  of  strophic 
analysis  throughout.  Treating  the  book  as  a  unit,  with  the  exception 
of  3'^-^'',  and  laying  undue  emphasis  upon  incidental  resemblances, 
he  wrought  out  a  system  of  "inclusion,"  "concatenation"  and  "re- 
sponsion"  {V.  H.'^",  clxv),  yielding  seven  strs.  in  ch.  i,  with  5-1-7-1-7 
+  7-f-6-|-6-t-6  lines  each  respectively.  Ch.  2  fell  into  five  strs.  having 
7-f-7-|-8-f-8-f-4  lines,  and  ch.  3  yielded  seven  more  strs.  having  7-1-74-7 
+  7  +  3  +  7  +  7  lines  each  respectively.  An  example  of  the  artificial  char- 
acter of  this  scheme  is  furnished  in  the  fact  that  2"  is  separated  from  2"> 
and  with  i'*-'*  is  organised  into  an  eight-line  str.  GASm.,  without  any 
attempt  at  strophic  reorganisation,  followed  Bu.  in  printing  2<-'-  "" 
as  poetry  written  in  elegiac  rhythm.  Marti  was  the  first  to  attempt  to 
restore  in  the  various  oracles  both  the  metrical  and  the  strophic  uni- 
formity which  he  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  them  originally.  The 
genuine  material  in  chs.  i  and  2  he  organised  into  strs.  of  four  lines  each, 
in  trimeter  movement  (or  two  lines  each  in  double  trimeter).  In  ch.  3 
he  discovered  three  different  poetic  forms,  viz.,  3'-'  =  strs.  of  six  lines 
each  in  dimeter;  3*-"  =  strs.  of  four  gma-lines  each;  and  3X-20  =  strs. 
of  four  lines  each  in  interchanging  trimeter  and  dimeter.  Hal.,  disre- 
garding both  metre  and  str.,  indicated  his  recognition  of  the  material  as 
poetry  by  printing  it  according  to  the  parallelism.  Siev.  thus  far  has 
made  the  most  serious  attempt  to  reduce  the  text  to  rigidly  poetical 
*  SK.  (1893);  cj.  Cesch.  (1906). 


THE   BOOK   OF   ZEPHANIAH  175 

forms.  But  the  result  is  by  no  means  self-authenticating.  Ch.  i,  for 
example,  is  presented  in  two  sections;  the  first  is  composed  of  w.  ^-^■ 
8-13.  17  and  is  organised  into  seven  strs.  of  two  heptameter  lines  each; 
while  the  second  is  composed  of  vv.  '■  '<-"  and  comprises  four  strs.,  each 
of  two  lines,  one  heptameter  and  one  tetrameter.  But  in  the  first  sec- 
tion, Str.  I  breaks  down  metrically;  Str.  IV  transposes  materials  as  fol- 
lows, w.  •''•  ">•  '"•  •»;  and  Str.  VII  brings  together  w.  "•  and  ";  while 
in  the  second  section,  Str.  IV  lacks  the  requisite  tetrameter  line.  Again, 
3'-'  is  presented  in  five  strs.  of  two  lines  each,  one  of  eight  beats  and  one 
of  four.  But  to  make  this  possible,  a  total  of  eighteen  words  is  omitted 
at  six  different  points  and  most  of  them  for  no  reason  but  that  of  metrical 
necessity.  This  is  too  high  a  price  for  so  slight  a  boon.  Cor.  satisfies 
himself  with  stating  that  the  genuine  materials  in  Zephaniah  may  all  be 
reduced  to  strs.  of  twelve  lines  each  (i.  e.,  six  double  lines).  Strophic 
uniformity  of  this  kind  can  be  secured  only  by  rejecting  as  ungenuine 
all  that  does  not  readily  conform  to  this  strophic  norm.  Fag.  offers  a 
strophical  reconstruction  of  the  book  which  differs  only  in  slight  details 
from  that  of  Marti.  Lippl  attempts  no  strophic  structure,  but  prints 
in  lines  based  upon  the  parallelism  and  points  out  the  numerous  changes 
necessary  to  reduce  the  various  lines  to  uniformity  even  within  the  sepa- 
rate sections  of  the  prophecy.  Du.  finds  strs.  of  four  lines  each  all 
through  the  book,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  glosses  and  additions,  and 
applies  the  qina-ihythm  throughout. 

In  this  commentary,  effort  is  made  not  to  lay  tmdue  emphasis 
upon  considerations  arising  from  the  poetic  form.  The  science  of 
Hebrew  metre  is  as  yet  in  an  inchoate  state,  notwithstanding  the 
praiseworthy  and  painstaking  studies  of  Sievers,  Rothstein,  et  al.. 
Consequently,  conclusions  as  to  the  integrity  of  a  text  which  are 
based  solely  or  primarily  upon  metrical  considerations  are  inevi- 
tably open  to  grave  suspicion.  The  parallelism  has  been  followed 
here  as  the  only  safe  guide  to  the  length  of  lines  and  the  logical 
grouping  of  the  thought  as  the  primary  consideration  in  the  forma- 
tion of  strs..*  For  a  statement  of  the  views  here  controlling  in 
reference  to  metre  and  str.,  reference  may  be  had  to  H,^  clxvi  ff.. 
Attention  may  be  called  to  a  slight  variation  in  usage  here,  whereby 
the  distich,  rather  than  the  single  stichos  or  line,  is  made  the  basal 
imit  of  the  str..  This  seems  required  by  the  fact  that  the  thought 
is  completely  presented  only  in  the  distich  and  that  in  some  cases 
there  is  no  clearly  marked  cassura  within  the  distich  {e.  g.,  Mi. 

*  C}.  Intr.  to  Comra.  on  Micah,  §  1. 


176  ZEPHANIAH 

7***  Zp.  i*^  2®^-  "•^  T,''^).  It  may  be  noted  also,  that  while  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  number  of  poetic  feet  in  a  stichos  was  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  tone-phrases,*  and  that  as  a  rule  the 
same  number  of  feet  per  stichos  or  distich  prevailed  throughout  a 
poem,  yet  cases  are  plentiful  in  which  changes  of  measure  occur 
within  a  poem  {e.  g.,  Zp.  i^"^^  2^'^  3*'^).  To  reduce  these  variations 
to  metrical  uniformity  involves  such  arbitrariness  in  textual  crit- 
icism as  to  discredit  the  whole  process.  A  large  degree  of  freedom 
in  the  use  of  poetical  forms  seems  to  have  been  exercised  by  the 
prophetic  poets. 

The  book  of  Zephaniah,  as  here  analysed,  consists  of  eight  po- 
etic oracles  of  varying  length.  It  is  scarcely  probable  that  these 
represent  the  entire  literary  output  of  this  prophet.  Nor  is  it 
likely  that  any  of  the  eight  constituted  a  complete  sermon;  they 
are  rather  selections  from  a  larger  body  of  materials.  The  metres 
used  are  three,  viz.,  hexameter  (3  : 3),  qina  (3  :  2)  and  tetrameter 
(2:2).  Of  these,  the  qina  is  the  most  commonly  used;  for  an  an- 
nouncement of  chastisement  and  affliction,  it  is  the  most  suitable 
measure.  The  length  of  the  strs.  varies  from  two  distichs  to  eight; 
but,  with  two  somewhat  uncertain  exceptions  (3^"^  and  3"'^'*),  the 
strophic  unit  within  a  poem  is  constant. 

Zephaniah  can  hardly  be  considered  great  as  a  poet.  He  does 
not  rank  with  Isaiah,  nor  even  with  Hosea  in  this  particular.  He 
has  no  great  imaginative  powers;  no  deep  insight  into  the  human 
heart  is  reflected  in  his  utterances;  nor  any  keen  sensitiveness  to  the 
beauties  of  nature.  His  harp  is  not  attuned  to  the  finer  harmonies 
of  life  like  that  of  Jeremiah.  He  had  an  imperative  message  to 
deliver  and  proceeded  in  the  most  direct  and  forceful  way  to  dis- 
charge his  responsibility.  What  he  lacked  in  grace  and  charm,  he 
in  some  measure  atoned  for  by  the  vigour  and  clarity  of  his  speech. 
He  realised  the  approaching  terror  so  keenly  that  he  was  able  to 
present  it  vividly  and  convincingly  to  liis  hearers.  No  prophet  has 
made  the  picture  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  more  real. 

♦  c/.  H.A^,  /.  c. 


zephaniah's  message  177 


§4.    THE  MESSAGE  OF  ZEPHANIAH. 

Zephaniah  spoke  at  a  time  when  wise  and  courageous  leadership 
was  needed  in  Judah.  Whatever  enthusiasm  and  loyalty  to  Yah- 
weh  had  been  aroused  by  the  preaching  of  Isaiah  and  by  the  de- 
liverance of  Jerusalem  from  Sennacherib  in  701  B.C.  had  died  out 
during  the  long  period  of  distress  and  humiliation  under  Manasseh. 
Lacking  the  incentive  of  a  great  devotion  to  Yahweh,  the  people 
had  fallen  away  into  all  kinds  of  idolatry  and  corruption.  No- 
where  is  the  religious  and  moral  situation  of  the  times  more  clearly 
portrayed  than  in  Zephaniah's  prophecies.  He  directs  his  blows 
against  a  syncretism  in  religion  that  does  not  hesitate  to  couple  the 
worship  of  the  Baalim,  of  Milcom  and  the  host  of  heaven,  with  that 
of  Yahewh  (i*-  ^).  In  Zephaniah's  eyes,  such  conduct  is  tanta- 
mount to  apostacy  from  Yahweh  (i^).  Indeed,  he  charges  cer- 
tain leaders  with  a  kind  of  practical  scepticism,  or  atheism;  they 
count  upon  the  inertia  of  Yahweh,  alleging  that  he  does  nothing, 
neither  good  nor  bad;  they  therefore  proceed  to  the  furthest  lengths 
of  wickedness.  This  indifference  to  religion  and  its  claims  on  the 
part  of  those  who  were  "settled  on  their  lees"  was  accompanied, 
as  in  all  similar  cases,  by  a  corresponding  materialism  which  had 
no  sense  of  justice.  Hence  Zephaniah  denounces  the  prevalent 
violence  and  trickery,  the  tyranny  of  the  rulers,  the  perversion  of 
justice  by  the  judges  themselves,  the  prostitution  of  religion  to  base 
ends  by  the  priests  and  prophets  and  the  aping  of  foreign  styles 
by  the  rich  (i«-  '  3*-"). 

The  religious  indifference  and  eclecticism  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  materialistic  selfishness  and  injustice  on  the  other,  were  a 
natural  reaction  from  the  exalted  ideas  and  ideals  of  the  previous 
generation.  The  expectations  and  high  hopes  of  Isaiah  and  his 
contemporaries  had  failed  to  materialise.  Yahweh's  people  was 
still  under  the  heel  of  the  oppressor.  The  yoke  of  Assyria  was  as 
heavy  and  as  galling  as  ever.  In  despair  of  deliverance  through 
Yahweh,  his  followers  were  seeking  to  supplement  his  weakness  by 
having  recourse  to  other  gods  in  conjunction  with  him,  or  were 
abandoning  him  altogether.     The  naive  faith  of  that  earlier  time 


178  ZEPHANIAH 

was  outgro\Mi.  Its  driving  power  was  gone.  A  new  interpreta- 
tion of  history  was  the  need  of  the  hour.  New  conceptions  and 
ideals  must  be  substituted  for  those  outworn. 

Zephaniah  was  not  the  man  to  supply  this  need.  He  had  no 
new  ideals.  He  furnished  no  new  constructive  principles.  He 
saw  no  further  into  the  meaning  of  current  events  than  his  pre- 
decessors. He  was  content  to  apply  the  interpretations  that  had 
long  rendered  good  service  in  the  hands  of  the  prophets.  His 
preaching  was  not  positive  and  constructive  in  tone,  but  wholly 
negative  and  destructive.  Denunciation  and  threatening  consti-  ' 
tute  his  message. 

As  Amos  and  Hosea  were  called  out  by  the  approach  of  danger 
from  the  north,  so  it  is  probable  that  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah  were 
aroused  by  the  imminence  of  the  Scythian  invasion.  As  earlier 
prophets  had  seen  in  the  Assyrian  army  the  herald  of  the  day  of 
Yahweh,  so  Zephaniah  interpreted  the  approach  of  the  Scythian 
hordes;  this  was  the  one  great  absorbing  theme  of  his  prophecy. 
Again,  like  Amos,  he  saw  the  day  of  Yahweh  as  fraught  with  de- 
struction, as  near  at  hand  and  as  coming  not  only  upon  other 
nations,  viz.,  Philistia,  Egypt  and  Assyria,  but  also,  and  pre-emi- 
nently, upon  Yahweh's  own  nation  (i^^-  '•  "  2*^-  "^•).  Unlike 
Jeremiah,  his  contemporary,  who  uttered  warnings  of  coming 
catastrophe  while  his  heart  was  breaking,  Zephaniah  betrays  no 
sympathy,  compassion  or  emotion  of  any  kind  over  the  im- 
pending fate  of  his  people.  He  speaks  almost  as  a  disinterested 
spectator. 

The  purpose  of  the  approaching  judgment  as  understood  by 
Zephaniah  was  moral.  It  was  a  condemnation  of  sin  and  an 
expression  of  the  ethical  righteousness  of  Yahweh.  Yet  this 
ethical  motive  finds  expression  only  in  the  annoimcement  of  the 
judgment  upon  Judah;  it  plays  no  part  in  the  threats  against  the 
nations.  In  these  latter  utterances,  the  old  narrow  particularism 
seems  to  find  free  course.  The  nations  are  overthrown  as  enemies 
of  Israel  and  Israel's  God.  Out  of  the  general  catastrophe,  a 
remnant  of  Israel  will  survive  to  worship  Yahweh  in  imdisturbed 
serenity.  The  spirit  which  will  characterise  this  group,  as  noted  by 
a  later  hand,  will  be  one  of  humility,  meekness,  straightforward- 


zephaniah's  message  179 

ness,  trust  in  Yahweh  and  genuine  piety  (3"-  ").  It  is  the  type 
of  religion  enjoined  in  Mi.  6®"^. 

In  only  one  particular  has  Zephaniah  ever  been  credited  with 
originality.  Until  within  recent  years  he  has  been  generally  ac- 
knowledged as  the  first  of  the  prophets  to  announce  the  coming 
of  a  universal  judgment.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  this 
claim  for  him  can  now  stand.*  For  a  prophet  who  displays  no 
capacity  for  constructive  thought  elsewhere,  so  great  an  advance 
step  as  this  seems  unlikely.  The  feature  of  the  day  of  Yahweh 
which  holds  the  foremost  place  in  his  thought  is  evidently  a  war 
^ji6-i8  2i2^^  presumably  the  Scythian  invasion,  not  a  world-wide 
catastrophe.  The  latter  is  only  the  dark  background  against 
which  the  concrete  impending  disaster  is  shown  in  lurid  colours. 
The  catastrophic,  cataclysmic  subversion  of  the  physical  universe 
seems  rather  to  be  a  part  of  the  eschatology  of  the  times  to  which  he 
fell  heir.  This  phase  of  the  judgment  has  no  definite  aim;  it  is 
totally  lacking  in  moral  discrimination;  it  exhibits  a  certain  in- 
consistency of  presentation  (e.  g.,  i^;  cf.  i^);  and  it  is  without  any 
definite  warrant,  no  reason  being  offered  for  its  coming.  It  bears 
the  marks  of  its  origin  in  the  misty  realm  of  myth ;  and  myths  do 
not  arise  in  the  clear  light  of  history.  The  conception  of  a  world- 
destroying  judgment  belongs  in  the  same  category  with  the  story 
of  the  Deluge.  Like  the  latter,  its  origin  probably  dates  back  to 
prehistoric  days.  Zephaniah,  like  his  predecessors  (e.  g.,  Am.  i^  ^''^ 
^18-20  ^4-6  jjq_  ^3  j^-_  j3f.  jg_  2^"^-),  does  but  endeavour  to  ad- 
just the  old  conceptions  to  the  new  conditions  created  by  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Scythians.  The  essential  sanity  and  clear  vision  of 
Zephaniah  and  his  predecessors  is  evinced  in  the  fact  that  they  lay 
their  emphasis  not  upon  the  old,  unethical  and  cataclysmic  features 
of  the  ciurent  eschatology,  but  rather  upon  the  definite  historical 
forces  of  their  own  time,  which  are  interpreted  by  them  as  great 
ethical  agencies  for  the  purificatory  chastisement  of  Israel  at  the 
hand  of  Yahweh. 

The  conception  of  a  day  of  imiversal  judgment  does  not  in  and 
of  itself  demonstrate  a  monotheistic  idea  of  God.     The  Deluge 

*Cf.  Gunk.,  Zum  religionsgesch.  Versldndnis  dts  N,  T.  (1903),  21  ff.;  Gressmann,  Escha- 
tologie  (190s).  144  #.. 


l8o  ZEPHANIAH 

myth  in  Babylonia  arose  in  the  midst  of  a  crass  polytheism;  and 
the  story  found  a  hospitable  reception  in  Israel  long  before  mono- 
theism was  developed.  Nor  does  Zephaniah's  attack  upon  the 
syncretism  in  the  religion  of  his  day  (i*^-)  guarantee  his  monothe- 
ism; this  attitude  of  mind  had  long  been  characteristic  of  the  proph- 
ets, who  had  always  insisted  upon  exclusive  loyalty  to  Yahweh  as 
over  against  foreign  deities.  Yet  these  views  are  not  at  all  in- 
consistent with  a  view  of  Yahweh  as  the  Lord  of  lords  and  the  only 
God.  That  such  was  Zephaniah's  view  is  rendered  probable  by 
the  emphasis  he  lays  upon  the  ethical  requirements  of  Yahweh,  for 
it  was  by  this  route  that  Israel  arrived  at  monotheism.  This  prob- 
ability is  reinforced  by  the  fact  that  the  religious  writings  of  his 
contemporaries,  e.  g.,  Jeremiah  and  Deuteronomy,  reflect  a  mono- 
theistic theology.  It  may  be,  indeed,  that  Zephaniah  himself  was 
one  of  the  group  who  wrought  out  the  Deuteronomic  Code  and 
aided  in  the  promulgation  of  the  reform.  Whether  or  not  he  was 
directly  engaged  in  this  enterprise  we  have  no  means  of  knowing; 
but  it  may  be  readily  granted  that  his  preaching  had  much  to  do 
with  preparing  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people  and  the  court  for 
the  reformation. 

§  5.    LITERATURE   ON  THE  BOOK  OF  ZEPHANL\H. 
I .     Commentaries, 

The  more  important  commentaries  of  recent  times  are:  Ewald 
(1867),  Reinke  (1868),  Hitzig-Steiner  (1881),  Orelli  (1888;  3d  ed., 
1908),  Wellhausen  (1892;  3d  ed.,  1898),  Davidson  (1896),  Nowack 
(1897;  2d.  ed.,  1903),  G.  A.  Smith  (1898),  Marti  (1903),  Halevy 
(1905),  Driver  (1906),  van  Hoonacker  (1908),  Rothstein  (in  Kau., 
1909),  and  Lippl  (1910). 

2.     On  Introduction. 

The  chief  writings  on  isagogic  problems  are  cited  in  §  3^. 
Special  attention  may  be  directed  here  to  the  studies  of  Stade, 
Schwally,  Budde,  van  Hoonacker  and  Lippl.    Useful  summaries 


LITERATURE    ON    ZEPHANIAH  l8l 

will  be  found  in  the  well-known  "Introductions"  of  Driver, 
Cornill,  Konig,  Kuenen  and  Wildeboer;  in  the  Dictionary  arti- 
cles by  Selbie  (DB.),  W.  R.  Smith  and  Driver  (EB.),  and  Beer 
(PRE.^;  and  in  E.  Besson,  Introduction  au  Prophete  Sophonie 
(1910). 

Discussions  of  the  poetic  form  and  character  of  the  book  are 
listed  in  §  3^. 

3.     The  Teaching. 

In  addition  to  the  sections  in  the  commentaries  and  "Introduc- 
tions" setting  forth  the  thought  and  teaching  of  Zephaniah,  ex- 
positions of  this  subject  that  are  worthy  of  mention  will  be  found 
in  T)uhm,  Die  Theologie  der  Propheten  (1875),  222-25;  Kuenen, 
The  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel  (1875),  171/-;  Orelli,  Old 
Testament  Prophecy  (1885),  §  34;  Marti,  Geschichte  der  israeli- 
tischen  Religion^  (1897),  1^45  Smend,  Lehrhuch  der  alttestament- 
lichen  Religions  geschichte^  (1899),  243/.;  R.  H.  Charles,  A  Critical 
History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Future  Life  in  Israel,  in  Jtidaistn  and 
in  Christianity  (1899),  97-99;  Stade,  Biblische  Theologie  des  Alien 
Testaments  (1905),  250/.;  Gressmann,  Der  Ursprung  der  israel- 
itisch-jiidischen  Eschatologie  (1905),  141;  Koberle,  Silnde  und 
Gnade  (1905),  195/.;  Staerk,  Das  Assyrische  Weltreich  im  Urteil 
der  Propheten  (1908),  165-170;  Cheyne,  The  Two  Religions  of 
Israel  (191 1)>  44-46. 


A  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK 
OF  ZEPHANIAH. 

§  I.    THE  SUPERSCRIPTION  (i'). 

This  introduces  the  author,  traces  his  lineage,  declares  the 
source  and  authority  of  his  message  and  states  the  period  of  his 
public  activity. 

The  statements  of  the  superscription  are  supported  by  the  contents 
of  the  book  at  least  so  far  as  any  evidence  is  forthcoming.  Yet  in  view 
of  the  slight  stress  laid  upon  authorship  in  early  Hebrew  literature, 
much  of  it  being  anonymous,  and  in  the  light  of  the  superscriptions  to 
the  remaining  prophetic  books,  the  majority  of  their  titles  being  certainly 
of  late  origin,  the  probability  is  that  this  one  is  likewise  from  the  hand  of 
an  editor  {contra  Hi.).  There  is  no  basis,  however,  for  Marti's  supposi- 
tion that  the  chronological  clause  is  of  later  origin  than  the  remainder. 

I.  The  word  of  Yahweh]  V.  H.^"'  '"^  ^■— Which  came  unto]  V. 
on  Mi.  i^ — Zephaniah]  Nothing  is  known  of  him  except  what  is  to 
be  learned  from  his  book  (v.  Intr.,  §  i). — The  son  of  Cushi,  the 
son  of  Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hezekiah\  This  is 
the  most  extended  of  the  prophetic  genealogies.  Eight  of  the 
prophets  are  left  without  any  family  history;*  the  fathers  of  six 
others  are  named ;t  while  Zechariah's  father  and  grandfather  are 
both  recorded;  but  Zephaniah  is  traced  two  generations  still 
further  back.  This  variation  is  certainly  not  without  reason  and 
the  most  natural  explanation  is  that  offered  by  the  view  that  the 
Hezekiah  here  listed  was  the  king  by  that  name.|  This  proba- 
bility is  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  name  Hezekiah  is  not  borne 

♦  Viz.,  Dn.,  Am.,  Ob.,  Mi.,  Na.,  Hb.,  Hg.,  Mai.. 
t  Viz.,  Is.,  Je.,  Ez.,  Ho.,  Jon,,  Jo.. 

X  So,  e.  g.,  AE.,  Hi.,  We.,  Schw.,  Dav.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti ;  conlra  Abar.,  De.,  Cor.,  Or. 
tt  al.. 


I'  183 

by  any  other  pre-exilic  person  on  record  and  that  all  the  names  of 
the  genealogy,  save  Cushi,  are  formed  with  the  aflfix  "yah"  which 
formation  seems  to  have  been  specially  common  in  the  royal  fam- 
ily.* The  only  two  objections  to  this  view  are  (i)  that  Hezekiah 
is  not  here  designated  as  king  and  (2)  that  the  genealogy  cites  three 
generations  between  Hezekiah  and  Zephaniah,  whereas  between 
Hezekiah,  the  king,  and  Josiah  in  whose  reign  Zephaniah  proph- 
esied there  are  only  two.  In  reply  to  the  first  objection,  it  is  suf- 
ficient to  say  that  at  the  time  the  superscription  was  attached  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  it  would  be  understood 
as  indicating  the  king,  and  the  word  'king'  was  not  added  since  its 
presence  would  have  occasioned  an  unpleasant  repetition.  As  to 
the  second,  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  reigns  of  Manasseh  and 
Amon  extended  through  fifty-seven  years  and  that  Manasseh  was 
forty-five  years  old  when  Amon  was  bom  (2  K.  21*-  ^^).  If  Ama- 
riah  was  of  adult  age,  or  nearly  so,  when  Manasseh  began  his  long 
reignf  and  if  we  allow  a  lapse  of  twenty  years  between  the  birth  of 
each  father  and  that  of  his  first  son,  Zephaniah  may  easily  have 
been  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  old  when  Josiah  ascended  the 
throne  and  thus  of  mature  age  when  he  began  his  ministry.  Un- 
fortunately, the  exact  date  of  Hezekiah's  death  is  uncertain,  and 
consequently  the  birth-year  of  Manasseh  cannot  be  determined 
with  precision ;  but  the  period  between  the  birth  of  Amariah  and 
that  of  his  great-grandson  may  be  reduced  to  not  more  than  forty- 
eight  years,  and  the  genealogy  will  still  be  not  improbable.  For 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  was  bom  when  his  great-grandfather 
Josiah  was  but  forty-eight  years  old  (2  K.  21^^  22*  23^'*^-  ^^'^^).t 
Zephaniah's  royal  ancestry  is  rendered  probable  also  by  his  ap- 
parent familiarity  with  the  conditions  at  court  in  his  own  day.  Cf. 
Intr.,  §  2^. — In  the  days  of  Josiah,  son  of  Amon,  king  of  Judah] 
The  designation  as  "king  of  Judah,"  rather  than  as  simply  "the 
king,"  is  insufficient  reason  for  making  this  portion  of  the  super- 
scription of  later  origin  than  the  rest;  for  oriental  kings  were  not  in- 
frequently so  designated  by  their  contemporaries  and  even  by  them- 

♦  V.  G.  B.  Gray,  Studies  in  Hebrew  Proper  Names,  261. 

t  Manasseh  was  not  necessarily  older  than  Amariah,  since  the  succession  did  not  always  fall 
to  the  eldest  son,  especially  in  polygamous  families. 
X  V.  G.  B.  Gray,  Exp.,  July,  1900,  pp.  76-80. 


184  ZEPHANIAH 

selves.*  The  accuracy  of  this  date  for  the  activity  of  Zephaniah 
is  not  open  to  legitimate  doubt  {v.  Intr.,  §  2).  Yet  it  is  going  too 
far  to  say  that  since  no  editor  could  have  derived  his  information 
from  the  book  itself  the  chronological  statement  must  be  correct.f 
The  probability  of  its  truth  would  seem  to  be  even  greater  indeed 
if  there  were  clear  and  unmistakable  indications  in  the  following 
prophecy  of  the  period  to  which  it  belonged. 

1 .  rT'jDi],  i.  c,  '•■  is  protector.  It  occurs  also  as  the  name  of  a  priest  in 
Je.  21'  29".  29  52'^  and  in  the  fuller  form  ^n^iD^  in  2  K.  25'8  Je.  37';  as 
designating  a  returned  exile  in  Zc.  6'<'-  '^,  and  a  Levite  in  i  Ch.  6^'.  The 
Elephantine  papyri  (C  20,  D  32)  furnish  still  another  n>:flx;  and  a  He- 
brew gem  in  the  British  Museum  (No.  1032)  carries  the  legend  imnc'^ 
iH'jBX  13.  The  same  root  occurs  as  the  second  part  of  a  proper  name 
in  j£3X''''N  (Nu.  34")  with  its  variant  jdxSn  (Ex.  6''  Lv.  10'*);  05  in  all 
three  places  has  E\i<Ta<j>av.  Similar  formations  occur  in  Carthaginian 
inscriptions;  e.g.,  Sy3:sx  in  CIS.,  Nos.  207,  371,  415,  as  the  name  of  a 
woman;  and  in  Assyrian;  e.g.,  Baal-sa-pd-nu,  Gir-sa-pCl-nu,  Giri-sa-pu- 
ni,  Ba'li-sapdna,  Ba'il-sapQna  and  Sapdna,  all  of  them  apparently 
west-Semitic  names  {KAT.^,  479).  The  place-names  psx  Spa  (Ex. 
142)  and  |1DX  (Jos.  13"  Ju.  12K?));  the  personal  names  pes  (Nu.  26"), 
jrsx  (On.  46'");  and  especially  the  Phoenician  pox  nap  (CIS.,  265; 
Euting,  192),  and  Jfls  13  {CIS.,  208),  and  the  divine  name  on  the  so- 
called  Job-stone,  found  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  which  is  probably  to 
be  read  jdxxjdin  (v.  Erman,  Zeitschrjfl  fur  /Egypt.  Sprache,  XXXI, 
100/.)  make  it  probable  that  ]dx  was  originally  the  name  ?f  a  Semitic 
god  whom  the  Hebrews  ultimately  came  to  identify  with  Vahweh  ex- 
actly as  they  had  treated  the  Baalim  {e.  g.,  n''Sj,'3,  i  Ch.  12^;  cf.  Ho.  2'*) 
and  as  the  Babylonians  of  later  times  treated  their  various  deities  whom 
they  came  to  consider  as  but  partial  manifestations  of  the  supreme  god, 
Marduk  (Pinches,  Journal  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Victoria  Institute, 
XXVIII,  8/.;  cf.  Zimmern,  KAT.\  609;  Baethgen,  Beilrage  z.  sent.  Re- 
ligions geschichte,  22;  H.  P.  Smith,  AJSL.,  XXIV,  56). — ^riD]  Else- 
where a  gentilic,  except  probably  in  Je.  36";  it  also  occurs,  as  Schw.  has 
noted,  in  an  ins.  from  Ipsambul  {CIS.,  No.  112)  as  a  man's  name,  td. 
— n^'icN]  This  son  of  Hezekiah  is  otherwise  unknown.  The  most 
plausible  view  of  2  K.  20"  makes  it  a  late  expansion,  referring  to  "sons" 

♦  Cf.,  e.  g.,  the  opening  lines  of  the  inscription  of  Nebuchadrezzar  I,  who  is  there  entitled 
"King  of  Babylon";  so  also  in  the  inscription  of  Ashurnafirpal  from  the  temple  of  Balawat,  the 
monolith  of  Shalmanescr  II,  the  Nimrud  inscription  of  Tiglath-pilcser  III,  the  cylinder  inscrip- 
tion of  Sargnn,  the  Taylor  cylinder  of  Sennacherib  and  several  inscriptions  of  Esarhaddon, 
Ashurbanipal  and  Nebuchadrezzar  II. 

t  Contra  Cor.. 


f-'  185 

in  the  looser  sense  of  "descendants,"  the  words  tSlh  nirx  being  a  gloss. 
In  any  case,  the  captivity  of  the  royal  family  there  mentioned  is  only  a 
partial  one,  and,  on  the  hypothesis  of  the  literal  accuracy  of  the  narrative 
as  it  stands,  we  may  either  suppose  that  Amariah  escaped  entirely  or 
that  it  did  not  occur  until  after  the  birth  of  his  son  Gedaliah. — n^prn] 
^  =  ^;i"?t~5  so  Kenn.  178,  155,  201,  224,  225,  and  de  R.  341,  346.  Cf. 
an  Arm.  ms.  cited  by  HP.  as  reading  viov  ToSoXtoi/  x^^'^"''- — V^^]  ^^ 
A  and  Kenn.  258  =  yiDN. 


§  2,  THE  DAY  OF  DOOM  UPON  JUDAH  AND 
JERUSALEM  (i^-^). 

A  single  str.  of  eight  lines  announcing  with  prophetic  finality 
the  approaching  day  of  judgment  upon  the  world  in  general  and 
Judah  in  particular. 

T  WILL  utterly  sweep  away  all  from  upon  the  face  of  the  ground;  it  is  the  oracle 
of  Yahweh. 
I  will  sweep  away  man  and  beast;  I  will  sweep  away  the  fowl  of  the  heavens  and 

the  fish  of  the  sea; 
And  I  will  stretch  out  my  hand  against  Judah,  and  against  all  the  inhabitants  of 

Jerusalem; 
And  from  this  place  I  will  cut  off  Baal  to  the  last  remnant,  and  the  name  of  the 

idol-priests; 
And  those  prostrating  themselves  upon  the  roofs  to  the  host  of  the  heavens; 
And  those  prostrating  themselves  before  Yahweh,  who  swear  by  Milcom; 
And  those  who  withdraw  from  following  Yahweh; 
Even  those  who  have  not  sought  Yahweh,  nor  inquired  of  him. 

This  Str.  stands  at  the  head  of  Zephaniah's  prophecies,  announ- 
cing the  general  theme  of  them  all.  It  has  suffered  somewhat  at 
the  hands  of  editors,  but  the  additions  are  easily  recognisable. — 2. 
I  will  utterly  sweep  away  all  from  upon  the  face  of  the  ground]  A 
day  of  doom  for  the  entire  world.  The  judgment  is  wholly  un- 
discriminating  and  all-comprehensive.  For  a  similar  approach 
by  way  of  the  universal  toward  the  particular,  cf.  Mi.  i^^-  Am. 
i^^. — //  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh]  The  most  solemn  form  of  an- 
noim cement  {v.  H.^^-  ^^.  Metrical  considerations  are  insufficient 
warrant  for  the  omission  of  these  words  as  a  gloss.* — 3.  /  will 
sweep  away  man  and  beast;  I  will  sweep  away  the  fowl  of  the  heav- 

*  Contra  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.. 


1 86  ZEPHANIAH 

ens  and  the  fish  of  the  sea]  For  similarly  all-inclusive  pictures  of 
destruction,  cf.  Ho.  4^  Is.  2'"'  Ez.  38^^  The  fish  escaped  in  the 
Noachian  deluge  (Gn.  7''"^.  Universal  depravity  demands  uni- 
versal destruction.  The  subordinate  creatures  share  the  fate  of 
man,  their  ruler. — And  I  will  cause  the  wicked  to  stumble]  This  is 
a  gloss*  from  some  reader  who  felt  the  injustice  of  an  indiscrimi- 
nate punishment.  M  can  be  rendered  only,  "and  the  ruins  with 
the  wicked,"  which,  as  von  Orelli  notes,  seems  to  be  suggestive  of 
an  earthquake  as  constituting  the  disaster.  The  rendering  of 
RV.,  "stumbling-blocks,"  involves  a  change  of  text  (v.  i.)  and  fails 
to  improve  the  sense.  In  any  case,  any  kind  of  allusion  to  "the 
wicked"  at  this  point  is  premature. — And  I  will  cut  of  mankind 
from  upon  the  face  of  the  ground;  it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh]  This 
is  a  gloss,f  which  adds  nothing  to  what  has  already  been  said  in 
w.  ^-  ^*.  Some  seek  to  save  this  line  for  Zephaniah  by  reading 
"the  wicked  "J  or  "the  men  of  wickedness"  §  with  (g.  But  the 
reading  of  (B  is  more  easily  explained  as  due  either  to  free  transla- 
tion or  to  an  inner  Greek  corruption  than  as  representing  the  orig- 
inal text  from  which  M  has  been  derived. — 4.  And  I  will  stretch 
out  my  hand  against  Judah  and  against  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem] The  real  object  of  the  prophet's  interest  and  Yahweh 's 
wrath  now  emerges.  The  world-judgment  forms  only  the  stage- 
setting  for  the  tragedy  of  Judah's  afBiction.  For  the  figure  of 
Yahweh's  hand  uplifted  for  punishment,  cf.  Is.  9"-  ^^-  ^^  10*  5^ 
j^26. 27^  'pj^g  emphasis  laid  upon  the  wickedness  of  Jerusalem  by 
Zephaniah  is  only  slightly  less  than  is  the  case  with  Micah.  For 
both  prophets  alike,  the  capital  city  is  the  head  and  front  of  Judah's 
offending.  The  difference  between  the  two  is  that  for  Micah  the 
outstanding  crimes  of  Judah  were  in  the  ethical  and  social  sphere, 
while  for  Zephaniah  they  fall  within  the  narrower  sphere  of  re- 
ligion proper. — And  from  this  place  I  will  cut  off  Baal  to  the  last 
remnant]  The  more  familiar  translation  here  is  "the  remnant  of 
Baal,"  which  would  imply  that  Baalism  had  been  reduced  to  small 
proportions  by  the  time  of  Zephaniah.     Such  a  diminution  of  its 

•  So  We.,  Dav.,  Now    .<Iarti,  Siev.,  Dr.,  Stk.,  Fag.,  Roth.. 

t  So  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Sicv.,  Stk.,  Fag.,  Roth.;  Schw.  om.  only  "from  upon,  etc.";  Kent 
drops  "it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh." 

t  Schw..  S  GASm.. 


I^*  187 

influence  would  seem  to  require  that  Zephaniah's  work  be  placed 
after  the  reform  of  621  B.C.*  But  this  date  is  less  probable  than 
an  earlier  period  on  other  grounds  (v.  Intr.,  §  2).  The  rendering 
here  chosen  avoids  that  necessity  and  is  supported  by  usage  else- 
where; cf.  Am.  4^  Is.  14^^  ly^.f  The  prophet  simply  announces 
the  total  extermination  of  Baalism  as  close  at  hand.  The  Chron- 
icler does  indeed  place  the  beginning  of  Josiah's  reform  activities 
very  early  in  his  reign  (2  Ch.  34^"0>  but  the  historicity  of  that  nar- 
rative is  open  to  serious  question.  Baalism  died  hard  in  Israel. 
Yahweh  never  had  the  sole  and  undivided  allegiance  of  Israel  in 
the  pre-exiHc  age. J  Notwithstanding  the  bitter  opposition  to 
Baalism  on  the  part  of  Elijah,  Hosea  and  all  the  succeeding  proph- 
ets, it  still  called  for  the  prophetic  wrath  of  Zephaniah.  Nor  is  it 
necessarily  a  diluted  form  of  Baalism  with  which  we  have  here  to 
do,  a  Baalism  cloaking  itself  under  the  guise  of  Yahwism,  a  syn- 
cretism wherein  the  outer  shell  of  Yahwism  was  filled  with  the 
inner  spirit  of  Baalism.  It  was  rather  an  unadulterated  Baalism 
which  Zephaniah  denounced.  The  out  and  out  idolatry  named 
in  the  following  verse  points  in  this  direction.  So  does  the  tes- 
timony regarding  the  idolatrous  reaction  under  Manasseh  and 
Amon  (2  K.  21),  which  continued  without  serious  check  until  the 
time  of  the  Deuteronomic  reform.  The  phrase  "from  this  place" 
is  treated  by  some  as  a  gloss;  §  but  the  metrical  basis  upon 
which  this  is  urged  is  not  sufl&ciently  strong.  The  place  meant  is 
Jerusalem  which  is  thus  designated  as  the  headquarters  of  Baal 
and  all  his  works.  Zephaniah  was  at  least  in  the  city  when  he 
used  this  phrase  even  if  his  home  were  not  there. — And  the  name 
of  the  idol-priests]  A  designation  for  idolatrous  priests  found  only 
here  and  Ho.  4^  10^  2  K.  23^;  cf.  H.^^-  ^^*'^-.  Name  and  person- 
ality were  so  intimately  connected  in  Semitic  thought  that  to  de- 
stroy the  former  was  to  destroy  the  latter  also.  This  expression 
is  not  infrequently  used  to  indicate  a  most  complete  and  thorough- 
going destruction. — With  the  priests]  A  gloss**  intended  to  supple- 
ment or  explain  the  rare  word  "idol-priests."     The  best  witnesses 

*  So,  e.  g.,  Mau.,  Hi.,  Ke.. 

t  So  Schegg,  Reinke,  We.,  Or.,  Dav.,  Now.,  van  H.,  et  aJ.. 

t  V.  Toy,  JBL.,  XXIV,  gi-io6.  §  So  Marti,  Now.K,  Siev.,  Stk.,  Fag.,  Roth.. 

**  So  Schw.,  Dav.,  Bach.,  Marti,  Now.k,  Roth.,  Kent. 


l88  ZEPHANIAH 

to  (g  omit  this  phrase  (v.  i.) ;  it  adds  nothing  essential  and  is  super- 
fluous metrically. 

6.  And  those  prostrating  themselves  upon  the  roofs  to  the  host  oj 
the  heavens]  Here  begin  three  specifications  under  the  general 
charge  made  in  v.  *.  The  worship  of  the  sun,  moon  and  stars 
is  given  first  place.  It  was  prevalent  throughout  the  period  of 
Manasseh  and  Amon  (2  K.  21^-  ^-  ^*),  and  continued  into  the  days 
of  Josiah  (2  K.  22,^-  *^).  It  was  denounced  by  the  prophets  and  the 
Deuteronomists  as  a  current  practice  (Je.  7'^  8^  19^'  44""^  Dt.  4^* 
17^  Ez.  8'^).  Hints  as  to  its  character  are  supplied  by  Je.  44'"""' 
Ez.  8^°  Jb.  31^°,  and  the  fact  that»it  was  practised  upon  the  house- 
tops (cf.  Je.  32^®)  shows  that  it  was  offered  directly  to  the  heavenly 
bodies  themselves,  rather  than  to  any  representations  of  them. 
The  Deuteronomic  editor  of  the  books  of  Kings  attributed  the  fall 
of  the  northern  kingdom,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  prevalence  there 
of  this  worship  (2  K.  17^^;  cf.  Am.  5-^.  Its  prevalence  in  Judah 
at  this  time  is  generally  attributed  to  the  close  contact,  dating  from 
the  time  of  Ahaz  (2  K.  16***^),  between  Judah  and  Assyria,  where 
such  worship  had  been  carried  on  from  time  immemorial.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  especially  that  of  the  sun  and  moon,  was  a  custom  common  to 
the  ancient  Semitic  world*  and  hence  likely  to  have  persisted  in 
Israel  from  early  times.f  Furthermore,  such  names  as  Baal-sha- 
mem  {CIS.,  No.  7),  En-shemesh,  Beth-shemesh,  Har-heres,  Heres, 
Timnath-heres  and  Jericho  make  it  clear  that  the  Canaanitish 
Baalism,  with  which  Israel  had  come  into  the  closest  possible  con- 
tact, was  vitally  concerned  with  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bod- 
ies. J  The  reaction  under  Manasseh,  due  in  part  to  the  stimulus 
of  foreign  cults,  did  not  introduce  sun-worship  as  a  new  cult,  but 
rather  revitalised  a  worship  which  had  long  been  known  in  Israel, 
though  it  had  lain  more  or  less  dormant,  or  had  been  confined 
chiefly  to  the  rural  population,  having  had  no  official  recognition.— 
A  nd  those  prostrating  themselves  to  Yahweh  who  swear  by  Milcom] 
M  introduces  another  "who  swear"  immediately  after  "them- 

♦  Baethgcn,  Bcilrdge  zur  sent.  RdigionsgeschichU  (1888),  61  f}., 
t  Cj.  Hal.,  ad  loc. 

X  Cj.  C.  F.  Burney,  EB.,  4784;  G.  F.  Moore,  EB.,  3354  /.;  L.  B.  Paton,  Encyclopedia  oj  Re- 
ligion and  Ethics,  II,  288  /.. 


I*  189 

selves,"  thus  rendering  the  structure  rough  and  broken  and  creat- 
ing a  Hebrew  syntactical  usage  otherwise  unknown.  Another  seri- 
ous diflBculty  with  M  is  that  it  makes  the  prophet  put  worshippers 
of  Yahweh  on  the  same  level  with  worshippers  of  Milcom,  both 
alike  being  doomed  to  destruction.  Zephaniah's  charge  against 
his  countrymen,  however,  is  not  that  some  of  them  have  forsaken 
Yahweh  for  Milcom,  but  that  in  general  they  do  not  yield  undi- 
vided allegiance  to  Yahweh,  but  worship  Milcom  and  other  gods 
alongside  of  Yahweh.  The  whole  struggle  of  the  prophets,  on 
its  strictly  religious  side,  was  in  behalf  of  the  idea  that  Yahweh 
alone  was  Israel's  God.  The  masses  of  the  people,  however,  did 
not  reach  this  point  of  view  imtil  after  the  Exile.  Indeed,  the  re- 
cently discovered  papyri  of  Elephantine  include  a  list  of  gifts  for 
religious  purposes  by  the  Jewish  colonists  which  shows  that  as  late 
as  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Yahweh  was  still  imder  the  humiliation 
of  seeing  the  devotions  of  his  people  shared  by  two  other  deities, 
one  of  whom  was  the  goddess  Anath.*  Another  of  the  same  group 
of  papyri  reveals  a  Jewish  woman  in  a  legal  transaction  taking 
oath  both  by  Yahweh  and  by  Sati,  an  Egyptian  god.f  The  atti- 
tude of  Zephaniah  is  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of  Elisha  in  the 
case  of  Naaman,  the  Syrian  (2  K.  5^®  ^•),  and  thus  illustrates  the 
growth  in  the  Hebrew  thought  of  God.  The  proposal  of  Nestle 
to  read  "to  the  moon"  instead  of  "to  Yahweh"  is  attractive,  but 
not  convincing;  moon- worship  has  already  been  included  in  the 
word  against  "those  worshipping  the  host  of  the  heavens"  and 
needs  no  further  consideration;  while  the  change  to  the  third  person 
involved  by  the  introduction  of  "Yahweh"  is  no  vm common  oc- 
currence when  a  prophet  is  speaking  as  the  representative  of  Yah- 
weh (e.  g.,  i«-  "  s'-  «  Am.  3^-  ^'  '■  '  Ho.  4'-  ''  '"  Mi.  2''-  '^  4'). 
M  has  "their  king"  in  place  of  "Milcom,"  the  difference  being 
only  one  of  vocalisation.  The  Vrss.  unite  in  supporting  the  read- 
ing "Milcom"  {v.  i.),  and  on  the  whole  this  is  preferable.  Mil- 
com was  the  god  of  the  Ammonites  (i  K.  ii^-  ^  2  K.  23^')  who 
with  other  gods  shared  Judah's  hospitality  toward  all  cults.  Cf. 
Ez.  23^^  ^•.     In  case  the  reading  of  M  is  right,  the  essential  mean- 

*  V.  Sachau,  Die  Aramaiscken  Papyrus  aus  Elephantine  (1911). 
t  Sayce  and  Cowley,  Aramaic  Papyri  jrom  Assuan,  Papyrus  F,  1.  5. 


igo  ZEPHANIAH 

ing  is  the  same.  The  title  "king"  is  then  applied  not  to  Yahweh, 
King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords,  but  either  to  the  various  local 
deities  throughout  the  land,  each  of  whom  was  entitled  "king"  of 
his  special  city,  the  word  of  Jeremiah  being  in  point  here,  viz.,  "ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  thy  cities  are  thy  gods,  O  Judah"  (2^*)  ;* 
or  to  the  Phoenician  god  Milk  (whose  name  is  regularly  distorted 
to  Molech  in  OT.  and  is  thus  made  to  suggest  bdsheth =sha.me), 
whose  very  name  meant  "king"  and  whose  cruel  cultus  was  prac- 
tised in  Judah  in  Zephaniah's  day  (2  K.  23^"  Je.  7^*  32^^  Ez.  i6^°  '•; 
cf.  Lv.  18^*  20^)  .f  The  chief  objection  to  Milcom  lies  in  the 
fact  that  after  the  time  of  Solomon  who  built  high  places  to  Mil- 
com for  his  foreign  wives  (i  K.  ii^-  '  <*•  33  2  K.  23")  no  reference 
is  made  to  his  worship  in  Israel. J  But  this  at  best  is  only  an 
argumentum  e  silentio.  Furthermore,  while  Milk  and  Milcom  are 
in  one  passage  clearly  differentiated  (2  K.  23^°-  ^^),  it  is  probable 
that  fundamentally  they  were  closely  related,  being  simply  diflfer- 
ent  members  of  the  Baalistic  pantheon  {cf.  Je.  32^^), §  and  that  the 
rites  offered  to  them  were  closely  similar.** — And  those  who  with- 
draw from  following  Yahweh]  This  verse  does  not  merely  sum- 
marise in  a  general  characterisation  the  practices  of  those  con- 
demned in  w.  *^-  ^,tf  nor  does  it  contrast  the  apostate  Jews  of  "^ 
with  the  godless  heathen  of  ®^;t  J  but  it  adds  a  new  class  to  the  fore- 
going, viz.,  those  who  do  not  merely  divide  their  loyalty  between 
Yahweh  and  other  gods,  but  rather  actually  reject  Yahweh  out  and 
out;  cf.  i^^.  It  is  something  worse  than  religious  indifference; §§ 
it  is  open  and  downright  apostasy. — Even  those  who  have  not  sought 
Yahweh,  nor  inquired  of  him]  This  does  but  repeat  in  negative 
form  what  has  just  been  said  positively.    There  is  hardly  suffi- 

♦  So  Hal.,  who  urges  in  further  support  of  this  view  an  interesting  interpretation  of  the  legends 
n3Vi>  i'^:;S  .n^ij;  iSdS  .inan  i'^dS  .1^'  iVd*^,  stamped  upon  old  Hebrew  jar-handles 
(Bliss  and  Macalister's  Excavations  in  Palestine,  116-121)  to  the  effect  that  the  "kings"  here 
named  were  the  tutelary  deities  of  their  cities.     Cj.  rnpVo  t  =  nnp  "]'^D),  god  of  Tyre. 

t  So  Dav.,  GASm.,  Or.;  G.  F.  Moore,  EB.,  3085. 

X  Other  allusions  to  Milcom  are  2  S.  12^°  (&  Je.  49'-  '. 

§  Cj.  the  name  ^j.od'^:;  for  a  Phoenician  deity  in  CIS.,  Nos.  147,  194,  380. 

*♦  Cj.,  e.  g.,  the  king  of  Moab's  sacrifice  of  his  oldest  son  (probably  to  Chemosh,  his  god) 
with  the  Hebrew  rites  in  honour  of  Molech  (a  K.  y");  v.  also  Lagrange,  Etudes  sur  Us  relig- 
ions sfmiliques-,  09  If- 

tt  Contra  Hal.. 

tX  Contra  Marti ;  similarly,  Or.,  Hal..  §§  Or.,  Dr.. 


l'-'  191 

cient  basis  for  the  rejection  of  this  verse  as  an  interpolation*  The 
change  to  the  third  person  has  already  occurred  in  v.  ^  {q.  v.);  the 
metre  of  this  str.  is  too  irregular  to  warrant  the  elimination  on  the 
ground  of  the  poor  balance  of  this  verse ;  and  the  thought  though 
somewhat  repetitiously  expressed  forms  a  fitting  climax  to  the  str.. 

The  metre  of  this  str.  is  rough  and  uneven,  being  a  mixture  of  hexa- 
meter and  pentameter;  but  the  paralleHsm  is  regular  and  clearly  marked, 
thus  indicating  plainly  the  poetic  lines.  The  arrangement  here  pre- 
sented involves  the  setting  aside  of  the  latter  part  of  v.  ^,  beginning  with 
mVa'aDm,  and  also  the  dropping  of  the  phrase  Dunrn  oy  from  v.  *  as  a 
gloss.  A  threefold  objection  holds  against  the  phrase  nx  mSa'ODni 
D^ys'in  in  v. ',  viz.:  (i)  no  such  discrimination  between  the  righteous  and 
the  wicked  is  implied  in  the  threats  of  the  immediate  context;  (2)  it  lies 
outside  of  any  possible  metrical  scheme;  (3)  the  presence  of  the  asterisk 
in  06'^.  The  remainder  of  v. »  does  but  weakly  reiterate  what  has  al- 
ready been  said  in  the  opening  words  of  the  verse. 

2.  1)0^]  (S,  ^/cXe/^ei.  "B,  congregans.  Four  codd.  of  Kenn.  I1DN. — 
r\Dif\  This  can  only  be  a  Hiph.  juss.  from  ']^o.  But  this  is  open  to 
three  objections,  viz.:  (i)  the  Hiph.  of  this  vb.  occurs  only  here  and  in 
Je.  8'3  where  the  text  is  almost  certainly  corrupt;  (2)  the  juss.  is  un- 
called for  here;  (3)  the  use  of  the  inf.  abs.  from  a  different  root.  An  anal- 
ogous case  of  the  inf.  of  one  vb.  with  the  finite  form  of  another  occurs  in 
Is.  28^",  iJE*n<_  trnx;  but  a  rootiyis  is  otherwise  unknown  and  the  text 
is  probably  corrupt,  unless  Barth,  NB.^*^^,  be  correct  in  supposing 
that  forms  like  lbs  and  B'^n  are  survivals  of  a  primitive  Hiph.  inf.  abs. 
form  of  the  ^  'y  vb..  Rd.  ip«  as  ist  pers.  sg.  impf.  of  ^dx,  with  Stei., 
Or.,  Schw.,  We.,  Now.,  Ges.'i"",  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Fag., 
Roth.,  Kent.  For  similar  forms,  cf.  i  S.  15'  2  S.  6'  Mi.  46  Ps.  1042'.  Cf. 
Ges.^"''-  '"".—'^3]  C6BY  and  Kenn.  245  om.;  so  Roth.(?).— 3.  tipx] 
Rd.  IDS  both  times  as  in  v.  *.  Vrss.  render  as  in  v.  \  Stk.  t]bs, 
omitting  it  the  second  time  as  do  also  Fag.,  Kent. — a^'ptrn,?  pn  niScDDni] 
Rd.  'uvnWDrn;  so  GASm.,  OortE""-,  Now.^  van  H.,  Roth.,  Kent. 
C5,  Kal  d(r6ev:^(Tovfftvol  iffe^eh  (<S^',  /SacriXen).  10,  et  ruinae  impiorum  sunt. 
&,  and  I  will  bring  the  stumbling-block  upon  sinners.  HP.  36,  240,  Kal 
t4  (TKdvdaXa  cijv  rots  aer^^eai.  HP.  130,  211  om.  the  phrase,  while  ($^  has 
it  under  asterisk.  Bach., 'in  piDiy -inD^i.  Schw.,'iJi  ^nSts'si.  We.,  O'lS^'opn 
'ui;  so  Fag..  Marti,  'ui  ^rncB'ni;  so  Stk..  B's  rendering  of  M  is  correct, 
viz.,  'ruins'  ('stumbling-blocks'  calls  for  the  text  as  emended  by  We.); 
but  it  is  hardly  an  appropriate  term  in  this  context;  it  would  be  in- 
telligible only  in  the  pregnant  sense  'ruins  about  to  be  made.'     OS  & 

♦  Contra  Marti,  Now.  ^,  Fag.,  Kent. 


192  ZEPHANIAH 

seem  to  presuppose  a  verbal  form  and  dittog.  would  account  for  D  of 
M  since  c  and  d  are  so  easily  confused;  v.  on  Mi.  i*.  Or.'s  objection 
to  this  reading  as  too  weak  is  not  well  taken,  in  view  of  2  Ch.  25^  28" 
Je.  6*'. — a>j,'ttnn]  A  word  much  more  common  in  exilic  and  postexilic 
writings  than  in  earlier  times;  but  its  occurrence  in  pre-exilic  literature  is 
frequent  enough  to  make  it  unsafe  to  base  an  argument  for  the  late  date 
of  a  passage  upon  this  word,  especially  when  the  writing  in  question  is  as 
close  to  the  exile  as  Zephaniah. — aiNn-rN]  (6,  roiis  avbixov^;  so  Schw.. 
GASm.,  yrT  D"in.  (&  may  have  arisen  through  ocous  as  an  abbreviation 
for  dvdpw-rrovi;  in  any  case  neither  't  nor  ""i;"  can  easily  have  been  changed 
to  aiN, — 4.  in::']  05,  rd  6v6fx,a.Ta  =  au';  so  2  codd.  of  Kenn.  and  one  more 
in  margin;  so  also  Schw.  {cf.  Ho.  2"),  Oort'^"'-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Dr.  (?), 
Stk.,  Roth..  But  M  deserves  preference  as  the  harder  reading  and  be- 
cause if  (S  were  correct  we  should  have  expected  or  with  a'^jnon  also. 
— D2'-nN]  Rd.  Btt'-nNi,  with  (5  &  B  ®,  and  many  Heb.  codd.;  so  Or., 
Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth..  We.,  on  basis  of  asyndeton  of  M,  suggests 
om.  of  Bir-nN  as  a  variant  of  -iXB'-nN;  so  Stk.. — annrn]  A  word  occurring 
in  Strassburg  Papyrus  i',  in  the  Elephantine  papyri  published  by  Sayce 
and  Cowley  (E  15)  and  by  Sachau  (i^,  and  on  the  Teima  Stone;  always 
applied  to  non-Yahwdstic  priests.  It  was  a  common  Semitic  word  be- 
ing now  known  in  Hebrew,  Aramaic,  Syriac,  Nabataean,  Punic  (v.  G.  A. 
Cooke,  North-Semitic  Ins.,  Nos.  64,  65,  69,  98;  Lidzbarski,  Handbuch 
d.  nordsem.  Epigr.,  297)  and  Assyrian  (a  high  Babylonian  official  is 
called  Kamiru  in  Amarna  Letters,  No.  I,  15,  33;  and  an  Arabic  priestess 
is  entitled  Kumirtu'm  an  ins.  of  Ashurbanipal;  v.  KAT.^,  467). — -aj; 
O'ljnDn]  ^BA  j^  om.;  in  marg.  of  &"  with  asterisk;  but  found  in  HP.  22, 
36,  42,  51,  62,  68,  86,  87,  95,  97,  147,  185,  228,  233,  238,  240,  310,  Com- 
plut..  Arm.,  Slav.. — 5,  nujn]  S^,  Uo\a.  Eight  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  7  of 
de  R.,  mjjn. — ,-nn''S  a^y^tt-jn  onnna-nn  pni]  ®a  ^^  jjp_  ^^^  jq^^  j^,^ 
233  om.;  while  &"  has  all  of  it  in  marg.  under  asterisk  and  only  Vcn-PNi 
is  om.  by  (gQ,  HP.  23,  26,  36,  40,  42,  51,  62,  86,  95,  97,  114,  130,  147,  185, 
238,  239,  240,  311  and  Arm..  "Swearing  by  ''"  was  a  perfectly  legiti- 
mate proceeding  as  appears  from  Is.  19'*  45"  2  Ch.  15",  in  all  of  which 
it  means  'worship  'v'  But  the  phrase  S  'c'jn  here  encounters  three  diffi- 
culties, viz.:  (i)  it  is  a  useless  repetition  of  the  thought  of  the  immediately 
preceding  word;  (2)  it  renders  the  sentence  heavy  and  awkward;  (3)  if 
niniS  were  correct  after  'tt'jn,  we  should  expect  aoVoS  likewise.  The 
state  of  (&  indicates  very  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  text  at  a  relatively 
early  date.  The  omission  of  aMnna'rjn  as  a  dittog.  would  leave  an  ad- 
mirably balanced  line;  but  nyn-f^  follows  it  more  easily  than  it  does  'rjn 
in  this  context.  Hence  the  latter  is  better  om.,  with  We.,  Schw.,  Oort^"- , 
Now.,  Or.,  Marti,  Dr.  (?),  van  H.,  Fag.,  Roth,  and  Kent,  as  a  dittog.  or 
a  marg.  correction  of  the  foil,  'trjni. — nin'''?]  Or.  adds  pin3X.  Nestle 
suggests  n*:.;^;   so  Marti,  Now."^,  Stk.;    cf.  Dt.  17'  Je.  8'  Jb.   31^ — 


0'j?3B'jni]  Om.  1  with  (g^A.  go  Hi.,  Stei.,  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.  (?),  Stk.. 
The  om.  of  hn  here  points  to  the  absence  of  i  originally.  The  whole 
word  is  om.  by  (SQ*,  HP.  26,  130,  311.  Eth.  reads,  "and  those  swear- 
ing in  the  name  of  '■>  their  king  deceitfully";  similarly,  21. — ddSd3]  Rd. 
d';Sc3,  with  (gY  HP.  22,  36,  51,  95,  185,  238  (all  =  /MeXxofi),  B  H;  so  Hi., 
Stei.,  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Kent.  (&Q  """«; 
HP.  62,  86,  147,  fxo'Kox.  &",  by  the  king  their  God.  (F,  their  idols. 
HP.  114,  KttTct  ToO  MeXxow;  240,  Kara  MoXxo/t. — 6.  intyii]  (S,  dvre- 
XOfiivovs  ToO  Kvpiov.     For  a  comparison  of  tfm  with  ifpa,  v.  H.^",  113. 


§  3.  THE  TERRORS  OF  THE  DAY  OF  YAHWEH  (i^-^«). 

A  vivid  picture  of  the  terrible  judgment  now  so  near  at  hand. 
The  poem  falls  into  eleven  short  strs.  of  two  lines  each,  as  though 
the  burden  of  the  message  were  too  heavy  to  be  borne  by  strs.  of 
greater  length.  Str.  I  announces  the  near  approach  of  the  dread 
day  (i^);  II  pronounces  judgment  upon  the  king's  counsellors 
^jSa.  9bj.  Ill  (jeals  with  those  who  practise  social  and  religious 
customs  of  foreign  origin  (i^''-  ®^);  IV  describes  the  woe  to  come 
upon  every  quarter  of  the  city  (i*"-  "^) ;  V  vividly  represents  the 
impossibility  of  the  escape  of  any  guilty  man  (i*-'^-  b).  yi  shows 
how  such  men  will  realise  their  mistake  in  disregarding  Yahweh 
^ji2c.  i3a^.  Yjj  reiterates  the  announcement  that  Yahweh's  day  is 
near  (i");  VIII  and  IX  characterise  that  day  with  its  terrors 
^ji5.  16^ .  ^  describes  the  pitiful  condition  of  mankind  on  that  day 
(i'^) ;  and  XI  closes  the  poem  with  the  threat  of  a  most  complete 
destruction  (i^^^-  ^). 

CILENCE  in  the  presence  of  the  Lord  Yahweh,  for  Yahweh's  day  Is  near  at 
hand! 

For  Yahweh  has  prepared  a  sacrifice,  he  has  consecrated  his  guests. 
A  ND  I  will  punish  the  princes  and  the  king's  sons, 

Who  fill  their  master's  house  with  violence  and  deceit. 
A  ND  I  will  punish  every  one  who  leaps  over  the  threshold. 

And  every  one  who  clothes  himself  with  foreign  raiment. 
UARK!  a  cry  from  the  Fish-gate,  and  a  wail  from  the  New-Town; 

And  a  great  crash  from  the  hills,  and  a  wail  from  the  Mortar. 
"pOR  at  that  time,  I  will  search  Jerusalem  with  a  lamp. 

And  I  will  punish  those  who  are  at  ease,  thickened  upon  their  lees; 
'T'HOSE  who  say  in  their  hearts,  "Yahweh  does  neither  good  nor  bad"; 

And  their  substance  will  become  a  ruin,  and  their  houses  a  desolation. 


194  ZEPHANIAH 

"VTEAR  at  hand  is  Yahweh's  great  day,  near  and  speeding  fast; 

Near  at  hand  is  Yahweh's  bitter  day,  hastening  faster  than  a  warrior. 
A   DAY  of  wrath  is  that  day,  a  day  of  distress  and  straitness; 

A  day  of  desolation  and  waste,  a  day  of  darkness  and  gloom. 
A    DAY  of  cloud  and  thunder-cloud,  a  day  of  the  trumpet  and  battle-cry, 

Against  the  fortified  cities  and  against  the  lofty  battlements. 
A  ND  I  will  press  hard  up)on  mankind  and  they  shall  walk  like  blind  men,  be- 
cause they  have  sinned  against  me; 
And  their  blood  shall  be  poured  out  like  dust,  and  their  flesh  like  dung. 
"MEITHER  their  silver  nor  their  gold  can  deliver  them; 

For  a  full  destruction,  yea,  a  fearful  one,  will  Yahweh  make  of  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  land. 


Str.  I,  in  a  striking  figure,  declares  that  the  day  of  Yahweh  is 
close  at  hand,  all  preparations  having  been  made. — 7.  Silence  in 
the  presence  of  the  Lord  Yahweh!]  By  this  command  for  a  solemn 
hush,  the  prophet  vividly  conveys  his  feeling  of  the  immediate 
proximity  of  God.  At  the  same  time,  the  silence  he  enjoins  was 
probably  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  sacrificial  ritual,  which  is 
here  used  figuratively.  We  are  reminded  of  the  Latin  favete  Un- 
guis (Horace,  Odes,  3  :  i,  2;  Vergil,  Mneid,  5  :  71).*  Smend  de- 
clares that  the  Arabs  also  "stood  around  the  altar  a  long  time  still 
and  silent  after  the  performance  of  the  sacrificial  slaughter  "  and 
that  this  was  the  time  when  the  deity  was  thought  to  approach  the 
altar.f  For  similar  injunctions  to  silence  in  the  presence  of  Yah- 
weh, cf.  Hb.  2^°  Zc.  2"  Am.  6^". — For  near  at  hand  is  the  day  of 
Yahweh]  The  thought  of  this  dread  day  bulks  larger  in  Zephaniah 
than  in  any  preceding  prophet. f  It  is  the  black  shadow  that  over- 
casts all  of  his  message.  He  agrees  with  Amos,  the  creator  of  the 
ethical  conception  of  the  day  of  Yahweh,  in  supposing  its  advent 
to  be  imminent  {cf.  i")  and  in  making  it  a  day  of  judgment.  The 
ethical  aspect  of  the  judgment  is  less  prominent  in  Zephaniah  than 
in  Amos;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  more  stress  is  laid  upon  its  uni- 
versal scope  (i^-  ^  2^"®-  ^^-  "3*').  The  probability  is  that  as  Amos 
connected  the  day  of  Yahweh  with  the  operations  of  Urartu  or  As- 
syria in  the  west,  so  Zephaniah 's  expectation  of  the  day  was  aroused 
by  the  onslaught  of  the  Scythians  {v.  Intr,,  §  2).    But  neither  Amos 

•  So  Schw..  t  Rtl.\  140. 

}  For  a  sketch  of  the  historical  development  of  this  idea,  v.  JMPS.,  AJTh.,  V,  505-33.  C/. 
H.*^,  131  /.;  Grcssmann,  Eschalologie,  141  ff.. 


I'  195 

nor  Zephaniah  looked  upon  the  invasion  of  the  foreigner  as  ex- 
hausting the  terrors  of  the  judgment.  War,  drought,  pestilence 
and  cataclysmic  convulsions  of  nature  were  all  to  contribute  toward 
the  appalling  catastrophe.  Natural  events  were  but  the  forenm- 
ners  of  more  terrible  supernatural  phenomena.  The  near  ap- 
proach of  the  end  of  the  age,  the  indispensable  prerequisite  of  the 
da^^^l  of  the  new  and  better  day,  is  a  constant  feature  of  the  pro- 
phetic idea  of  Yahweh's  day  {e.  g.,  Am.  6^  Is.  13®  Jo.  i^^  2*). — For 
Yahweh  has  prepared  a  sacrifice]  This  is  the  first  instance  of  Yah- 
weh's judgment  upon  Israel  being  represented  as  a  sacrificial 
feast.  The  figure  is  taken  up  and  expanded  by  Ezekiel  (39^^  ^- ;  cf. 
Is.  25®  34^  Je.  46^°  Rev.  19*^  ^•).  The  victim,  of  course,  is  Judah. 
— He  has  consecrated  his  guests]  Such  preparation,  involving  puri- 
fication from  all  uncleanness,  was  necessary  to  participation  in 
the  sacrificial  meal;  cf.  i  S.  I6^  The  participant  must  pass  from 
the  sphere  of  the  profane  into  that  of  the  holy.  Wild  beasts  and 
birds  of  prey  constitute  the  'guests'  in  Ezekiel's  representation; 
but  here  the  guests  are  left  undetermined.  Some  would  identify 
them  with  the  Chaldeans;*  others  prefer  the  Scythians ;f  while 
GressmannJ  declares  that  guests  and  victim  are  the  same,  viz., 
Judah.  Davidson  feels  a  certain  inconsistency  in  the  figure,  in 
that  it  represents  Yahweh  as  slaying  the  sacrifice,  whereas  the  real 
slaughterers  are  the  guests  themselves,  viz.,  Israel's  foes.  All  such 
attempts  to  interpret  the  figure  in  every  detail  seem  to  ignore  the 
ideal  element  in  the  representation.  The  only  essential  feature 
of  the  figure  is  the  picture  of  Judah  as  a  sacrificial  victim  about 
to  experience  the  punitive  wrath  of  Yahweh.  The  remaining 
features  are  but  accessory  circumstances,  necessary  to  the  round- 
ing out  of  the  view,  but  never  intended  to  be  taken  literally. §  For 
evidence  that  guests  were  invited  to  participate  in  sacrifices,  cf. 
I  S.  g'^-^  2  S.  6*^  15"  I  K.  i»  Ne.  8^"  and  the  common  usage 
among  the  Arabs.**  The  argument  for  removing  v.  ''  from  its 
present  position  to  another,  whether  preceding  v.  ^  as  the  opening 
sentence  of  the  prophecy,f  f  or  preceding  v.  "  and  there  opening  a 

*  So  Abar.,  Jer.,  Rosenm.,  Mau.,  Hd..  t  So  Ew.,  Dr.;  c/.  We.. 

t  Eschatologie,  136  /..  §  So  van  H.. 

**  \VRS.'^«' ,  236  /.;  Wc,  r.esle  d.  Arab.  Heidenthums,  114  /.. 
tt  So  Marti,  Fag.,  Kent. 


196  ZEPHAKIAH 

new  poem,*  is  not  sufficiently  strong.  The  use  of  the  third  per- 
son between  the  verbs  of  v.  *  and  v.  *,  which  are  in  the  first  person, 
is  not  a  serious  consideration  in  view  of  prophetic  usage  and  in  any 
case  is  not  obviated  unless  v.  ^  be  also  eliminated.  Even  then, 
matters  are  not  helped  much,  when  v.  ^  in  the  third  person  is 
transferred  solely  for  that  reason  and  placed  before  v.  ^,  which  is 
in  the  first  person. 

Str.  II,  threatening  the  king's  household  with  punishment,  is 
introduced  by  a  line  in  prose,  contributed  by  some  editor,t  viz., 
8a.  And  it  will  come  to  pass  in  the  day  of  YaJiweh's  sacrifice] 
A  slight  emendation  would  make  this  read,  "in  the  day  of  my  sac- 
rifice," and  do  away  with  the  difficulty  felt  by  some  as  to  the  use 
of  the  third  person ;  but  this  difficulty  would  not  be  a  serious  one, 
even  if  this  line  were  a  part  of  the  original  text. — /  will  punish  the 
princes  and  the  king's  sons]  Lit.,  'visit  upon,'  a  common  idiom  for 
'punish,'  especially  in  Je.  {e.  g.,  5^  9^  ii'^  25*^  36^*;  c/.  23^-  ^^).  The 
royal  family  and  the  members  of  the  court  are  here  held  respon- 
sible for  the  wickedness  of  the  times,  the  king  himself  having 
been  too  young  probably  at  this  time  to  have  taken  the  reins  of 
government  into  his  own  hands;  cf.  2  K.  22*.  In  any  case,  the 
reference  here  cannot  be  to  the  sons  of  Josiah,  the  eldest  of  whom 
was  not  bom  until  six  years  after  Josiah  assumed  the  crown  (2  K. 
23''^  22*)  and  was  not  old  enough  to  have  wielded  any  influence  un- 
til well  toward  the  close  of  Josiah's  long  reign.  Zephaniah's 
relationship  to  the  royal  family  {v.  on  i^)  gave  him  a  position  at 
court  which  enabled  him  to  keep  in  touch  with  all  that  was  going 
on  and  to  expose  the  secret  machinations  of  those  high  in  authority. 
— 9b.  Who  fill  their  master's  house]  i.  e.,  the  king's  palace,  not  the 
temple  of  Yahweh  as  in  ®.  The  charge  is  not  that  they  use  the 
palace  as  a  storehouse  for  stolen  goods,  nor  even  primarily  that 
they  enrich  the  royal  treasury  through  fraud  and  oppression;  but 
that  they  themselves  by  their  conduct  and  character  make  the 
king's  house  a  symbol  and  synonym  of  all  that  is  bad.  Where 
righteousness  should  reign,  iniquity  abounds. — With  violence  and 
deceit]  This  is  the  true  prophetic  cry.  Cf.  Am.  3^°  Is.  3"  '•  Mi. 
22.  8. 9  ^1-3.  9.  10  £2.  22"--«.     Here  and  in  i'^-  >»  Zephaniah  shows 

♦  So  Sicv..  t  So  Marti,  Siev.,  Now.^,  Fag.,  Du.,  Kent. 


!«-•  197 

that  he  too,  like  his  great  predecessors,  was  sensitive  to  the  mis- 
eries and  wrongs  of  the  poor.  For  the  justification  of  the  trans- 
position of  V.  ^^,  V.  i.. 

Str.  Ill  devotes  itself  to  the  denunciation  of  certain  practices  of 
foreign  origin,  the  adoption  of  which  indicates  disloyalty  to  the 
old,  long-established  customs  and  ideals. — 9a.  And  I  will  punish 
every  one  who  leaps  over  the  threshold]  The  precise  significance 
of  this  action  is  unknown.  Many  have  been  the  interpretations 
placed  upon  it.  (S's  rendering  yields  no  sense.  ®,  with  many 
successors,  finds  the  meaning  furnished  by  i  S.  5^,  where  the  wor- 
shippers of  Dagon  are  said  to  avoid  stepping  upon  the  threshold 
of  his  sanctuary,  because  of  the  fact  that  Dagon  had  fallen  across 
that  threshold  and  been  broken  to  pieces  in  the  presence  of  the 
ark;  a  similar  custom  has  now  come  into  vogue  in  the  temple 
of  Yahweh;  cf.  Is.  2®.  Jerome  also  interprets  the  custom  of  the 
threshold  of  the  temple,  but  finds  the  blame  in  the  arrogance  with 
which  the  worshippers  tread  the  courts  of  Yahweh.  Hitzig  refers 
the  custom  to  the  threshold  of  the  king's  palace  and  cites  the  testi- 
mony of  travellers  to  the  efifect  that  the  Persians  crossed  the  king's 
threshold  without  touching  it  and  with  the  right  foot  forward.* 
W.  Robertson  Smithf  and  Driver  see  here  a  reference  to  the  foreign 
body-guard  of  the  Jewish  king,  his  Philistine  janissaries  (2  S. 
15**  2  K.  i^^).  Another  series  of  interpretations  refers  the  cus- 
tom to  the  palaces  of  the  rich,  making  Zephaniah  condemn,  for 
example,  the  eagerness  with  which  the  servants  of  the  rich  rush  out 
of  their  palaces  to  seize  the  property  of  the  less  powerful;  J  or  the 
guardians  of  the  portals  of  the  palaces  of  the  great  (2  S.  i®-  *^  15^  ^■), 
who  abuse  their  position  by  extorting  money  from  those  who  would 
seek  their  master's  aid.§  Kimchi,  on  the  other  hand,  finds  the 
reference  to  the  thresholds  of  the  poor,  the  doors  of  whose  houses 
are  burst  open  by  the  rich  in  their  search  after  the  goods  of  their 
weaker  neighbours.**  It  is  unlikely,  however,  that  Zephaniah 
would  charge  the  great  and  powerful  nobles  with  petty  larceny. 
The  threshold  of  the  house  has  been  regarded  as  a  favourite  abode 

*  So  in  the  time  of  della  Valle  and  Olearius. 

t  Old  Testament  and  the  Jewish  Church\  261  /.. 

t  So,  e.  g.,  Hd.. 

§  So,  e.  g.,  van  H..  *♦  So  also  de  W.,  Ew.,  Ke.. 


1 98  ZEPHANIAH 

of  demons  and  spirits  among  practically  all  races.*  It  seems 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  prophet  spoke  of  some  superstitious 
practice  (perhaps,  though  not  necessarily,  of  foreign  origin)  which 
was  now  in  vogue  particularly  among  the  rich.  It  is  more  likely 
to  have  been  connected  with  private  houses  than  with  either  the 
temple  or  the  royal  palace  exclusively.  The  next  line,  at  least, 
concerns  itself  with  a  custom  primarily  of  social  rather  than  re- 
ligious significance. — In  that  day]  i.  e.,  the  day  of  Yahweh.  This 
is  a  gloss  added  by  some  zealous  hand;t  it  overburdens  the  line 
and  adds  no  essential  thought. — And  every  one  who  clothes  him- 
self with  foreign  raiment]  i.  e.,  the  fops  of  the  day,  who  followed 
after  the  latest  imported  styles.  The  serious  aspect  of  the  prac- 
tice was  the  evidence  it  afiforded  of  the  decay  of  the  national  spirit 
and  pride.  Furthermore,  the  nation  and  its  god  were  inseparable, 
and  to  abandon  or  neglect  distinctive  national  customs  was  to  be 
disloyal  to  Yahweh.  Imported  garments  were  naturally  expensive 
and  could  be  obtained  only  by  the  wealthier  classes  (2  S.  13^* 
Mt.  11^).  The  prohibition  in  the  law  (Dt.  22"  Lv.  19'®)  commonly 
cited  in  connection  with  this  passage  has  no  bearing  whatever  upon 
the  question  here,  since  it  springs  out  of  a  different  circle  of  ideas. 
Str.  IV  strikingly  presents  a  picture  of  the  distress  that  will 
overwhelm  Jerusalem  on  Yahweh's  day.  The  str.  is  introduced  by 
a  line  of  prose,  probably  of  editorial  origin. J — 10.  And  it  will  come 
to  pass  in  that  day,  it  is  tJie  oracle  of  Yahweh]  The  introduction  of 
this  line  blunts  the  edge  of  the  cry  that  follows,  which  left  in  its 
original  abruptness  is  stardingly  vivid. — Hark!  a  cry  from  the  Fish- 
gate]  This  was  one  of  the  entrances  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem  on  the 
north  side,  the  exact  location  of  which  we  cannot  determine.  It 
probably  corresponded  to  the  present  Damascus  Gate,  opening 
upon  the  roadway  along  the  bed  of  the  Tyropoeon  \' alley. §  Ac- 
cording to  Ne.  3^  12^^  it  stood  between  the  "Old  Gate"  and  the 
"Sheep  Gate,"  near  to  the  tower  of  Hananel.     According  to  2  Ch. 

*  V.  H.  C.  Trumbull,  The  Threshold  Covenant  (1896),  io#.;  Baur,  Millhcilungen  und 
Nachrichlcn  d.  Deutschen  Pal.  Vereins,  for  1899,  p.  lo. 

t  So  Marti,  Now.K,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Du.,  Kent.  Gr.  om.  as  dittog.  from  v. '",  while  Schw.  tr.  it 
to  the  beginning  of  v.  '. 

t  So  Marti,  Fag.,  Du.,  Kent.    Siev.  om.  all  but  the  opening  n^ni. 

§  V.  GASm.,  Jerusalem,  I,  201  /.;  Merrill,  Ancient  Jerusalem,  359;  Paton,  Jerusalem  in 
Bible  Times,  120/.. 


I"  199 

33",  it  was  a  part  of  the  new  wall  built  by  Manasseh.  It  may 
have  been  identical  with  the  "Middle  Gate"  of  Je.  39^"^,  standing 
in  the  middle  of  the  line  of  the  north  wall.  The  name  Fish-gate 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Jerusalem  depended  largely 
upon  the  fishermen  of  Tyre  for  its  fish  supply  (Ne.  13^^) ;  and  these 
probably  entered  the  city  by  this  gate  as  affording  the  nearest  entry 
or  giving  ^.hem  easiest  access  to  the  fish-market.*  The  prophet  in 
imagination  places  himself  in  the  midst  of  the  coming  scene  of 
desolation  and  listens  to  the  sounds  of  grief  and  ruin  that  fill  the 
air. — And  a  wail  from  the  New-Town]  Lit.,  the  second  (town).  A 
section  of  the  city  located  probably  near  the  Fish-gate.  We  have 
no  precise  information  concerning  the  site  of  this  part  of  the  town; 
it  is  mentioned  elsewhere  only  in  2  K.  22"  (=2  Ch.  34^^)  and 
possibly  in  Ne.  11^.  But  it  probably  was  that  portion  added  to 
the  city  by  the  building  of  Manasseh's  wall,  constituting  the  oldest 
suburb  on  the  north.  Lying  on  lower  ground  than  the  older  city 
and  so  more  easy  of  access  to  an  invader,  it  would  naturally  be  the 
first  to  suffer  at  the  hands  of  an  enemy.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
natural  defences  of  Jerusalem  rendered  her  impregnable  on  every 
side  but  the  north  and  every  siege  of  the  city  has  been  laid  against 
that  side. — And  a  great  crash  from  the  hills]  These  are  not  the  hills 
lying  around  Jerusalem,  but  those  within  the  city  itself;  whether 
those  in  the  south  and  south-west  quarters  occupied  by  the  temple, 
the  palace  and  the  houses  of  the  rich,  or  those  in  the  higher  por- 
tions of  the  north  end  of  the  city,  or  the  hills  of  the  city  as  a  whole, 
cannot  be  exactly  ascertained.  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
higher  portions  of  the  town  were  known  as  "the  Hills"  or  "the 
Heights."  The  use  of  titles  for  the  other  quarters  here  named 
seems  to  point  in  that  direction.  The  "crash"  is  probably  that 
caused  by  the  downfall  of  walls  and  buildings  re-echoing  from  hill 
to  hill. — 11a.  And  a  wail  from  the  Mortar]  M  reads,  "Wail,  O 
inhabitants  of  the  Mortar."  But  the  parallelism  seems  to  call  for 
a  fourth  member  constructed  of  a  noun  and  a  prepositional  phrase 
as  are  the  three  preceding  members.  What  part  of  the  town  was 
known  as  "the  Mortar"  is  wholly  uncertain,  since  the  name  is 
nowhere  else  employed.     Jerome  thought  of  the  vale  of  Siloam;  QI 

*  Cj.  GASm.,  Jerusalem,  I,  317  /.. 


2CX>  ZEPHANIAH 

of  the  valley  of  the  Kidron;  and  Josephus  (JVars,  V,  4,  i)  connected 
it  with  the  Tyropoeon  Valley.  Maurer,  on  the  other  hand,  de- 
clared it  to  be  a  figurative  name  for  Jerusalem  as  a  whole  {cf.  Je. 
21'^),  which,  surrounded  by  higher  hills,  was  to  serve  as  a  mortar 
for  the  braying  of  her  inhabitants.  Most  modem  interpreters  iden- 
tify it  with  the  upper  part  of  the  Tyropoeon,  partly  because  of  the 
fitness  of  the  title  as  applied  to  that  region,  partly  because  the  con- 
text seems  to  make  the  Mortar  a  centre  of  trade  and  industry  and 
the  Tyropoeon  furnishes  an  excellent  site  for  a  market,*  and  partly 
because  both  Fish-gate  and  Mishneh  were  on  the  north  and  the 
Maktesh  probably  lay  in  the  same  general  region.  The  last  con- 
sideration, however,  is  not  a  legitimate  one;  the  prophet  may  have 
been  picturing  the  desolation  and  grief  which  were  to  overwhelm 
the  entire  city  rather  than  some  one  special  quarter  therein.  The 
Fish-gate  and  the  Mishneh,  it  is  true,  probably  lay  on  the  north 
side;  but  "the  Hills"  and  "the  Mortar"  are  completely  unknown. 
Hence,  it  is  unsafe  to  confine  the  distress  described  by  the  prophet 
to  the  north  side  alone. — ^The  remainder  of  v.  "  seems  to  be  a  later 
interpolation,  interrupting  the  flow  of  thought  by  the  introduction 
of  unnecessary  detail  and  departing  too  widely  from  the  metrical 
norm  of  the  context  to  be  brought  into  harmony  with  the  form 
of  the  rest  of  the  poem.f — ^llb.  For  all  the  people  of  Canaan  are 
destroyed]  The  speaker  may  mean  Phoenician  traders  who  were 
the  merchants  of  the  oriental  world  ;t  or  better  still,  the  merchant 
class  among  the  Jews  themselves,  which  enriches  itself  by  unjust 
measures  and  trickery  of  every  sort.§  For  the  use  of  the  term 
"Canaanite"  as  denoting  the  trader  and  merchant,  cf.  Ho.  12* 
Is.  23"  Ez.  16''  17'  Pr.  31=''  Jb.  41"  and,  perhaps,  Zc.  14".  The 
parallel  line  seems  to  show  that  a  class  of  financiers  is  meant, 
whether  of  native  or  of  foreign  origin. — lie.  Cut  off  are  all  those 
who  weigh  out  money]  Not  money-changers  especially,  but  the 
whole  merchant  class  in  general.  The  weighing  of  the  silver  was 
necessitated  by  the  fact  that  there  was  no  Hebrew  coinage  prior  to 
the  Exile.     Indeed,  it  is  not  certain  that  there  was  a  fixed  coinage 


*  V.  Merrill,  Ancient  Jerusalem,  J91-307. 

t  So  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag..     Cj.  Du.,  who  erects  1'°  "  into  an  independent  poem. 

t  So,  e.  g.,  Dr..  §  So  most  interpreters. 


I  20I 

anywhere  in  the  Semitic  world  piior  to  the  time  of  the  Persian 
empire.  In  Babylonia,  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the  first  dy- 
nasty (c.  2000  B.C.),  stamped  money  was  in  use.*  Later  on,  As- 
syrian ingots  stamped  with  the  head  of  Ishtar  served  as  recognised 
currency;  while  Sennacherib,  in  a  recently  discovered  inscription, 
alludes  to  "casting  half-shekel  pieces," f  which  even  if  not  coins 
in  the  technical  sense  evidently  served  the  purpose  of  coins. J  It 
is  doubtful  whether  Zephaniah  himself  would  have  shared  such 
a  hostility  to  trade  and  commerce  as  is  reflected  in  this  verse, 
though  it  is  true  that  the  old  prophetic  spirit  was  opposed  to  the 
increasing  complexity  and  luxury  of  life  involved  in  the  advance 
of  civihsation  and  stood  firmly  for  a  return  to  primitive  nomadic 
simplicity. 

Str.  V  sets  forth  the  thoroughness  with  which  Yahweh  will 
search  for  the  wicked  in  order  that  he  may  visit  their  sins  upon 
them. — ^12a.  And  it  will  he  at  that  time,  that  I  will  search  Jerusalem 
with  a  lamp]  Like  Diogenes,  Yahweh  will  go  up  and  down  the 
streets  of  the  city.  The  figure  expresses  the  thought  of  the  im- 
possibility of  escape  from  the  avenging  eye  of  Yahweh.  Cf.  Je.  5^ 
Ez.  22^*^  Ps.  139'"^^.  The  figure  is  probably  borrowed  from  the  cus- 
tom of  the  night-watchman  carrying  his  lamp  and  may  involve  also 
the  thought  of  the  diligent  search  of  Jerusalem  that  will  be  made  by 
her  conquerors  in  their  quest  for  spoil.  Cf.  Is.  45^  Lk.  15^.  The 
houses  of  the  orient  being  small  and  dark,  a  thorough  search  re- 
quired the  aid  of  artificial  illumination. — 12b.  And  I  will  punish 
those  who  are  at  ease]  M  reads  "  the  men  "  for  "  those  at  ease  " ;  but 
this  would  be  poor  Hebrew,  unless  men  were  to  be  distinguished 
from  women  and  children,  which  can  hardly  be  the  prophet's 
thought.  The  epithet  "at  ease"  is  applied  to  the  same  class  of 
people  in  Am.  6*  Is.  32'-  "  Zc.  i^'  Ps.  123*.  It  denotes  freedom 
from  anxiety  and  a  complete  satisfaction  with  oneself.  They  are 
further  characterised  in  the  following  suggestive  figure. — Who  are 

*  V.  Meissner,  BAS.,  II,  559  /•.     Cj.  Sayce,  Contemporary  Review,  August,  1907,  p.  259. 

t  The  new  Sennacherib  prism.  No.  103,000,  col.  vii,  18;  copied  and  translated  by  L.  \V. 
King,  Cuneijorm  Texts  jrotn  Babylonian  Tablets  in  the  British  Museum,  part  xxvi  (1909). 

X  Cj.  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  Did  the  Assyrians  Coin  Money?  {Exp.,  1899),  pp.  380-400.  Leh- 
mann-Haupt,  Israel:  seine  Enlwicklung  im  Rahmen  der  Weltgeschichte  (1911),  p.  162,  claims 
that  the  coinage  of  money  was  invented  by  Alyattes,  king  of  the  Cimmerians,  in  the  sixth 
century  B.C.. 


202  ZEPHANIAH 

tliickening  upon  their  lees]  The  metaphor  is  based  upon  the  treat- 
ment of  wine  in  the  process  of  its  ripening.  Cf.  Is.  25®.  The 
usual  treatment  is  well  set  forth  in  Je.  48"-  '^  These  men  have 
been  left  undisturbed  in  their  false  security;  they  have  not  been 
"poured  from  vessel  to  vessel."  Just  as  wine  left  too  long  in  such 
a  condition  thickens  and  loses  strength,  so  these  men  have  sunk 
into  weak  self-indulgence,  having  lost  all  interest  in  and  concern 
for  the  higher  things  of  life  and  being  solicitous  only  for  their  own 
bodily  comfort  and  slothful  ease. 

Str.  VI  further  describes  these  indifferent  citizens  and  pro- 
nounces judgment  upon  them. — 12c.  Those  who  say  in  their 
hearts,  "  Yahweh  does  neither  good  nor  bad"]  The  terms  "good" 
and  "bad"  here  are  not  used  in  an  ethical  sense,  but  in  the  sense 
of  "favourable"  and  "unfavourable."  In  accordance  with  a  well- 
kno\\'n  Hebrew  idiom,  the  phrase  in  reality  says  that  Yahweh  does 
nothing  at  all;  he  is  without  influence  upon  human  affairs  and 
may  be  ignored  by  practical  men.  Similar  phrases  coupling  to- 
gether two  terms  of  opposite  meaning  and  subsuming  everything 
under  them  in  order  to  express  the  idea  of  totality  are  "the  shut 
up  and  the  freed"  (Dt.  32^'  i  K.  141"  21^'  2  K.  9^  14^'),  "the  moist 
with  the  dry"  (Dt.  29^^),  "the  deceived  and  the  deceiver"  (Jb. 
1 2*")  .*  The  state  of  mind  indicated  by  the  prophet  means  practical 
atheism.  While  not  proclaiming  their  thought  upon  the  house- 
tops, these  men  by  their  actions  show  that  in  their  heart  of  hearts 
they  deny  God  any  part  in  the  affairs  of  men.  This  has  ever  been 
the  temptation  of  a  cultured  and  commercial  age.  As  man's 
place  and  power  in  the  world  increase,  God  decreases.  Discerni- 
ble only  by  the  spiritual  vision,  he  is  ever  in  danger  of  being  hid- 
den from  the  eyes  of  the  mass  of  men  by  the  increasing  bulk  of 
their  material  interests.  This  same  attitude  of  mind  is  attested 
by  Je.  5^^  ^-  Mai.  2^^  Ps.  10''  14^  The  charge  of  powerlessness 
or  non-participation  in  human  affairs,  here  preferred  against  Yah- 
weh, is  one  used  with  telling  effect  by  the  later  prophets  to  dem- 
onstrate the  futility  of  idolatry  (Je.  10^  Is.  41"). — 13a.  And  their 
wealth  will  become  a  ruin  and  their  houses  a  desolation]  Those  who 
have  lived  in  careless  disregard  of  God  will  be  rudely  awakened 

♦  V.  Dr.,  Dl.  {ICC),  376,  where  the  idiom  is  illustrated  from  the  Arabic. 


I"-"  203 

from  their  fatuous  ease  by  being  brought  face  to  face  with  indis- 
putable evidence  of  his  power.  The  treasures  they  have  accumu- 
lated and  the  palaces  they  have  reared  will  fall  into  the  hands 
of  an  invading  foe.  That  for  which  they  have  laboured  and  in 
which  they  have  trusted  will  fail  and  forsake  them  in  their  day 
of  need.  The  God  whom  they  have  ignored  will  force  his  un- 
welcome presence  upon  them  in  avenging  justice.  The  remainder 
of  this  verse  is  redundant,  being  due  to  a  marginal  citation  of  a 
passage  very  common  in  the  prophetic  writings  which  was  sug- 
gested by  the  language  here.* — 13b,  c.  And  they  will  build  Jiouses 
and  not  inhabit  them,  and  plant  vineyards  and  not  drink  their  wine] 
Cf.  Am.  5"  Mi.  6^^  Dt.  28''^-  '"  Ez.  28'"  Is.  65-'  f-.  The  day  of 
Yahweh  as  announced  in  i^'"  would  seem  to  have  been  too  close 
at  hand  in  the  mind  of  Zephaniah  for  him  to  have  contemplated 
the  possibility  of  suflacient  time  elapsing  for  the  building  of  houses 
and  planting  of  vineyards. 

Str.  VII  starts  a  new  section  of  the  poem  which  is  devoted  to  a 
description  of  the  terrors  of  Yahweh's  day.  Its  immediate  prox- 
imity is  first  re-emphasised. — 14.  Near  at  hand  is  Yahweh's  great 
day,  near  and  speeding  fast]  What  has  already  been  said  in  v.  ^  is 
here  "amplified  vdth  increased  energy  of  language."  f  The  great- 
ness of  this  day  and  its  terror  are  standing  features  of  the  prophetic 
pictures  of  judgment.  Cf.  Jo.  2"-  ^^  Mai.  4^. — Near  at  hand  is 
Yahweh's  bitter  day,  hastening  faster  than  a  warrior]  For  text, 
V.  i..  "Bitter"  is  an  epithet  not  elsewhere  applied  to  the  day,  but 
one  thoroughly  representative  of  its  character.  Cf.  Am.  8^".  The 
text  of  this  line  according  to  M  is  very  diflScult  and  furnishes  no 
close  paralleUsm  with  the  preceding  line.  The  usual  rendering  is 
"Hark!  (or  "the  voice  of")  the  day  of  Yahweh!  The  mighty 
man  crieth  there  (or  "then")  bitterly."  For  similar  representa- 
tations,  cf.  Is.  i3''-  ^  Je.  30^"''.  Another  rendering  rims,  "The 
sound  of  (or  "Hark!")  the  day  of  Yahweh  is  bitter;  the  mighty 
man  crieth  there  (or  "then")."  But  such  renderings  fail  to  over- 
come the  difficulties,  viz.:  (i)  the  adverb  "there"  is  without  any 
antecedent  to  which  it  can  easily  be  referred,  while  the  meaning 
"then"  for  this  particle  is  not  well  established;  (2)  the  order  of 

*  So  Schw.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Du.,  Kent.  t  Ew.. 


204  ZEPHANIAH 

words  in  the  latter  part  of  the  line  is  wholly  abnormal,  and  that 
without  any  corresponding  gain  in  strength  that  is  appreciable;  (3) 
the  term  "strong  man"  is  undefined;  (4)  if  "bitter"  be  taken  with 
the  first  half  of  the  line,  it  forms  an  unsuitable  predicate  to  "sound," 
and  when  treated  as  predicate  to  "day,"  the  resulting  sentence 
"the  day  of  Yahweh  is  bitter"  furnishes  an  inappropriate  contin- 
uation of  the  particle  "Hark";  if  "bitter"  be  connected  with  the 
second  half  of  the  line,  the  rhythmical  balance  of  the  line  is  dis- 
turbed. The  emendation  here  proposed  furnishes  a  line  which 
is  exactly  parallel  to  the  preceding  line,  reiterating  its  thought  in 
stronger  terms.  The  final  clause  may  mean  either  that  the  on- 
rush of  the  day  of  Yahweh  is  swifter  than  that  of  the  warrior  upon 
his  foe,  or  that  it  will  be  too  swift  for  the  warrior  to  escape. 

Str.  VIII  piles  up  epithets  descriptive  of  the  terrors  of  Yahweh's 
day. — 15.  A  day  of  wrath  is  that  day]  Dies  ircB  dies  ilia,  H's  trans- 
lation of  this  sentence,  forms  the  opening  phrase  of  the  great  hymn 
on  the  Last  Judgment,  by  Thomas  of  Celano  {c.  1250  a.d.). 
For  similar  emphasis  upon  the  divine  anger  in  connection  with  the 
day  of  Yahweh,  cf.  v.  '«  Is.  13^  Ez.  7^^  Pr.  11*  Jb.  21^".  The  ef- 
fects of  Yahweh's  wrath  are  enumerated  in  the  following  clauses. 
— A  day  of  distress  and  straits]  This  and  the  following  clause  are 
examples  of  the  paronomasia  so  common  in  prophetic  literature. 
This  kind  of  a  day  was  exactly  contrary  to  the  old  popular  expec- 
tation (Am.  5'*) . — A  day  of  desolation  and  devastation]  The  same 
phrase  recurs  in  Jb.  30^  38".  The  primitive  chaos  will  once  more 
hold  sway.  The  parallelism  would  be  improved  here  by  trans- 
posing this  clause  to  the  beginning  of  v.  *^  as  Marti  suggests. — 
A  day  of  darkness  and  gloom]  This  and  the  following  clause  are 
found  again  in  Jo.  2^,  The  terrors  of  darkness  are  a  standing 
feature  of  the  prophets'  day  of  Yahweh.  Cf.  Am.  5'®-  ^^  Is.  13'" 
Ez.  34".  The  figure  was  probably  learned  from  observation  of 
eclipses  of  the  sun,  though  it  may  reflect  the  darkness  that  so  fre- 
quently precedes  and  accompanies  a  great  storm. 

Str.  IX  continues  the  description,  passing  from  the  terrors  of 
nature  to  those  of  war. — 15e.  A  day  of  cloud  and  thunder-cloud] 
The  same  phenomenon  is  described  in  Ez.  34*^,  where  the  refer- 
ence is  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  deportation  which  lay  be- 


I'"*-'"  205 

hind  the  speaker.  This  is  a  characteristic  frequently  connected 
with  theophanies  in  OT. ;  the  word  "cloud"  occurs  no  less  than 
fifty-eight  times  in  such  connections.* — 16.  A  day  of  the  trumpet 
and  battle-cry]  The  prophet  now  turns  to  the  horrors  of  war.  The 
combination  of  the  blowing  of  homsf  and  shouting  is  found  also 
in  Am.  i^^  2^  Je.  4^^  Jos.  6\  Cf.  Ju.  7^^-  ^^ — Against  the  fortified 
cities  and  against  the  lofty  battlements]  Cf.  Is.  2^^.  The  word 
rendered  "battlements"  is  literally  "comers,"  but  here  and  in  3® 
2  Ch.  26*^  BS.  50^  it  probably  denotes  special  fortifications  con- 
structed for  the  protection  of  the  angles  of  the  walls.J  The  char- 
acter and  strength  of  the  walls  and  fortifications  of  ancient  cities 
in  Palestine  may  now  be  learned  not  only  from  an  examination  of 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  but  also  those  of  Jericho,  Gezer,  Lachish, 
Taanach,  Megiddo,  Tell-Zakariya,  Tell-es-Safi  and  Samaria. § 
The  number  and  size  of  such  fortresses  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  Sennacherib  in  his  report  of  the  campaign  against  Heze- 
kiah  claims  to  have  captured  "forty-six  of  his  strong  cities,  for- 
tresses and  smaller  towns  without  number."  Not  only  so,  but  the 
great  fortress  of  Jericho  as  revealed  by  the  recent  excavations  was 
only  about  eleven  hundred  feet  long  and  five  hundred  feet  wide. 

Str.  X  leaves  the  fortresses  and  turns  attention  to  their  occu- 
pants.— 17.  And  I  will  press  hard  upon  mankind  and  they  shall 
walk  like  blind  men]  Men  will  be  reduced  to  such  straits  by  Yah- 
weh  that  their  attempts  to  discover  a  way  of  escape  will  be  like 
the  uncertain  and  hopeless  steps  of  the  blind.  Cf  Dt.  28^^  Na.  3" 
Is.  59^*^  Jb.  12^.  There  is  no  causal  connection  in  the  prophet's 
mind  between  the  darkness  of  v.  *^  and  the  groping  here  predicted.** 
"Mankind"  here  does  not  comprise  the  human  race  as  a  whole, 
but  rather  sets  human  beings  in  contrast  with  city  walls  and  forti- 
fications.   As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  citizens  of  Judah  are  in  the  fore- 

♦SoBDB..  tV.  H/H43/.. 

t  Tacitus  describes  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  as,  "  per  artem  obliquos  et  introrsum  sinuatos  ut 
latera  oppugnantium  ad  ictus  patescerent"  (Hist.,  lib.  V,  cap.  ii,  §  5). 

§  For  reports  on  Jericho,  v.  Mittheilungen  d.  Deutschen  Orienl-Gesellschafl,  Nos.  39  and  41. 
For  Taanach,  v.  E.  Seliin,  Tell  Ta'anek.  For  Megiddo,  v.  G.  Schumacher,  Tell-el-Mutesellim. 
For  Lachish,  v.  F.  J.  Bliss,  A  Mound  of  Many  Cities.  For  Tell-es-Safi  and  Tell-ZakarSya,  v. 
F.  J.  Bliss  and  R.  A.  S.  Macalister,  Excavations  in  Palestine,  1898-1900.  C/.  Dr.,  Modern 
Research  as  Illustrating  the  Bible,  54  #.,  92.  The  work  at  Samaria  is  not  yet  finished,  but  pre- 
liminary announcements  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the  Harvard  Theological  Review. 

**  Contra  Hi.. 


2o6  ZEPHANIAH 

front  of  the  prophet's  thought,  if  they  do  not  even  exclude  all 
others  from  consideration. — Because  they  have  sinned  against  me] 
This  sin  is  practically  rebellion  against  Yahweh;  for  a  similar 
usage  of  the  word  'sin'  as  =  'rebellion,'  cf.  2  K.  18"  and  the  reg- 
ular sense  of  its  Assyrian  equivalent,  htlu.  This  clause  is  omitted 
as  a  gloss  by  several  interpreters*  on  the  ground  that  the  change  to 
the  third  person  {M,  =  against  Yahweh)  is  too  abrupt  so  soon  after 
the  occurrence  of  the  first  person  and  that  it  is  superfluous  met- 
rically. The  emendation  of  the  text  necessary  to  conform  it  to 
the  first  person  is  very  slight  {v.  i.)  and  at  the  same  time  eases  the 
metrical  difi&culty. — And  their  blood  shall  be  poured  out  like  dusi] 
Cf.  Ps.  79^  18*^.  Human  life  will  be  as  worthless  as  the  dust  of  the 
streets.  For  a  radically  different  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  peo- 
ple of  God,  cf.  Ps.  72". — And  their  flesh  like  dung]  Cf.  Je.  9^'  16* 
Ps.  83^"  Jb.  26'.  The  word  "flesh"  occurs  only  here  and  in  Jb. 
2cP,  where  the  text  and  meaning  are  as  uncertain  as  here.  It  has 
been  variously  rendered,  e.  g.,  viscera,f  carcasses, {  vigour, §  sap.** 
The  rendering  '  flesh '  ff  rests  upon  (g  {v.  i.)  and  is  supported  also 
by  the  usage  in  Arabic. 

Str.  XI  brings  the  poem  to  a  close  with  a  representation  of  the 
completeness  and  inevitableness  of  the  coming  destruction. — 18. 
Neither  their  silver  nor  their  gold  can  deliver  them]  The  things  they 
have  held  most  dear  will  be  of  no  avail  in  the  great  day.  Cf.  Is. 
13'^,  where  the  Medes,  the  agents  of  Yahweh,  are  said  to  care 
nothing  for  silver  and  gold.  The  Scythian  invasion,  according  to 
Herodotus,  was  halted  at  the  borders  of  Egypt  by  the  receipt  of  a 
great  sum  of  money  as  ransom.  But  Yahweh  cannot  be  turned 
aside  from  his  punitive  purpose  by  such  means;  cf.  Pr.  II^  This 
line  and  the  following  clause  occur  also  in  Ez.  7*^,  where  it  is  an 
interpolation  and  does  not  appear  in  (|. — In  the  day  of  the  wrath 
of  Yahweh  and  in  the  fire  of  his  zeal,  all  the  earth  will  be  consumed^ 
Tliis  line  is  made  up  of  elements  appearing  also  in  i*^  3*.  It  is 
probably  a  later  expansion,  interrupting  as  it  does  the  close  con- 
nection between  the  first  and  last  lines  of  this  verse  and  being 

*  So,  e.  g.,  Marti,  Now.^,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent. 

t  So,  e.  g.,  Mau.,  Dl.'''«'-.  "s,  BDB.. 

t  So  van  H..  §  So  We..  »♦  So  Ew.. 

tt  So,  e.  g.,  Hd.,  Dav.,  GASm.,  Dr.. 


v-'"  207 

identical  in  meaning  with  the  latter  *  The  judgment  here  an- 
nounced is  probably  universal,  as  in  i^-  ^  3^.  Cf.  Is.  28^^. — For  a 
full  destruction,  yea,  a  fearful  one,  will  Yahweh  make  of  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  land]  Cf.  Is.  10^  Je.  5^*  46^^  Ez.  1 1"  20".  For  the 
text,  V.  i..  M  may  be  rendered  "altogether  fearful"  (cf.  Dt.  16'^ 
28^®  Is,  16^) ;  but  the  reading  of  the  Vrss.  is  preferable.  The  use 
of  the  third  person  here  furnishes  insufficient  warrant  for  treat- 
ing the  whole  verse  as  a  later  addition, f  or  for  changing  it  to  the 
first  person  ;J  v.  on  v.  ^.  The  remaining  considerations  urged  in 
favour  of  discarding  the  verse  are  of  slight  weight.  The  fact  that 
the  first  line  occurs  also  in  Ez.  7^^  proves  nothing  in  itself  as  to  the 
priority  of  either  passage;  but  the  structure  of  Ez.  7*^  throws  doubt 
upon  the  originality  of  that  passage  as  it  now  stands.  The  custom 
of  buying  dehverance  from  an  attack  was  so  common  (cf.  2  K. 
J  ^16-20  J.  ^7-9  i8i3-i6)§  that  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  suppose  that  this 
must  be  an  allusion  to  the  manner  in  which  Egypt  escaped  the 
scourge  of  the  Scythian  invasion.  The  claim  that  those  who  are 
represented  as  dead  in  v.  ^^  cannot  be  thought  of  in  v.  ^^  as  attempt- 
ing to  buy  their  deliverance  makes  no  allowance  for  the  agility  of 
thought.  The  indefiniteness  of  our  knowledge  regarding  the  de- 
velopment of  Hebrew  eschatology  is  no  basis  for  saying  that  the 
idea  of  a  universal  destruction  here  presented  demonstrates  the 
late  origin  bf  the  passage.  It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the 
destruction  here  contemplated  is  thought  of  as  universal.  The 
thought  in  w.  ^^-  ^^  concerns  itself  with  Judah  and  Jerusalem  and 
the  language  here  does  not  forbid  the  same  limitation  of  the 
judgment.  But  if,  as  seems  probable,  the  thought  of  universality 
is  present,  such  a  conception  is  not  at  all  out  of  keeping  with  the 
authorship  of  Zephaniah  himself  (v.  Int.,  §  4). 

A  smooth,  regular  and  uniform  metre  throughout  this  poem  can  be 
produced  only  by  taking  undue  liberties  with  the  text.  The  parallelism, 
fortunately,  is  very  marked  and  thus  indicates  the  poetic  lines  clearly. 
The  metre  of  the  first  four  strs.  is  prevailingly  pentameter  or  qina. 

*  So  Marti  ( ?).  Schw.  hesitates  between  '^''  and  '^'i  Fag.  om.  '8=;  Kent  om.  both;  Du.  om. 
all  after  "zeal." 

t  So  Marti,  Now.^  ( ?),  Siev..  t  So  Now.^  ( ?),  Fag.. 

§  It  was  a  frequent  experience  in  the  campaigns  of  such  conquerors  as  Tiglath-pileser  I, 
Shalmanezer  II,  Sargon  and  Ashurbanipal. 


2o8  ZEPHANIAH 

Through  the  remainder  of  the  poem,  hexameter  prevails.  The  move- 
ment of  thought  from  str.  to  str.  is  easily  recognisable  and  the  whole 
closes  with  a  splendid  climax  of  universal  doom. 

The  arrangement  here  presented  involves  few  textual  changes  that 
are  not  called  for  on  grounds  wholly  independent  of  the  poetic  form. 
From  the  reconstructed  poem,  the  following  materials  found  in  M  are 
lacking,  viz.,  i*»  ("and  it  shall  be  in  the  day  of  '''s  sacrifice")  »»  ("in 
that  day"),  >"  •  ("and  it  shall  be  in  that  day,  it  is  the  oracle  of  ■>  "),  "  t.  o. 
13b.  «.  18  b_  -phe  first  two  of  these  are  simple  prosaic  introductions  by 
some  editor.  The  third  is  shown  to  be  extraneous  to  the  movement  of 
thought  by  the  interruption  it  occasions  between  "  *>  and  '',  in  both  of 
which  the  speaker  deals  with  Jerusalem;  and  also  by  its  marked  varia- 
tion from  the  metrical  movement  of  the  context.  The  fourth  addition 
(ijb.  e)  js  betrayed  by  its  hackneyed  phraseology  as  well  as  its  metrical 
variation.  The  last  one  ("  ^)  is  plainly  identical  in  thought  with  "  =;  but 
the  latter  makes  a  little  closer  connection  with  "  »  than  '« ^  does  and, 
therefore,  has  the  right  of  way.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  also  that  '"'  is 
practically  a  duplicate  of  3'"'. 

The  rearrangement  of  w.  '•  »  here  accepted  was  first  proposed  by 
Schw.  and  followed  by  Now.  and  Fag.  (cf.  Siev.  who  rearranges  thus: 
vv.  6.  8  b.  9  b.  8  c.  8  ».  10).  The  reason  for  the  transposition  is  found  in  the 
excellent  sense  thereby  secured;  in  the  fact  that  v. ' »,  as  it  stands  in  M, 
lacks  the  necessary  balancing  clause,  stating  the  cause  of  the  judgment 
it  announces;  and  in  the  further  fact  that  the  two  clauses  dealing  with 
foreign  practices  are  thus  brought  together. 

7.  on]  ^,  fear.  Gr.  adds  -\V2  So  as  in  Zc.  2'. — not]  (g  =  mat. — 
cnpn]  &  invited. — 8.  nScn  ^ja  Syi]  H  om. — ':2]  (6  =  n>a;  so  We.  (?), 
Gr.,  Dav.,  GASm.,  Oort^"-,  Now.,  van  H.,  Fag..  For  the  same  inter- 
change, cf.  Gn.  45"  Ex.  16^'  Jos.  i7>'  18'  i  Ch.  2'»  Ne.  7=8  Je.  i65-  »  Ez. 
2'  Ho.  I^  Cf.  the  use  of  no  in  v.  ». — o^u-aSn]  Rd.  BoSn;  so  Schw., 
Now.,  Fag.;  D  is  a  dittog.  from  the  foil,  word;  cf.  jSnn. — 9.  jSnn  So  Sj; 
IPDcn-'^;']  (gf^AQ  ^H^  ^,ri  Trdvras  ^/x0avtDs  ivl  to.  irpSirvKa.  (&^  om.  So  Si'. 
S,  iirl  Trd^Toj  Toi/s  iiri^alvovTas  k.t.X..  TB,  super  omnem  qui  arroganter 
ingreditur  super  limen.  &,  upon  all  extortioners  and  spoilers.  {T,  all 
those  who  walk  in  the  laws  of  the  Philistines.  Wkl.,  AOF.,  Ill,  381^., 
would  render,  "against  all  who  mount  the  throne."  This  involves  a 
new  meaning  for  both  words.  jSn  is  connected  by  Wkl.  with  the 
Arabic  drg  and  made  to  mean  'mount'  or  'climb.'  Cf.  2  S.  22'"'  where 
'scale'  furnishes  an  admirable  meaning  for  the  Pi'el.  But  'skip,' 
'dance'  or  'leap'  is  required  by  Is.  35' Ct.  2'BS.  36"  and  is  suitable  both 
here  and  in  2  S.  22".  Furthermore,  the  meaning  'mount'  or  'climb'  is 
doubtful  for  the  Arabic  drg,  aside  from  some  derived  stems  where  it  is 
used  figuratively;  the  ordinary  usage  is  'walk  slowly.'  jncn  is  taken  by 
Wkl.  as  designating  primarily  the  pedestal  upon  which  the  image  of  the 


.7-14 

I  209 

deity  was  placed  (i  S.  5«-  ')»  ^1^^  secondarily,  the  king's  throne.  The 
phrase  as  a  whole  would  thus  point  to  the  king's  advisers,  those  who  stood 
upon  the  steps  of  the  throne.  But  though  this  meaning  of  'c  would  yield 
good  sense  in  i  S.  5^-  '  Ez.  9'  10*  •  ",  it  hardly  suits  in  Ez.  46'  and  is  im- 
possible in  Ez.  47'.  Furthermore,  neither  on  the  numerous  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  seals  nor  in  any  known  relief  is  a  god  represented  as  placed 
upon  a  pedestal,  or  a  royal  throne  as  raised  upon  a  dais;  the  god  and  the 
king  alike  sit  in  a  chair  of  state  with  a  footstool  attached. — oh^jin]  (g 
31  =  aninSx  <ns'.  S",  their  storerooms,  an  inner  Syriac  error  of  ?  for  r 
Better  treated  as  sg.  than  as  pi.;  Ges.  ^  "^«.  10.  ouin]  (g,  diroKevroiJi'Tujv 
=  D''J;i^!  (c/-  2  Ch.  33")  or  u>i-\n;  so  &. — ny:;vn]  (S  &  If  ==  seco7id 
(gate). — 11.  cnonn  lad^  ^h•<h^n]  Rd.  BTijcn  p  <^'^^^y,  so  Marti,  Fag. 
and  Kent  who  retains  ost'V, — B'nson]  <S,  ttJi*  KaraKeKOfjLfiivijv.  H,  />j7ae. 
ft  transliterates  as  a  proper  name.  ®,  by  the  brook  Kidron.  A,  S,  Twy 
6\nu)v.  9,  ^J*  TV  /3ci^ec. — ncij]  (S,  wfj-oidtdTf. — |JJJ0]  9,  /jLera^6\u)v. — iSiBj] 
C6,  ol  iiri]pixivoi.  E,  JMJ  exaltantur  (in  argento  et  aurd).  U,  involuti. 
The  word  is  otp.  and  is  ordinarily  treated  as  a  passive  formation  = 
"weighed  down"  {cf.  t'SB'  ,  n''a'D  ,  D^Dy);  but  it  is  better  taken  as  active 
(c/.  -i^-'D  ,i^X|">  ,->^Dn);  -y.  Barth,  TVB.  <> '«.— 12.  CijnN]  (S^,  HP.  36,  51, 
97,  238,  have  a  double  rendering,  viz.,  I  will  search  Jerusalem  with  a 
lamp  and  I  will  visit  Jerusalem  with  a  lamp  {and  I  will  visit,  etc.).  Marti, 
B'DnNv,  so  Siev.,  Now.^,  Fag.. — nnja]  Rd.,  vrith  05  ft,  "ija;  so  Schw.  (?); 
Marti  (?),  Fag.,  Roth.,  Kent.  Eth.,  with  a  lamp  of  wisdom. — o-'tt'jNn] 
Rd.,  with  Now^,  D^JJNU'n;  so  Fag.,  Kent. — O'lNopn]  31,  qui  coniemptores 
sunt.  H,  defixos.  ft,  those  despising. — annca']  (&,  tA  <f>v\dyfiaTa 
avTuiv.  HP.  86  mg.  ^deXvynara.  JI,  ne  custodiant  mandata.  H,  in 
faecibus  suis.  JT,  who  in  tranquillity  enjoy,  't'  is  always  in  the  pi.,  v. 
Is.  25'  Je.  48"  Ps.  75'.  The  meaning  is  clear,  but  the  root  uncertain. 
HWB.^^  connects  it  with  'r,  to  keep;  may  it  not,  however,  be  better 
traced  to  Assy.  Samdru,  'to  rage,'  being  so  named  as  that  which  causes 
turmoil  either  in  the  process  of  fermentation  or  in  the  brain  of  the 
drinker? — 13.  ncirnS]  (&,  eU  SiapKay^v.  H,  in  direptionem. — nsf"']  ^  ft 
add  in  them. — 14.  mm  dv]  Marti  suggests  ■'DV  in  both  cases  because 
of  the  1st  pers.  in  v.  ";  so  Fag.. — nnci]  ($,  Kal  raxeto.  Rd.,  vrith  Schw., 
nnoDi;  so  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth..  Bach.,  ny:rf  oi'n.  M 
was  formerly  treated  as  an  inf.,  the  impf.  that  ordinarily  accompanies 
such  a  construction  being  understood  (Ew.  ^^O';  Hd.) ;  but  this  is  without 
analogy.  For  a  similar  case  of  a  prtc.  without  initial  »,  v.  jnd  (Ex.  7"  9' 
io<);  cf.  Ges.  ^  ^^'.  HWB.^^  treats  it  here  and  in  Is.  8'- »  as  a  verbal  adj. 
(so  Or.,  GASm.) ;  but  it  is  better  here  to  correct  the  text. — Sip]  Kenn. 
145,  anp;  so  Marti,  Now.^,  Fag.,  Roth..  Siev.  om.. — nc]  Rd.,  with 
Marti,  "»cn;  so  Now.^,  Fag.,  Roth.  (?),  Du.,  Kent.  (5,  viKKd. — as'  mx 
-\13J]  Rd.  "i^aJD  E'n,  dropping  nx  as  dittog.  of  m-i  in  foil.  line.  This 
yields  a  text  in  perfect  conformity  with  the  corresponding  portion  of  » ». 


2IO  ZEPHANIAH 

Cf.  "i?n  and  Snjn  ,  rn  and  incs.  Note  the  same  juxtaposition  of  en 
and  1.1S  in  Is.  8'-  '.  For  other  cases  of  vertical  dittography,  cj.  2'  Mi. 
!» o.  II .  2"  ''5"'  Ez.  !"•"  7"  '•.  This  correction  is  based  upon  the  sug- 
gestion of  Miiller,  SK.,  LXXX,  309  /.,  who  reads  lUJp  tn  nx.  d,  koX 
aK\t]pa.  T^raKTai  dwarij  (5'  being  joined  with  v.  '^).  U,  tribulabilur, 
etc..  Gr.^"^,  -i>3Ji!  n-yi\  Marti,  oj  (for  o-i');  so  Now.^  (?),  Siev.  (?)^ 
Roth.  (?).  mx  occurs  again  only  in  Is.  42",  but  this  with  the  Assy. 
sardhu,  'cry  aloud,'  renders  its  meaning  clear. — or]  Of  the  passages  usu- 
ally cited  in  support  of  a  temporal  sense  (so  here,  e.  g.,  Hi.,  Mau.,  We.  ( ?), 
Now.  ( ?),  HU'B.^^,  Du.)  several  are  due  to  a  corrupt  text  (viz.,  Ps.  66^  Je. 
50'  Jb.  23'),  while  in  others  a  local  sense  is  equally  good,  if  not  better  {e.  g., 
Jb.  35"  Ps.  145  36'3  66«  132"  1333  Pr.  8"  Ho.  10'  Ju.  5").— 15.  'ci  nnx] 
The  same  phrase  occurs  in  Jb.  152^;  other  formations  from  the  same  root 
are  conjoined  in  Is.  30^  Je.  19'  Dt.  28"-  ".  57  pj-,  jj?^  Such  cases  are 
due  to  the  Hebrew  liking  for  assonance. — 'ci  nxi:']  Also  in  Jb.  30'  38'' 
BS.  SI'".  In  addition  to  the  assonance,  increased  emphasis  is  secured  by 
such  junction  of  two  slightly  different  formations  from  one  root;  e.  g., 
npi3ci  npi3,  Na.  2";  ncB'Si  ncDiy,  Ez.  33";  n<jxi  n-'jNn,  Is.  29';  ij'pn 
yV'^^a,  Ez.  6'^ — '^Diy]  Schw.,  on  the  analogy  of  Sci?  and  Snis  (Is. 
^^''),  regards  '?.s'!5;  as  the  original  form;  cf.  Syr.  'arpeld.  Earth,  NB. 
k  106 b^  treats  it  as  a  qiitalib  form;  but  it  is  better  taken  with  Vol.,  ZA., 
XVII,  310/.,  as  a  composite  noun,  with  "^n  used  as  an  intensifying  epi- 
thet; cf.  Assy,  erpu  =  'cloud,'  and  the  various  usages  of  the  Ar.  equiva- 
lent which  may  be  traced  back  to  a  primary  meaning,  'cloud.'  On  the 
divine  name  as  giving  superlative  significance,  v.  Kelso,  AJSL.,  XIX, 
152  /•;  cf.  I  S.  I4'5.— 17.  r^^r\>^^\  Rd.  ■'S— IDw'i]  (g,  khI  ixxee?,  but  in 
HP.  36,  51,  62,  86,  95,  97,  147,  185,  228a,  iKX€<^;  cf.  ?n,  effundam. — cm'-] 
Some  mss.  ncn'^,  but  better  without  dag.;  v.  Baer  and  Ginsburg.  The 
meaning  is  wholly  uncertain.  Dl.''"'"  •"  derives  from  on^,  'be  close, 
firm'  (so  BDB.),  and  renders  Eingeweide,  which  fits  better  here  than 
'flesh,'  but  is  unsuitable  in  Jb.  20".  No.,  ZDMC,  XL  (1886),  721,  sug- 
gests the  meaning  'wrath,'  connecting  it  with  Syriac  Ihm,  'to  threaten'; 
this  is  fitting  in  Jb.  20",  but  wholly  out  of  place  here.  The  rendering 
'flesh,'  against  which  both  Dl.  and  No.  urge  weighty  objections,  suits 
fairly  well  here,  but  is  inadmissible  in  Jb.  20'^.  The  text  there  is  almost 
certainly  corrupt  (cf.  (B,  65vvas)  and  the  same  difficulty  may  exist  here. 
(g,  Tk^ad.pKa'i  avrdv.  Schw.  (?)  TmS  (from  \/  nnS),  cf.  adj.  n^  Gr.^"'-, 
oS^m  (?).  Bach.,  □-.'?  mh.  Schw.,  onh;  so  Now.,  Marti,  Roth.,  Du.;  cf. 
Je.  II". — cSSjs]  "BjSicut  stercora;  so&.  ^,  ws  |36X/3tTa.  %,  sicul  slercora 
bourn.  Bach.,  O'-Ssj?. — 18.  iPNjp  .  .  .  mni  maj.']  Fag.  changes  to  ist 
pers.,  viz.  ^rmp  .  .  .  T'J^y.- — 1^]  Rd.  qs,  with  (&,  Kal  and  &;  so  Schw., 
Gr-E-n  •,  We.,  G ASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Du.,  Kent.  Cf.  "B,  cum.— 
n'^r\2i]  (&,  ffirovS-nv.  Gr.Em.  nSna;  so  Now.  (?),  Marti,  Roth..  But  this  is 
unnecessary  since  the  prtc.  makes  excellent  sense  and  the  same  construction 


2  211 

occurs  in  Is,  lo"  28"  Dn.  9". — pn  hb'jj^  .  .  .  nSa]  The  vb.  takes  two 
ace,  or  the  first  ace.  is  so  closely  welded  to  and  identified  with  the  vb.  that 
the  combined  expression  is  treated  as  a  vb.  and  takes  an  obj.  in  the 
ace;  so  also  Je.  5"  (rd.  BDrs")  30''  46"  Ez.  11"  20"  Ne.  9".  Now.'^ 
changes  ncy  to  nr^'s. 


§  4.    A  DAY  OF  DOOM  UPON  PHILISTIA   (2*-'). 

In  a  poem  that  has  suffered  many  things  at  the  hands  of  editors, 
the  prophet  foretells  woe  upon  the  Philistines.  The  reasons  for 
the  divine  anger  against  Israel's  ancient  foe  were  apparently  so 
well  known  to  the  prophet's  audience  that  they  did  not  need  to  be 
rehearsed  here.  The  poem  is  composed  of  four  strs.  of  two  lines 
each.  Str.  I  sounds  the  note  of  warning  to  Philistia  in  view  of  the 
near  approach  of  her  day  of  judgment  (2^-  ^^).  Str.  II  specifies 
four  of  the  five  great  Philistine  towns  as  doomed  to  destruction 
(2^).  Str.  Ill  announces  the  complete  depopulation  of  the  whole 
Philistine  coast  (2^).  Str.  IV  represents  this  former  abode  of 
men  as  given  over  to  the  pasturage  of  flocks  (2^-  ^^). 

A  SSEMBLE  yourselves,  yea,  assemble,  O  nation  unabashed! 

Before  ye  become  fine  dust,  like  chaff  which  passes  away. 
T70R  Gaza  will  be  forsaken  and  Ashkelon  a  waste. 

As  for  Ashdod — ^at  noon  they  will  drive  her  out;  and  Ekron  will  be  uprooted. 
'\\7^0E  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  of  the  sea,  the  nation  of  the  Cherethites; 

For  I  will  make  thee  perish,  without  an  inhabitant,  O  land  of  the  Philistines. 
A  ND  thou  wilt  become  pastures  for  shepherds  and  folds  for  flocks; 

By  the  sea  will  they  feed;  in  the  houses  of  Ashkelon  at  evening  will  they  lie 
down. 

Str.  I  calls  upon  Philistia  to  brace  herself  for  the  shock  that 
awaits  her. — 2^  Assemble  yourselves,  yea,  assemble]  This  rendering 
is  somewhat  uncertain,  being  directly  supported  only  by  (g  §>  ®  B  2 
{v.  i.).  The  verb  does  not  occur  elsewhere  in  the  forms  here  used, 
but  in  another  stem  it  is  used  of  the  gathering  of  straw  and  sticks. 
Various  renderings  have  been  proposed  for  it  here;  e.  g.,  'end  your- 
selves, etc.';*  'turn  pale  and  be  pale';t  'test  yourselves,  yea, 
test'; I  'crowd  and  crouch  down';§  'gather  yourselves  firmly  to- 

*  E.  g.,  Mau.,  Hd.,  Ke..  t  Ew..  J  De  W..  §  Or.. 


212  ZEPHANIAH 

gather  and  be  firm';*  'purify  yourselves  and  then  purge  others ';t 
'conform  yourselves  to  law  and  be  regular.' |  But  none  of  these 
finds  adequate  support  either  in  the  Hebrew  usage  of  this  root, 
or  in  the  related  dialects,  or  in  the  Vrss..  Several  scholars  aban- 
don as  hopeless  the  attempt  to  interpret. §  The  least  objection- 
able of  the  emendations  proposed  yields  the  meaning,  'get  you 
shame  and  be  ye  ashamed';  but  this  is  scarcely  possible  for  two 
reasons:  (i)  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  so  clear  and  easy  a  reading 
could  have  given  way  to  so  difficult  a  one  asiM  now  offers;  (2) 
the  thought  of  v.  ^  presupposes  in  v.  ^  either  a  call  to  flee  from  the 
wrath  to  come,  or  to  repent  and  so  escape,  or  an  ironical  summons 
to  prepare  for  the  coming  conflict.  '  Be  ashamed '  seems  too  mild 
a  term  for  this  context.  For  the  difficulty  of  the  translation  here 
given,  V.  i..  For  similar  calls  to  assemble  in  order  to  ward  off  in- 
evitable destruction,  cf.  Jo.  i^  2,^^  3"  Je.  4^. — O  nation  unabashed!] 
Here  again  we  can  attain  no  certainty  as  to  the  meaning.  The  obscu- 
rity lies  in  the  word  rendered  'unabashed.'**  Among  many  other 
renderings,  we  may  cite  'undisciplined,' ff  ' unlovable,' |t  'that 
does  not  desire  to  be  converted  to  the  law,'  §§  'that  never  paled  {sc. 
with  terror),***  'not  desired  (=  hated),' fff  'that  hath  no  long- 
ing.' tt  J  Here  again  the  attempt  to  discover  the  sense  is  abandoned 
by  some.§§§  The  Hebrew  usage  of  this  word  affords  no  basis  for 
any  other  meaning  than  'not  longing  for,'  'not  desirous  of;  cf.  Ps. 
84^  17^^  Jb.  14^^  Gn.  31^°.  But  this  is  too  vague  and  indefinite  in  the 
present  passage.****  The  idea  of  'shame'  is  associated  with  this 
root  in  Aramaic,  in  late  Hebrew  and  in  colloquial  Arabic.  This 
furnishes  a  good  meaning  in  this  place  and,  in  default  of  anything 
better,  may  be  adopted.  The  nation  addressed  is  probably  not 
the  Jewish ;fttt  nor  is  it  the  pious  element  within  the  Jewish  na- 
tion,JUJ  for  Zephaniah  would  scarcely  address  a  mere  fragment  of 

•  Stei..  t  Filrst  {Concordance).  t  Van  H.. 

S  Schw.,  We.,  Dav.,  GASm.,  Stk.,  Roth.. 

**  So  many  interpreters,  e.  g.,  Rosenm.,  Dav.,  Or.,  GASm.,  Dr.,  Fag.. 

tt « &.  n  v.  §§  at. 

•♦*  Mau..  Ew.,  Ke..  ttt  Hd..  Ht  RVm.. 

§§5  E.  g.,  Schw.,  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Stk.,  Roth.,  Kent. 

♦♦♦*  Cf.  V,  which  retains  this  sense  here,  but  puts  it  in  the  passive,  whereas  elsewhere 
it  is  always  active. 

tttt  Conlra  Hd.,  Or.,  Schw.,  We.  Dav.  GASm.,  Marti,  van  H.,  el  al.. 
JttI  Contra  Dr.,  Stk.,  el  al.. 


2  213 

the  people  as  'nation.'  It  is  rather  the  Philistines,  against  whom 
the  bulk  of  this  section  is  directed.  This  becomes  much  clearer  after 
the  secondary  elements  in  vv.  ^'^  are  recognised. — 2.  Before  ye  be- 
come fine  dust]  The  Philistines  are  now  addressed  as  individuals 
and  warned  to  seek  some  way  of  escape  before  it  is  too  late.  The 
figure  in  itself  might  picture  either  the  completeness  of  the  coming 
destruction  (Ps.  i8^^),  or  the  worthlessness  of  the  vanquished  (i^^ 
Zc.  9^),  or  the  wide  dispersion  of  the  stricken  people.  In  view  of 
the  added  comparison  to  chafif,  the  latter  is  probably  the  real  point 
of  the  simile;  cf.  Is.  29^  41^.  For  the  text  upon  which  this  transla- 
tion rests,  V.  i..  M  is  open  to  objection  on  the  ground  of  serious 
grammatical  difficulty  and  the  inappropriateness  of  the  terms  used. 
A  literal  rendering  of  M,  yields,  "before  the  bringing  forth  of  a 
decree,"  which  might  mean  either  "before  a  decree  brings  forth" 
{cf.  Pr.  27^),  or  "before  a  decree  is  brought  forth."  It  has  been 
variously  interpreted,  e.  g.,  "before  the  decree  brings  forth,"*  i.  e., 
before  the  events  befall  you  that  are  decreed  by  God;  "before 
the  term  is  bom,"f  i.  e.,  before  the  day  fixed  by  God  breaks 
forth  from  the  dark  womb  of  the  future;  "before  the  law  bring 
forth,"  J  i.  €.,  the  Mosaic  law  fulfilling  the  curse  it  pronounces  in 
Dt.  31".  But  these  all  leave  too  much  to  the  imagination  of  the 
interpreter. — Like  chaff  that  passes  away]  Everywhere  that  refer- 
ence is  made  to  chaff,  except  possibly  in  Is.  41^^,  it  is  as  a  simile  of 
scattering  (e.  g.,  Is.  17*^  Ho.  13^  Jb.  21'®  Ps.  i').  The  text  of  <S  is 
here  followed  {v.  i.) .  M,  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  RV. 
renders,  "before  the  day  pass  as  the  chaflf,"  supplying  the  word 
'before.'  RVm.  offers  as  an  alternative,  "the  day  passeth  as 
the  chaff,"  a  parenthetic  statement.§  But  the  image  of  chaff  fly- 
ing away  is  always  applied  to  things  that  depart,  not  to  the  rapid 
approach  of  things  to  come,  whereas  the  day  here  mentioned  is 
evidently  the  coming  day  of  judgment.  The  only  other  available 
meaning,  viz.,  tern  pus  fie  git,  is  too  commonplace  for  such  exalted 
utterance  as  this  and  also  places  upon  the  word  'day'  an  abstract 
interpretation  which  it  will  not  bear. — Before  there  come  upon  you 
the  hurning  anger  of  Yahweh]  Lit.,  "the  burning  of  Yahweh's 

*  So,  e.  g.,  Hi.,  Mau.,  Hd..  RV..  t  Ew..  t  Kl.. 

§  So,  e.  g.,  Hi.,  Mau.,  Ew.,  Hd.. 


214  ZEPHANIAH 

anger,"  a  phrase  found  no  less  than  thirty-three  times  in  the  OT.. 
The  line  is  best  treated  as  a  late  gloss,*  perhaps  having  originated 
after  the  preceding  line  had  become  unintelligible. — Before  there 
come  upon  you  the  day  of  the  anger  of  Yahweh]  Probably  only  a 
variant  of  the  foregoing  line,  being  identical  with  it  except  for  one 
word.f — 3.  Seek  Yahweh,  all  ye  humble  of  the  earth]  Cf.  Am.  5^ 
Is.  55".  The  address  is  to  the  pious  community  of  Israelites  the 
world  over.  The  phraseology  and  the  ideas  of  this  verse,  together 
with  the  fact  that  it  interrupts  the  close  connection  between  v.  ^* 
and  v.  ^  and  does  not  conform  to  the  (^ma-rhythm  of  the  context, 
show  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  later  interpolation. J  The  phrase 
"humble  of  the  earth"  occurs  also  in  Am.  8^  Is.  11^  Jb.  24^  Ps. 
76*°,  while  the  adjective  'humble'  is  a  favourite  epithet  for  the  Is- 
raelitish  community  in  the  Psalter,  e.  g.,  147"  149^;  for  the  opposite 
characterisation,  cf  Ps.  75^.  The  term  as  used  here  is  distinctively 
religious  in  its  significance  as  is  shown  by  the  defining  clause  which 
follows.  This  usage  is  characteristic  of  the  later  literature,  es- 
pecially the  Psalms. — Who  do  his  ordinance]  Thereby  diflferenti- 
ating  themselves  from  the  pagan  communities  around  them  and 
also  from  large  numbers  of  Israelites  who  deliberately  abandoned 
their  ovm  unpopular  faith  and  became  zealous  adherents  of  the 
faith  of  their  conquerors. — Seek  righteousness]  The  content  of  the 
word  'righteousness'  underwent  a  process  of  change  in  the  history 
of  Israel,  the  determining  factor  in  the  process  being  the  idea  of 
God  that  lay  behind  it.  The  fact  that  the  exhortation  "  seek  right- 
eousness" runs  parallel  to  the  one  "seek  Yahweh"  shows  that 
here  the  two  are  considered  identical.  That  is  to  say,  he  who 
would  secure  Yahweh's  favour  will  do  so  by  following  the  path  of 
righteousness,  which  has  already  been  outlined  as  the  doing  of 
Yahweh's  ordinance. — Seek  humility]  This  second  route  to  the 
divine  favour  is  clearly  indicative  of  the  late  origin  of  the  verse. 
The  word  'humility'  occurs  besides  only  in  Psalms  and  Proverbs. 

*  Om.  by  <8Ncb.T  f^  HP.  95,  185,  228  marg.,  233,  with  6  mss.  of  Kcnn.  and  8  of  de  R.; 
so  also  Oort^""-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Now.",  Stii.,  Fag.,  Kent. 

t  &"  has  it  under  an  asterisk.  It  is  om.  by  Gr.E""  ,  Schw.,  We.,  Bu.  (SK.,  1893,  p.  396), 
Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent. 

t  So  Schw.,  Sta.cvi,  We.,  Now.,  Grimm  (Lil.  A  pp.,  84-86),  Marti,  BDB.,  Siev..  Beer, 
Fag.,  Du.,  Kent. 


2'-*  215 

It  expresses  the  state  of  mind  to  which  pious  Israelites  were  re- 
duced by  the  terrible  calamities  that  befell  them  in  and  after  the 
Exile.  Smitten  to  their  knees  by  the  wrath  of  God,  they  incul- 
cated constantly  the  necessity  of  "a  broken  and  a  contrite  heart"; 
cj.  Ps.  51^^  34^^  Is.  57^^  66^. — Perchance  ye  may  be  hidden  in  tiie  day 
cf  Yahweh's  anger]  Cf.  Am.  5^^  and  v.  HA^,  ad  loc.  The  figure 
is  that  of  a  storm  or  an  invasion  sweeping  over  the  land;  cf. 
Is.  26^°  Jb.  14^^.  The  destruction  will  be  so  comprehensive  and 
terrible  that  escape  from  it  is  almost  inconceivable.  The  writer 
does  not  dare  to  promise  certain  deliverance  even  to  the  pious. 
Repentance  and  right  living  cannot  always  be  depended  upon  to 
guarantee  freedom  from  the  buffetings  of  fortune,  or  the  chastise- 
ments of  God  which  seek  the  enrichment  of  character. 

Str.  II  resumes  the  story  of  Philistia's  coming  destruction. — 
4.  For  Gaza  will  be  forsaken]  A  threat  of  depopulation.  Cf.  Is. 
6^2  f\  On  Gaza  and  the  Philistines,  v.  H.^^-  =^-  "^  f-.*  The  He- 
brew words  '  Gaza '  and  '  forsaken '  furnish  an  assonance  that  can- 
not be  carried  over  into  English.  Such  a  play  upon  words  was 
not  inconsistent  with  the  most  solemn  utterance;  cf.  Mi.  i^"^- 
Ez.  25^^. — And  Ashkelon  a  waste]  The  city,  after  acknowledging 
many  masters  in  the  long  course  of  her  history,  was  finally  de- 
stroyed in  1270  A.D.f — Ashdod — at  noon  they  will  drive  her  out] 
The  phrase  "at  noon"  is  susceptible  of  two  interpretations.  The 
first  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  heat  of  mid-day  causes  a  sus- 
pension of  all  business  in  the  orient;  hence  an  attack  at  that  time 
Vv^ould  come  imexpectedly  and  find  the  city  unprepared  {cf.  Je. 
6^  15^  2  S.  4^  I  K.  20*"). J  The  second  is  preferable,  which  finds 
the  phrase  to  designate  the  shortness  of  the  siege;  it  will  be  all 
over  in  half  a  day.§  A  parallel  statement  occurs  in  an  inscrip- 
tion of  Esarhaddon,  found  at  Sinjirli,  in  which  he  says,  "Memphi, 
his  royal  city,  in  a  half  day  I  besieged,  I  captured,  I  destroyed,  I 
burned  with  fire."**  The  Moabite  Stone  likewise  says,  "I  fought 
against  it  from  the  break  of  day  until  noon,  and  I  took  it"  (U. 
15,  16);  cf.  Jb.  4^"  Is.  38^^.     If  this  latter  view  be  correct,  there  is 

*  V.  also  M.  A.  Meyer,  History  of  the  City  oj  Gaza  (1907). 

t  V.  GASm.  Historical  Geog.  189-03. 

t  So,  e.  g.,  Mau.,  Hd.,  Schw.,  Now.,  Dr.,  Kent.  §  So  Dav.,  GASm.,  Marti. 

*♦  V.  Ausgrabungen  in  Sendschirli,  I,  40  /.. 


2l6  ZEPHANIAH 

probably  an  allusion  here  by  way  of  contrast  to  the  siege  of  Ashdod 
by  Psamtik  I,  which  is  said  to  have  lasted  twenty-nine  years 
(640-611  B.C.)  and,  if  so,  was  in  progress  when  these  words  were 
spoken. 

Hdt.  is  the  only  source  of  information  concerning  this  siege  of  Ash- 
dod. The  length  of  it  seems  almost  incredible.  But  the  narrative  of 
Hdt.  for  this  period  is  very  detailed  and  on  the  whole  accurate  so  far  as 
it  can  be  tested.  Not  only  so,  but  other  cities  are  known  to  have  under- 
gone protracted  sieges;  e.  g.,  Tyre  withstood  Nebuchadrezzar  for  thir- 
teen years,  and  the  Hyksos  defended  Avaris  against  three  or  four  suc- 
cessive rulers  of  Thebes.  The  so-called  siege  of  Ashdod  may  have  been 
a  long  series  of  intermittent  hostilities,  involving  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete blockade  of  the  trade  routes  both  by  land  and  sea. 

And  Ekron  will  be  uprooted]  Paronomasia  is  here  again  em- 
ployed. Judgment  has  now  been  declared  on  four  of  the  five  great 
cities  of  Philistia.  Gath  is  passed  over  in  silence,  by  reason  of 
the  fact  that  it  no  longer  existed  in  Zephaniah's  time;  v.  H.^^  on 
Am.  6^.  The  only  later  allusion  to  it,  viz.,  Mi.  i^°,  is  probably  of 
a  proverbial  character  and  does  not  imply  the  actual  existence  of 
Gath  at  that  time. 

Str.  Ill  passes  from  the  individual  towns  to  Philistia  as  a  whole. 
— 5.  Woe  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  border  of  the  sea]  A  fitting  desig- 
nation of  Philistia,  which  lay  along  the  Maritime  Plain;  cf.  Is.  9* 
Je.  47'  Ez.  25^*. — The  nation  of  the  Cherethites]  The  Philistines 
are  thus  named  also  in  i  S.  30"  Ez.  25'".  In  Am.  g'  Je.  47*  and 
Dt.  2^  they  are  said  to  have  come  to  Philistia  from  Caphtor, 
which  is  probably  the  Hebrew  equivalent  of  the  old  Egyptian 
KeftiUf  i.  e.,  Crete. 

According  to  Hdt.  (I,  173),  the  Philistines  were  the  descendants  of  the 
barbarians  formerly  occupying  Crete.  Marcus  Diaconus  (c.  430  a.d.) 
and  Stephen  of  Byzantium  (c.  600  a.d.)  relate  that  Zeus  Cretagenes  was 
worshipped  in  Gaza  and  that  the  city  was  originally  called  Minoa,  after 
Minos,  king  of  Crete,  who  had  led  an  expedition  to  the  mainland  and 
given  this  city  his  name.  Recent  discovery  of  Cretan  pottery  at  Gaza 
at  least  establishes  the  fact  of  intercourse  between  Crete  and  the  Phil- 
istines; though,  of  course,  the  presence  of  ancient  Cretan  settlements  at 
Gaza  is  not  proved  thereby.  The  dominance  of  Minoan  civilisation 
around  the  Mediterranean  littoral  and  the  indisputable  evidence  of 


2"  217 

steady  contact  between  the  dwellers  on  the  Nile  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  northern  islands  from  very  early  times  combine  with  the  foregoing 
facts  to  make  it  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  Philistines  were 
immigrants  into  western  Asia  from  Crete  and  the  neighbouring  isles. 
{Cf.  Evans,  Cretan  Pictographs,  loo  ff.;  J.  H.  Breasted,  History  of 
Egypt,  261,  338,  477/.;  G.  F.  Moore,  EB.  3715/.;  W.  Max  Miiller, 
Asien  und  Europa,  337,  387  ff.;  Schw.  ZwTh.  XXXIV,  103  /.,  255.) 
This  probability  is  converted  into  practical  certainty  by  the  recent  dis- 
covery of  the  so-called  Phaestos  Disk  in  Crete.  Upon  it  there  appears 
as  one  of  the  common  signs  the  familiar  and  characteristic  Philistine 
head-dress  as  known  to  us  already  from  the  Egyptian  monuments.  The 
exact  place  of  the  origin  of  the  disk  is  uncertain,  whether  in  Crete  itself, 
or  in  some  neighbouring  isle,  or  on  the  adjacent  coast  lands  of  Asia 
Minor,  But,  in  any  case,  it  reveals  the  influence  of  the  Cretan  civil- 
isation and  may  with  confidence  be  assigned  to  some  region  in  the 
vicinity  of  Crete  where  the  Philistines  were  residents.  While  the  exact 
period  to  which  it  belongs  is  uncertain,  it  is  quite  clear  that  it  antedates 
the  emigration  of  the  Philistines  to  Palestine.  V.  L.  Pernier,  m  Ausonia, 
Rivista  d.  societa  Ital.  di  archeologia  e  Storia  dell'  arte,  III  (1909),  255  jf.; 
Ed.  Meyer,  in  Sitzungsherichte  der  Konigl.  Preuss.  Akademie  der  Wis- 
senschaf ten  {Phil. -hist.  Classe),  XLI  (1909),  1022^.;  von  Lichtenberg, 
Einfliisse  der  dgdischen  Kultur  aufAegypten  und  Paldstina  (191 1),  18-22, 
66/.;  and  especially,  Evans,  Scripta  Minoa,  I  (1909),  22-28,  273-293. 
An  unsuccessful  attempt  has  recently  been  made  by  George  Hempl  to 
interpret  it  as  a  Greek  ins.;  v.  Harper's  Magazine,  January,  1911. 

David's  body-guard  was  composed  of  Cherethites  and  Pele- 
thites  (2  S.  8*«  is'^  2o^-  =^  I  K.  i^«-  "  I  Ch.  18^^),  terms  probably 
reflecting  a  twofold  source  of  the  Philistine  nation. — The  word  of 
Yahweh  against  you]  This  is  best  treated  as  a  marginal  note  by 
some  editor  or  reader.*  Its  presence  mars  the  metrical  form. — O 
Canaan]  A  further  gloss, f  going  with  the  following  "land  of  the 
Philistines,"  rather  than  with  the  immediately  preceding  phrase. 
In  the  Egyptian  inscriptions,  the  name  Canaan  is  applied  to  any 
part  of  the  land  of  Palestine;  but  nowhere  else  in  the  OT.  does  it 
denote  Philistia  alone;  cf.,  however,  Jos.  13^  Nu.  13^®  Ju.  3'.  Here 
it  may  have  been  used  as  an  opprobrious  epithet,  stigmatising  the 
Philistines  as  rascally  traders. — For  I  will  bring  about  thy  ruin,  so 
that  there  will  be  no  inhabitant,  O  land  of  the  Philistines]  This  in- 

♦  So  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.. 

t  So  We..  Preuschen  {ZAW.  XV,  32),  GASm.  (?),  Now.,  Wkl.   (AOF.  Ill,  333  /.),  Marti, 
Siev.,  Fag..  Stk.,  Du.,  Kent. 


2l8  ZEPHANIAH 

volves  a  transposition*  of  the  last  clause,  "O  land,  etc.,"  from  the 
place  it  holds  in  M,  which  is  immediately  before  "I  will  bring, 
etc.."  This  is  made  necessary  by  the  structure  of  the  qina-line, 
which  calls  for  the  shorter  part  after  the  caesura.  The  phrase 
"without  an  inhabitant"  is  a  favourite  one  in  Je.,  e.  g.,  4'-  ^®  9" 
26"  33'"  34''  46'"  48'  51''-  That  it  is  not  to  be  taken  too  literally 
is  shown  by  Je.  44^^. 

The  fourth  and  last  str.  adds  picturesqueness  of  detail  to  the 
announcement  of  Philistia's  devastation. — 6.  And  thou  wilt  be- 
come pastures  for  shepherds]  RV.  renders,  "and  the  sea-coast  shall 
be  pastures,  with  cottages  for  shepherds."  But  this  involves  the 
difficulty  of  treating  'sea-coast'  as  a  feminine  noun,  while  it  is 
masculine  everywhere  else,  even  in  v.  '.  It  is  better  to  treat  it  as 
a  case  of  vertical  dittography  from  v.  ''.  The  word  'pastures'  too 
is  in  an  almost  impossible  construction  in  M,-  RV.'s  'cottages' 
are  without  solid  foundation;  a  better  rendering  for  the  word  is 
'cisterns'  or  'wells,'  or  even  'caves,'  as  in  RVm..  But  a  simpler 
way  out  of  the  difficulty  is  to  regard  the  word,  which  occurs  only 
here,  as  a  corrupt  dittograph  of  the  immediately  preceding  word, 
which  it  so  closely  resembles.  Another  treatment  of  the  word  is 
suggested  by  (g,  which  interprets  it  as  '  Crete ' ;  this  in  itself  is  quite 
possible;  but,  if  adopted,  the  w^ords  'Crete'  and  'pastures'  must 
exchange  places,  the  former  becoming  the  subject  of  the  verb,  viz., 
"And  Crete,  the  border  of  the  sea,  will  become  pastures."  f  With 
tlie  omission  of  "border  of  the  sea"  suggested  above,  this  latter 
interpretation  becomes  very  attractive  ;J  but  it  is  hardly  convincing 
because  it  is  not  likely  that  Philistia  was  known  as  'Crete'  in 
Zephaniah's  time  and  was  yet  so  named  only  once  in  the  OT.. 
The  line  is  smoother  with  the  word  omitted  as  in  H.  For  "pas- 
tures for  shepherds,"  cf.  Am.  i^  Ps.  83". — Atid  folds  for  flocks]  A 
picture  of  complete  depopulation,  crowded  to^vns  and  villages 
giving  place  to  pastoral  solitudes.    At  this  point  a  later  editor, 

*  So  Now.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Fag..  \Vkl.  {I.  c.)  cm.  as  a  gloss.  Du.  cm.  "I  destroy  you  that 
there  will  be  no  inhabitant." 

t  So  Wkl.  {AOF.  Ill,  232),  van  H..  WTcl.  sets  w.^-  «  apart  as  a  separate  oracle,  directed  not 
against  the  Philistines,  but  tJie  islanders  of  Crete  itself.  The  occurrence  of  the  forms  m3  and 
avitD  is  too  slight  a  basis  for  so  novel  an  hypothesis. 

t  So  We.,  GASni.,  Now.,  Dr.  ( ?).  Cj.  Or.'s  rendering,  "shall  become  pastures  for  shep- 
■  herds,  and  the  land  of  Crete  sheepfolds." 


2""'  219 

zealous  for  the  pre-eminence  of  Judah,  has  inserted  a  line  safe- 
guarding the  interests  of  his  people. — 7a.  And  the  border  of  the  sea 
will  belong  to  the  remnant  of  the  house  of  Judah]  The  late  origin* 
of  this  line  is  shown  by  the  way  in  which  it  breaks  the  close  con- 
nection between  v.  ®  and  v.  ''^■,  the  'they'  of  ^^  goes  back  for  its 
antecedent,  not  to  the  'remnant'  of  '%  but  to  the  'flocks'  of  v.  ^. 
Then,  too,  the  use  of  the  word  'remnant'  presupposes  at  least  the 
first  deportation  as  having  occurred.  The  same  hatred  of  the 
nations  in  general  and  of  the  Philistines  in  particular  is  manifested 
here  as  in  2"  Ob.  '^  ^-  Zc.  9'^-  Am.  g'^  Is.  11"  Je.  49',  all  of  which 
are  of  exilic  or  postexilic  origin. — 7b.  By  the  sea  will  they  feed ;  in 
the  houses  of  Ashkelon  at  evening  they  will  lie  down]  The  original 
poem  is  here  resumed  and  finished.  The  closing  scene  shows  the 
former  marts  of  trade  and  busy  hives  of  men  given  over  to  the  un- 
disturbed possession  of  well-fed  sheep,  going  in  and  out  of  the 
vacant  houses  at  will,  "with  none  to  make  them  afraid."  The 
qina-xh.yih.va  would  be  restored  by  the  transposition  of  the  first 
clause  'by  the  sea,  etc.,'  to  the  end  of  the  line;f  but  the  order  of 
thought  is  more  natural  as  in  IH.  The  first  clause  in  IE  reads, 
"upon  them  will  they  feed";  the  antecedent  of  'them'  can  only 
be  the  'pastures'  of  v.  ^;  but  this  is  to  make  a  masculine  suflSx  re- 
fer to  a  feminine  antecedent.  Hence,  in  part,  the  general  adop- 
tion of  the  reading  "by  the  sea,"  which  involves  only  a  very  slight 
change  of  HI.  Those  holding  to  the  integrity  of  the  verse  as  a 
whole  have  felt  compelled  to  make  the  verbs  'feed'  and  'lie  down' 
find  their  subjects  in  the  Jews  themselves  {cf.  3^^  Is.  14^°  Ez.  34^* 
Jb.  ii*°),  rather  than  in  the  flocks  or  the  nomad  shepherds  of  these 
flocks.  But  this  is  a  forced  exegesis  which,  with  the  removal  of 
V.  "^^  now  keeping  ''^  and  "  so  far  apart,  becomes  unnecessary.  As 
between  the  shepherds  and  the  flocks,  the  latter  furnishes  the  more 
natural  subject  for  the  verbs.  The  objection  usually  urged,  viz., 
that  the  prophet  would  not  represent  flocks  as  occupying  the 
vacant  houses,  is  not  well  taken ;  in  no  more  effective  way  than  this 
could  he  have  represented  the  desolate  and  deserted  state  of  the 
once  populous  region.     The  various  attempts  to  emend  the  latter 

*  So  We.,  Wkl.  (I.  c),  Marti,  Siev.,  Beer,  van  H.,  Fag.,  Stk.,  Du.,  Kent. 
t  So  Now.,  Marti,  Kent.     Du.  treats  it  as  a  part  of  the  interpolated  matter. 


220  2EPHANIAH 

part  of  this  line  {v.  i.)  seem  wholly  unnecessary* — For  Yahweh, 
their  God,  will  visit  them  and  turn  their  captivity]  This  line  belongs 
with  V.  '*  and  completes  the  editorial  addition.f  It  clearly  refers 
to  the  remnant  of  Judah  and  presupposes  the  exile.  The  refer- 
ence to  Judah  here  introduces  a  foreign  element  into  a  context 
which  is  concerned  entirely  with  the  Philistines.  'Visit,'  frequently 
used  of  Yahweh's  punitive  activity,  here  denotes  the  exercise  of 
his  forgiveness  and  mercy.  The  promise  of  return  from  exile 
hardly  accords  with  the  view  presented  by  the  writer  of  v.  ^,  who 
contemplates  the  possibility  of  Judah's  pious  ones  escaping  from 
the  approaching  calamity.  For  the  phrase  'turn  their  captivity,' 
V.  H.'^"'  "^  f-  292_  The  alternative  rendering  'turn  their  fortune' 
is  less  definite  and  forceful  here.J 

The  opening  str.  of  this  oracle  is  in  tetrameter;  the  remaining  three 
take  on  the  qina-xhythm.  The  alien  elements  betray  their  character  by 
their  failure  to  conform  to  either  of  these  measures. 

Vv.  ^b.  c.  3.  7j».  •  are  omitted  from  the  reconstructed  poem  as  later 
accretions.  Vv.  ^b.  c  are  variants  of  a  gloss  explaining  the  figurative 
language  of  * ».  It  is  impossible  to  say  which  line  presents  the  gloss  in  its 
original  form.  The  late  origin  of  v.  '  is  shown  by  its  conception  of  re- 
ligion and  by  the  fact  that  it  evidently  addresses  itself  to  the  Israelites, 
whereas  the  context  is  concerned  with  the  Philistines.  The  same  ob- 
jection applies  to  v. '  ••  «.  Indeed,  on  the  strength  of  vv.  »•  ',  this  whole 
section  is  denied  to  Zephaniah  by  Schw.,  while  Sta.*^^",  645,  athetizes 
w.  •-'  and  Bu.  {SK.  1893,  pp.  394/.,  and  Gesch.  89),  w.  <-'  (so  also 
Kent).  The  argument  against  w.  <-'  is  that  whereas  in  the  genuine 
material  Israel  is  represented  as  having  done  wrong  and  is  therefore 
threatened  with  punishment,  here  Israel  has  been  wronged  by  the  na- 
tions and  it  is  they  that  are  to  be  punished.  This,  however,  is  not  true 
of  vv.  <•',  for  not  a  word  occurs  in  them  charging  Philistia  with  having 
injured  Judah.  The  same  kind  of  argument  would  also  eliminate 
Am.  I'-s-  »-8-  13-16  2'-3,  which  are  quite  generally  accepted  as  genuine. 
Just  as  Amos  believed  that  Philistia  would  suffer  in  the  general  destruc- 
tion about  to  be  wrought  either  by  the  people  of  Urartu  or  by  the  As- 
syrians, so  Zephaniah  includes  her  in  the  universal  devastation  he  an- 
ticipates. The  prophets  were  men  of  broad  vision,  not  limited  in  their 
range  of  interest  and  observation  by  a  provincial  horizon.     They  saw 

*  There  is  no  good  reason  for  including  this  line  with  the  rest  of  the  verse  as  a  late  addition, 
as  is  done  by  Wkl.,  Marti,  van  H.. 

t  So  We.,  Preuschcn,  Now.,  Wkl.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Fag.,  Stk.,  Du.,  Kent. 
J  On  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  phrase,  v.  Preuschen,  ZAW.  XV,  1-74. 


2  221 

the  history  of  their  own  people  against  the  background  of  world-history. 
Not  one  of  them  looked  upon  his  nation  as  a  thing  apart  from  the  world's 
life.  Amos,  Jeremiah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Ezekiel  and  others  proph- 
esied the  downfall  of  nations  other  than  Israel.  Zephaniah  cannot  be 
denied  prophecies  of  the  same  sort,  unless  there  be  other  evidence  against 
them  than  the  simple  fact  that  they  are  directed  against  non-Israelites. 
What  the  relations  between  Philistia  and  Judah  were  in  the  days  of  Josiah 
we  do  not  know,  nor  does  Zephaniah  tell  us  anything  upon  that  subject, 
unless  I'  be  an  allusion  to  Philistine  influence.  But  if  Zephaniah  looked 
for  disaster  to  overwhelm  the  whole  of  western  Asia,  no  special  cause 
would  be  needed  for  a  threat  hurled  against  the  Philistines. 

The  argument  for  treating  w.  •■'  as  the  conclusion  of  ch.  i  is  uncon- 
vincing {contra  Hi.,  GASm.,  Bu.,  et  al.).  The  first  chapter  is  complete 
as  it  stands.  Moreover,  the  'o  of  2'  needs  some  antecedent  material  as 
a  basis  and  this  is  supplied  by  2'  '•.  The  chief  reason  for  combining 
w.  '-^  with  the  preceding  rather  than  the  following  context  lies  in  the  ex-^ 
traneous  material  incorporated  in  this  sectibn  which  makes  close  con- 
nection with  vv.  *  ff-  difficult.  The  treatment  of  this  material  as  late 
removes  this  difficulty. 

1.  ^Z'^p^  Yi^V^pnn]  ®,  <rvvax9vre  Kal  ffvvS^drjre;  so  &.  <S'<'=-  »•  HP. 
62,  86,  95,  147,  185  have  the  variant,  o-ufSe^^ijre.  S,  <Tv\\4yr]T€  (Tivere 
(probably  an  error  for  <tvvlt€).  U,  convenite  congregamini.  Many  mss. 
have  rap\,  without  1,  which  is  the  normal  writing  of  this  form;  v.  Baer. 
Che.  (Proph.  of  Is.  on  Is.  29';  but  abandoned  in  CB.),  la'nns'B'onn;  so 
Gr.,  Bu.  {SK.  LXVI,  396),  BDB.,  Now.k,  Dr.,  Fag.,  Bew.  (JBL. 
XXVII,  165),  Kent.  Hal.  w^m  ^vvM<nr\.  Siev.  iru'ipn^i  inp.  An- 
other suggestion  is  ib'iT  •ii?^ipnn  Ss,  deriving 'n  from  1/  irrp  'be  hard '  and 
'p  from  1/  na>p.  Van  H,  '\\^p^\  irrpnn  (or  iB^'pi)'  Both  of  the  forms  in 
M  are  air'.  For  similar  combinations  of  Qal  and  Hithpo.,  v.  Is.  29' 
Hb.  I*.  The  derivation  of  the  vb.  remains  doubtful.  Some  would  make 
it  a  denominative  from  Tffp_,  'stubble,'  meaning  'to  gather  stubble,  sticks, 
etc.';  but  when  so  used  the  obj.  b»p  ,|3n  or  o-'isy  always  accompanies  it, 
— a  fact  which  seems  to  point  to  the  vb.  itself  as  having  only  the  simple 
meaning  'collect,'  'gather.'  In  any  case,  the  vb.  cannot  be  here  used 
denominatively.  Van  H.'s  reading  connects  it  with  -j/  tt'ip  or  '•yp,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Arabic  (j^Ls  =  'mensuravit';  but  the  resulting  sense 
is  hardly  satisfactory  enough  to  warrant  the  necessary  change  in  point- 
ing involved.  Mau.  attaches  it  to  rip  (=  Arabic  {jMy3)  and  renders 
'  bend  yourselves ' ;  but  no  such  vb.  occurs  in  Heb.  and  the  Arabic  vb., 
as  Dav.  points  out,  is  a  denominative,  meaning  not '  bend '  but '  be  bow- 
shaped'  or  'be  curved  in  the  back.'  Stei.  suggests  1/  crp,  connected 
with  rivp,  'be  hard.'  Ew.  proposes  the  Aram.  1/  vvp  =  'be  old,'  vnth  a 
supposed  primary  meaning  'be  withered,'  and  renders  'turn  pale.'     But 


222  ZEPHANIAH 

none  of  these  is  more  than  a  barren  conjecture,  providing  no  suitable 
meaning. — ID^j  n'^]  (S  t6  diraldevTov;  so  &.  13  non  amabilis.  Van  H., 
foil.  (6,  1D1J  nS.  Schw.  np.??  ><'^.  Bew.  (/.  c),  idj  nS  (|/  103).  The 
most  plausible  explanation  of  fH  is  suggested  by  GASm.,  viz.  Ara- 
bic ife5/in  classical  speech  =  'cut  a  thread'  or  'eclipse  the  sun';  but  in 
the  colloquial,  'to  rebulY,'  'disappoint,'  'j)ut  to  shame';  in  forms  IV 
and  VIII  it  means  'be  disappointed,'  'shy,'  or  'timid'  {v.  Spiro's  Arabic- 
English  Vocabulary).  This  meaning  as  possible  for  the  Heb.  is  sup- 
ported by  the  Aram.  >/  which  means  'lose  colour,'  'be  ashamed'  {v. 
Jerusalem  Targum  on  Nu.  i2'^  Ps.  35^  69').  Earth,  Etymologische 
Sludien,  61,  derives  it  less  easily  from  an  Arabic  ksf  =  'be  oppressed,* 
'afilicted.' — 2.  pn  m'^]  Rd.  p-iS  vnn,  tr.  the  letters  nn  (with  a  slight 
change  in  the  second)  to  precede  nS.  For  similar  transpositions,  cf. 
Am.  3'^  Sia  for  na'^;  Ho.  5',  >jni  for  r^"';  7'inDtt'i  fonna'D'';  10',  ni^^j? 
for  nSv;  I3"'-  ",  ^ns  for  n>N,  This  reading  accounts  for  all  the  ele- 
ments in  M,  does  away  with  the  rare  usage  of  an  inf.  cstr.  with  did  (found 
besides  only  in  Hg.  2"),  finds  an  exact  parallel  in  Is.  29^  {cf.  40'^),  is  pos- 
sibly supported  in  part  by  CS  &  {v.  i.),  and  yields  a  line  of  the  right 

length  and  structure.  (5  rov  yev4<r6ai,  v/xas;  similarly  &  ^ooiZ  P|^ 
Gr.  {Monatsschri/t,  1887,  p.  506),  n>nn  n*^.  Schw.  ii3-i2n.  We.  nS 
■vnn;  so  GASm.,  OortE">-,  Or.,  CB.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Siev.  (add- 
ing rp?).  Fag.  (om.  nS),  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent.  But  (i)  this  involves  the 
introduction  into  classical  Heb.  of  the  usage  n'^  aia^,  not  found  other- 
wise except  in  the  late  gloss  upon  this  passage,  which  immediately  fol- 
lows; (2)  it  does  not  satisfactorily  account  for  either  the  t  or  the  p  of  iJJ; 
(3)  it  yields  a  line  shorter  than  the  measure  set  by  the  context;  and  (4)  it 
is  by  no  means  certain  that  it  represents  the  text  that  lay  before  C5,  for 
the  inf.  construction  of  (g  suggests  M  in  its  present  form  in  that  -j/eviadai 
might  easily  be  the  rendering  of  m^  in  such  a  difl&cult  context.  The 
corruption  may  easily  antedate  (S.  Bew.  {I.  c),  pn  niSp  =  '  (before) 
the  appointed  time  is  at  an  end.'  Bu.  {SK.,  1893,  p.  396),  D.pj^n  nx'^n 
(using  first  letters  of  r^n^)-— '"^  1""==]  ^  ^^  ^"^^^  =  Vi?  °^  1'^?- 
Bew.  (/.  c),  01''  '\3vh  Y^^.  ''?•  The  only  possible  rendering  of  M  in  this 
context  is,  "like  chaff  a  day  has  passed  away";  but  this  is  altogether 
pointless.— 13>-]  <g  =  n?j;;so»ltg'ii;alsoGr.,  We.,  GASm.,  OortE™., 
Or.,  CB.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du..  Bu.  ibr.i.  Van  H 
nnr-.  Hal.  (using  foil,  sv)  an3J?.— Dv]  g-  1C  (gc.N.A.Q  HP.  48,  233  om.; 
so  Schw.,  Gr.,  We.,  OortE'"-,  CB.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Du.. 
0"  has  it  under  asterisk.  M  is  supported  by  (6^  HP.  22,  36,  40,  42,  51, 
62,  68,  86,  87,  91,  95,  97,  114,  147,  153,  185,  228,  238,  240.— nS  0103] 
Explicable  only  as  a  strengthened  negative,  Ges.  ^'"V;  nowhere  else  in 
the  list  of  fifty-one  occurrences  of  'a  is  a  second  negative  employed  with 
it.     The  accumulation  of  particles  is  characteristic  of  late  Heb.. — inn 


2'-"  223 

in]  05  6/377; V,  apparently  om.  in;  so  &.  Fag.  substitutes  Dv  of  the 
preceding  clause  of  M  for  'n. — is  or]  HP,  86,  147,  228  =  is  |nn  di\ 

3.  Mj;]  Kenn.  139,  251  •'n>';  cf.  Ehr.,  '5;:;  so  Fag.. — ic'n]  (&  om.  and 
renders  'd  as  imv.;  so  ^;  but  this  is  scarcely  in  accord  with  the  position 
of  'd. — ^^yo]  Gr.,  iS^n^n. — lao'^::]  (S  Kplfxa.  S  adds  oi>toO  under  as- 
terisk.— |"ns  icpa]  (&^  Kal  SiKaio(Tvv7)v  irpaor.  .  .  .  HP.  36,  97,  228 
marg.  om.. — nijp  vj'pa]  (S  /cal  diroKplveffde  oirrd  =  nij^n,  HP.  22, 
51,  62,  86,  95,  147,  185,  240  support  M. — '•>  cn]  Marti  isn,  om.  '■>;  so 
Siev.. — 4.  n3ir;-]  (g  SitipTraatxivr).  HP.  62,  147  Stecnrocr/u^j'T;;  86,  95,  185 
Siea-irapfx4v7j.  Aq.  S  9  iyKaraXeXeiix^pr]. — nic-ij"']  (S  iKpKpT^crerai  = 
cnjn;  so  Schw..  Kenn.  30,  89  n;nj\  Gr.  nmi:'\  Bacher  (Z^llF.  XI, 
185/.),  foil.  Abulwalid  Merwan  ibn  Ganah,  ^^vy\  Schw.  {ZAW.  XI, 
260/.),  niB'n.;--'.— 5.  Son]  Wkl.  AOF.  Ill,  232  /..  Sop;  c/.  Assy,  iwa 
jfeaJa/  tamtim.  Only  here  and  in  v.  «  is  'n  used  with  Di;  elsewhere  it  is 
D'H  rin,  e.  g.  Dt.  i^  Je.  47'. — ''u]  (&  Trdpoi/coi  =  ••■ij.  Siev.  •>in. — a^nir] 
(S  KpT)TU}v.  Aq.  S  0  E'  H  all  treat  it  as  a  common  noun  and  connect 
it  with  1/  mj,  'cut,'  e.g.  'destroyers,'  'destruction,'  etc..  Ed.  Meyer, 
Die  Israeliten  und  ihre  Nachbarstdmme,  221,  suggests  the  possibility  of 
this  and  ■'13  being  survivals  of  the  name  'Zakkari'  borne  by  allies  and 
kinsmen  of  the  Philistines  in  the  twelfth  century  B.C.;  so  also  Che.  EB. 
699  /..  But  the  total  loss  of  an  initial  consonant  from  a  form  with  a 
doubled  middle  radical  is  very  improbable  and  without  parallel. — 
D3>^;]  Schw.  y^i;  so  We.,  Preuschen  (ZAW.  XV,  32),  GASm.,  Now., 
Stk.,  Kent.  But  the  address  is  in  reality  to  the  Philistines  as  a  people 
rather  than  to  the  land. — ]';:d]  Bew.  (/.  c),  n;^!  1;,  'for  will  be  afHicted.' 
— inx]  S  =  inxL — i\-ii3Nni]  (g  =  d.3 — ;  but,  as  Schw.  has  shown, 
'•>  pxD  always  foil,  a  local  designation,  never  a  personal  one;  hence  M  is 
preferable.  Siev.  om.  1.  Now.  'nT??<^'V  Bew.  nimoNni  (?). — pN-] 
An  intensified  negative  in  a  circumstantial  clause  expressing  result. 

6.  npini]  Rd.  n^nr,  so  Sta.  (in  SS.),  Marti,  Now.k  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du., 
Kent.  Oort^"-  n'>ni,  Siev.  "'n'^Dni.  Bach,  would  derive  from  Aram. 
npN  and  make  it  =  nxoi;  but  this  conjectxire  has  no  redeeming  fea- 
tures, 'n  might  be  retained  as  referring,  with  a  change  of  person,  to 
the  foregoing  'd  inx;  but  the  change  of  text  is  simpler. — 2^ri  S^r,]  Om. 
as  a  correction  of  'n  in  v.  ';  so  d  and  Schw.,  We.,  Sta.,  Preuschen  (/.  c), 
Dav.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Dr.,  Fag.,  Stk.,  Roth.,  Du., 
Kent.  Aq.  t6  (rxoi-vLo-fM  ttjs  upaiSrtjTos.  S.  t6  irepifieTpov  [^]  t6 
irapdXwv.  Bach,  njrn  a-in. — nu]  01  vo/xri.  H  requies.  Now.  n.iJ.  Dr. 
n;ij;  so  Fag..  As  here  written,  the  form  is  &v.;  elsewhere  mNj.  If 
M  is  correct,  the  form  furnishes  a  significant  hint  as  to  the  force  of  1 
in  pronunciation  (Schw.).  An  analogous  exchange  between  n  and  1  is 
well  knowTi  in  Aram.;  cf.  e.  g.  inNi  and  |''1't  (Dn.  2^8)  and  3Na  for  3'3 
in  Elephantine  Papyri,  C,  2  (Sayce  and  Cowley).  The  syntax  here,  with 
'j  as  the  first  of  two  cstrs.  both  defined  directly  by  o^pn  is  diflBcult.   'j 


224  ZEPHANIAH 

is  not  a  simple  predicate  (there  being  no  case  in  OT.  of  a  plural  pred. 
connected  with  a  sg.  subj.  by  the  copula),  but  an  ace.  after  a  vb.  of  be- 
coming, r^^n  here  being  equivalent  to  S  n^n  (Schw.). — nia]  Om.  with 
B  as  a  variant  of  nu;  so  Bohme  (ZAW.  VII,  212),  Schw.,  SS.,  Gr., 
Dav.,  Oort^"'-,  Marti,  Siev.,  Dr.  (?),  Now,",  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent. 
<S  KpT^T?;;  so  &.  Bach,  niani  (for  'a  'j).  Ew.  derives 'a  from  AT.,wkr, 
going  over  into  wkn,  whence  j?  =  'nest';  hence  'a  =  'huts,'  'cots'  (so 
GASm.,  Kent).  But  every  step  of  this  process  is  at  fault.  To  take 
only  the  last — ]p  has  no  connection  with  wakana,  but  comes  from  pp, 
which  in  Assy.  =  'coil,'  'curl  up'  {v.  Johnston,  JAOS.  XXIX,  224  ff.). 
The  usual  derivation  of  '2  is  from  n-u  'dig';  but  since  vb.  is  common 
(15  occurrences),  it  would  be  strange  that  this  should  be  the  only  oc- 
currence of  the  noun.  Hi.,  foil,  by  Hal.,  traces  it  to  la  =  'pasture'  {cf. 
Assy.  kirH  =  'grove'),  but  the  pi.  of  na  is  ana  (Ps.  37^"'). — 7.  Van]  Rd. 
D''n  San,  as  in  v. «,  with  (&  #;  so  We,  Preuschen  {ZAW.  XV,  32), 
Wkl.  {AOF.  Ill,  232/.),  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  van  H.,  Roth.,  Fag.,  Du.. 
&"  supplies  a^n  under  asterisk.  Gr.  SuJ  (?).  Oort^™-  om..  Schw. 
suggests  om.  and  reading  nn^m  for  nvni.  The  absence  of  the  art.  points 
to  the  cstr.  with  en  om.  by  error.  iSI  can  only  be  rendered,  "and  it  shall 
be  a  portion  for  the  renanant,  etc.,"  the  subj.  being  the  'n  of  v.  ',  there 
treated  as  fem.,  but  here  as  masc. — an^Sp]  Rd.  D'^n  Sj?;  so  We.,  Preu- 
schen, GASm.,  OortEm-,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Siev.,  Or.,  Stk.,  Roth., 
Kent.  Bach.  D^Sjg.  Van  H.  on  vSj;.  Now.  and  Marti  tr.  '1  D'n  hy 
and 'ui  <naa. — 'i^  anya  pV|i-j'N  >naa]  <&  adds  6iwb  irpoawirov  uIw^'IoWo; 
so  &"  but  with  lovBa  under  asterisk.  (&^  has  the  added  phrase,  but  under 
an  obelus;  HP.  133,  om.  all  of  it.  GASm.  supposes  <&  to  represent  a 
remnant  of  a  lost  line.  For  anjra,  Schw.  suggests  jnpi'a;  Gr.  0">'j?3a(?); 
CB.,  an^a.  Marti  om.  pSpcK  as  a  later  addition  and  reads,  mjnna 
'ui  I'.IJJ  or  liniaina;  so  Now.^.  Siev.  om.  'n  'naa  and  adds  "intjr  after 
'■>\  Fag.  om.  'n  and  reads  o^naa. — omatt']  Qr.  =  oniai?;  so  the  standard 
text  in  Nu.  2i»»  and  perhaps  Ez.  16";  elsewhere  \  is  offered  as  Kt.  in 
eleven  passages  (with  1  as  Qr.)  and  as  Qr.  in  three  passages  (w'th  1  as 
Kt.).  The  frequency  of  the  ace.  cog.  in  Heb.  %vours  a  derivation 
from  aia*  rather  than  naa';  but  an  ace.  of  similar  sound  may  be  chosen 
for  the  sake  of  assonance  where  there  can  be  no  thought  of  an  ace.  cog.; 
e.  g.  Ps.  107",  •'noN  '^'\'a'r[;  Nu.  2418,  ynn'.  vxn;  Is.  2"-  ".  Vinh  Y^V^;  Ez. 
17*0^  ''Of  1  ^OV'lo'i. 


225 


§  5-    THE    DIVINE    VENGEANCE    UPON    MOAB    AND 
AMMON  (2«-"). 

In  a  single  str.  of  six  lines,  the  attitude  of  Moab  and  Ammon 
toward  Judah  in  her  calamity  is  recalled  and  the  dire  destruction 
of  both  people  is  foretold  (w,  ^-  ®).  Later  hands  have  expanded 
the  oracle  and  made  it  foretell  the  world-wide  dominion  of  Yah- 
weh  (vv.  """).     The  entire  section  belongs  to  the  postexilic  age. 

T  HAVE  heard  the  reproach  of  Moab  and  the  revilings  of  the  children  of  Ammon, 
Wherewith  they  have  cast  reproach  upon  my  people  and  vaunted  themselves 

against  their  border. 
Therefore,  as  I  live — it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel — 
Surely,  Moab  shall  become  like  Sodom  and  the  children  of  Ammon  like  Go- 
morrah, 
A  land  overrun  by  weeds  and  salt-pits  and  a  desolation  for  ever. 
The  remnant  of  my  people  shall  prey  upon  them  and  the  remainder  of  my  na- 
tion shall  take  possession  of  them. 

The  oracle  against  Moab  finds  parallels  in  Am.  2^"^  Is.  15,  16 
Je.  48  Ez.  25^*^-  and  that  against  Ammon  in  Am.  i^^^^^  Je.  49*-® 
Ez.  25^"^;  but  they  are  coupled  together  as  partners  in  sin  only 
here. — 8.  /  have  heard]  Yahweh  speaks.  Perhaps  the  language 
here  was  suggested  by  Is.  16^  {cf.  37^);  but  there  is  not  the  slight- 
est groimd  for  supposing  the  whole  oracle  to  have  been  borrowed 
from  Isaiah  and  Amos.* — The  reproach  0/  Moab  and  the  revilings 
of  the  Ammonites]  The  taunts  meant  are  probably  those  resented 
in  Ez.  25^-  ®-  ®  Je.  48^^-  ^°.  The  fall  of  Jerusalem  furnished  occa- 
sion for  all  the  foes  of  Judah  to  exult  over  her  and  apparently  they 
did  not  fail  to  improve  the  opportunity  to  the  full;  cf.  Ez.  35^^ 
Ob.  ".  The  conduct  of  Moab  toward  Israel  had  been  character- 
ised by  insolence  and  arrogance  on  at  least  one  occasion  in  the 
early  history  (2  S.  10^,  cf.  Is.  25").  Tradition  and  history  doubt- 
less treasured  many  other  recollections  of  indignities  and  hostil- 
ities endured  by  Israel  at  the  hands  of  her  neighbours  on  the  east; 
cf  Ju.  3''-"°  ii'-'- ''-''  12^-3  I  S.  II,  14'^  2  S.  8^-  =*•  '^  10-12,  2  K. 
3^  ff-  13'*'  24"  Am.  i^^^'  2'-^  2  Ch.  20*  26"  27'  Je.  49^  ^•.  But  it  is 
absurd  to  attribute  the  prophet's  anger  here  to  the  offences  re- 

*  Contra  de  W.,  Ew.. 


226  ZEPHANIAH 

corded  in  Nu.  22-25.*  The  prophets  were  too  vitally  concerned 
with  the  problems  of  their  own  age  to  be  harbouring  resentment 
or  threatening  chastisement  upon  foreigners  for  crimes  that  had 
been  outlawed  for  centuries. — Wherewith  they  have  reproached  my 
people  and  vaunted  themselves  against  their  border]  This  spirit  of 
revenge  for  injuries  done  to  Judah  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
broad,  humanitarian  feeling  of  Amos,  whose  denunciations  of  for- 
eign nations  were  based  primarily  upon  their  excessive  cruelty  in 
the  violation  of  great  human  laws  and  customs,  rather  than  upon 
the  mere  fact  that  they  had  injured  the  prophet's  own  people  (cf. 
Am.  i^-  ^-  '^  2').  The  latter  half  of  this  line  is  somewhat  ambigu- 
ous and  has  been  subjected  to  various  interpretations.  A  com- 
mon view  has  seen  in  it  a  charge  that  these  foes  have  sought  to  en- 
large their  own  territory  at  the  expense  of  Israel  and  Judahf  (cf. 
Am.  i"  Is.  15^  ^-  and  the  Mesa  stone).  The  verb  is  better  taken, 
however,  in  the  sense  'enlarge  the  mouth,'  i.  e.  boast,  taunt  (cf. 
Ez.  35^^  Ob.  '-  Is.  37^^)  at  the  expense  of  Judah. |  This  is  the 
meaning  called  for  by  the  parallelism,  by  the  interpretative  gloss 
in  V.  "  and  by  the  use  of  the  same  idiom  elsewhere,  viz.  Jb.  19^ 
Ps.  35^"  38^*  55^^.  The  fact  that  elsewhere  the  idiom  is  always 
connected  with  persons  is  not  suflScient  reason  for  doubting  the 
suitability  of  'border'  as  an  object  here,  for  the  number  of  its  oc- 
currences is  too  small  to  afford  a  basis  for  a  general  rule.§  Mai. 
i^  shows  that  the  idiom  is  susceptible  of  wider  usage. 

9.  Therefore,  as  I  live — it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh  of  hosts,  God 
of  Israel]  "Since  he  could  swear  by  none  greater,  he  sware  by  him- 
self" (Heb.  6^^) .  The  doom  of  Moab  and  Ammon  is  announced  in 
the  most  solemnly  impressive  terms. — Surely,  Moab  shall  become 
like  Sodom  and  the  Ammonites  like  Gomorrah]  A  simile  suggesting 
at  the  same  time  the  depth  of  their  depravity  and  a  sudden,  awful 
and  total  destruction  through  the  outpouring  of  Yahweh's  wrath. 
The  fate  of  these  cities  is  constantly  referred  to  in  both  OT.  and 
NT.  as  furnishing  a  fearful  example,  e.  g.  Dt.  29^  Is.  1°  13*®  Je.  23" 
49'«  50""  Lam.  4"  Am.  4"  Mt.  lo^^  Lk.  lo^^  r^i^  ^20  ^  p^^  2".— 
A  land  abounding  in  weeds]  These  two  Hebrew  words  are  obscure 

•  Contra  van  H..  t  So  Hi.,  Mau.,  Or.,  Dav.,  Now.,  Dr.. 

t  So  Schw.,  G.-\Sm.,  Marti.  §  Contra  We.. 


2'  227 

in  meaning  (1;.  i.).  The  first  one  is  found  nowhere  else  in  He- 
brew, nor  is  any  light  thrown  upon  it  by  the  Vrss.  or  the  cognate 
languages.  The  second  is  found  in  Pr.  24^^  Jb.  30^;  from  the  first 
reference  it  is  clear  that  weeds  in  general  or  of  some  special  vari- 
ety are  meant,  while  the  second  requires  some  kind  of  a  shrub  or 
bush  or  a  species  of  weed  tall  and  thick  enough  to  furnish  conceal- 
ment for  a  man.  With  that  for  a  starting-point,  we  can  conjecture 
the  meaning  of  the  first  word  as  'a  place  overgrown'  or  something 
of  the  kind. — And  salt-pits]  This  picture  of  desolation  is  suggested 
by  the  region  about  the  Dead  Sea,  where  the  ground  is  covered 
with  incrustations  of  salt;  cf.  Ez.  47".  Salt  is  frequently  employed 
in  OT.  as  a  symbol  of  sterility  and  ruin  (Dt.  29-^  Je.  17^  Jb.  39^  Ps. 
107^^).  The  Hebrew  word  is  in  the  singular  number  here  and, 
unless  used  collectively,  would  mean  that  the  entire  land  is  to  be- 
come a  salt-pit.  The  reference  may  be  either  to  pits  into  which  the 
waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  are  admitted  in  order  that  they  may  evap- 
orate, leaving  their  deposit  of  salt,  or  to  salt-mines  such  as  are 
found  along  the  south-western  shore  of  the  Sea,  where  the  Jebel 
Usdum,  the  base  of  which  is  a  ridge  of  rock-salt,  c.  200  feet  in 
height,  extends  for  five  miles.  Cf.  Lynch's  description  of  the 
north-western  shore.  "The  scene  was  one  of  unmixed  desolation. 
.  T .  Except  the  cane-brakes,  clustering  along  the  marshy  stream 
w^ich  disfigured,  while  it  sustained  them,  there  was  no  vegetation 
whatever;  barren  mountains,  fragments  of  rock,  blackened  by  sul- 
phureous deposit,  and  an  unnatural  sea,  with  low,  dead  trees  upon 
its  margin,  all  within  the  scope  of  our  vision  bore  a  sad  and  sombre 
aspect.  We  had  never  before  beheld  such  desolate  hills,  such 
calcined  barrenness.7  * — And  a  desolation  for  ever]  This  adds  the 
finishing  touch — the4uin  is  for  all  time. — The  remnant  of  my  peo- 
ple shall  spoil  them  and  the  remainder  of  my  nation  shall  take  pos- 
session of  them]  This  step  is  not  conceived  of  as  following  the  de- 
structive scene  just  portrayed,  but  rather  as  simultaneous  with 
and  supplementary  to  it.  The  reference  now  is  to  the  peoples 
themselves  rather  than  their  land.  Judah,  so  long  a  sufferer  at 
their  hands,  will  in  the  great  day  to  come  strip  them  of  all  they  pos- 

*  Narrative  of  the  United  States'    Expedition   to   the   River  Jordan  and  the   Dead  Sea 
(1849),  275- 


228  ZEPHANIAH 

sess  and  reduce  them  to  servitude;  cj.  Is.  14^  61^.*  This  seems  a 
more  natural  interpretation  than  that  which  makes  the  suffix  refer 
to  the  lands  in  question  and  explains  the  apparent  inconsistency 
of  plundering  and  possessing  a  wasted  wilderness  as  due  to  the 
idealistic  character  of  the  prophetic  utterance. f 

10.  This  will  he  their  lot  in  return  J  or  their  arrogance,  because 
they  cast  reproach  and  vaunted  themselves  against  the  people  of 
Yahweh  of  hosts]  This  is  a  supplementary  gloss.  J  It  is  an  appli- 
cation of  the  lex  ialionis  on  a  large  scale;  cf.  Ob.  ^^  ^•.  The  height 
of  the  offence  of  these  nations  is  that  they  have  dared  to  set  them- 
selves against  Israel's  God;  cf  Je.  48='«-  '^  i  S.  ly^*'-  ''•  '\  The 
pride  of  Moab  was  evidently  a  prominent  national  characteristic; 
cf.  Is.  16'  Je.  48^^. — 11.  Yahweh  will  be  terrible  against  them]  For 
a  similar  conception  of  Yahweh's  awe-inspiring  might,  cf.  Ps. 
66^  89^  96^  Mai.  i".  In  its  present  position,  the  suffix  must  refer 
to  the  two  nations  denoimced  in  vv.  *•  ^.  Some  interpreters  con- 
sider the  verse  out  of  its  place, §  but  it  is  better  handled  as  a  later 
addition  to  this  context.**  The  preposition  may  be  rendered 
either  "over  them,"  i.  e.  in  judgment,  or  "against  them,"  i.  e.  in 
attack,  d's  reading,  "Yahweh  will  appear  over  them,"  is  at- 
tractive, but  not  sufficiently  so  to  displace  iH. — For  he  will  make 
lean  all  the  gods  of  the  earth]  Here  the  poor  connection  with  the 
oracle  on  Moab  and  Ammon  is  revealed.  The  terror  exercised 
over  those  two  nations  hardly  finds  a  satisfactory  origin  in  the  fact 
that  Yahweh  destroys  the  gods  of  other  peoples.  The  language 
used  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  writer's  belief  in  the  reality  of 
the  heathen  gods;  this  may  easily  have  been  his  highly  figurative 
way  of  describing  the  coming  downfall  of  idolatry  the  world  over. 
Similarly  realistic  terms  are  used  in  the  denunciation  of  idols  by 
writers  who  certainly  looked  upon  them  as  mere  nonentities,  e.  g. 
Is.  19*  46*-  ^  Ps.  135^;  cf.  Ez.  30^^    The  verb  used  is  in  itself  imam- 

*  So  Hi.,  Marti,  Dr..  t  E.  g.  Dav.,  van  H.. 

t  Its  late  origin  is  defended  by  all  those  cited  as  assigning  vv.  «•  '  to  a  late  date.  But  in 
favour  of  the  separation  of  this  as  a  gloss  upon  the  foregoing  oracle  may  l)c  cited:  Marti,  Siev., 
van  H.,  Fag.,  Stk.. 

§  So  Hal.  who  places  it  after  2",  while  Buhl  (ZAW.  V,  182)  places  it  with  3'. 

♦♦So  Sta.ovi.,  644,  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Sicv..  van  H.;  others  treat  vv.  »>•  as  a  unit 
all  of  which  is  equally  late,  so  e.  g.  Oort  {Godgel.  Bijd.  186),  Schw.,  We.,  Bu.  (SK.  1893,  pp. 
394  ff.).  Fag.,  Stk.,  Du.,  Kent. 


2^0-  "  229 

biguous  {cf.  Is.  lo^®  17*  Mi.  6^°  Ez.  24^°) ;  but  its  appropriateness  as 
applied  to  gods  is  doubtful.  If  the  text  is  correct,  the  point  of  the 
figure  lies  either  in  the  thought  that  by  destroying  the  nations  Yah- 
weh  will  enfeeble  their  gods,  whose  existence  is  bound  up  with  that 
of  the  nations  worshipping  them;*  or  in  the  fact  that  in  earlier 
times,  sacrificial  offerings  were  looked  upon  as  the  "  food  of  the 
gods"  {cf.  Ez.  44');  hence,  by  causing  the  offerings  to  cease,  Yah- 
weh  will  deprive  the  gods  of  their  means  of  support. — And  there 
shall  how  down  to  him,  each  from  his  place,  all  the  shores  of  the 
nations]  This  vision  of  the  world-wide  acceptance  of  Yahweh  as 
God  of  the  nations  far  transcends  the  reach  of  faith  in  Zephaniah's 
time  and  indelibly  stamps  the  verse  as  later;  cf.  Mi.  4^"'*  Mai.  i" 
Zc.  14®.  This  representation  of  the  heathen  as  worshipping  Yah- 
weh is  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  announcement  of  their  destruction 
which  follows  immediately  in  vv.  ^^^•.  It  is  unnecessary  to  sup- 
pose that  the  writer  conceives  of  the  various  peoples  as  undertak- 
ing pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  ;f  the  preposition  '  from '  means  only 
'from  the  stand-point  of,'  i.  e.  in  or  at  his  own  place;  cf.  Ps.  68^®.t 
'Each'  applies  not  to  individuals,§  but  to  the  various  nations  or 
lands  constituting  the  inhabited  world.  For  the  idea  of  the  lands 
as  worshipping  Yahweh,  cf.  Ps.  66*.  '  Place '  in  itself  might  mean 
'sanctuary'  like  the  Ar.  maqdm;**  but,  the  reference  being  to 
each  nation,  it  is  hardly  likely  that  the  wrijter  would  think  of  them 
all  as  having  concentrated  their  worship  at  one  sanctuary  in  each 
land,  like  the  Jews. 

This  oracle  offers  a  distinct  change  in  the  metre  from  the  qina  of  the 
previous  section.  The  movement  is  clearly  hexameter  and  is  fairly 
smooth  and  regular.  It  is  adhered  to  even  in  some  material  (v.  ")  later 
subjoined  to  the  original  poem. 

That  w.  '"•  "  form  no  part  of  the  original  oracle  is  shown  as  regards 
v.  'o  by  the  fact  that  it  merely  repeats  what  has  already  been  better  said 
in  V.  '  and  that  it  descends  to  plain  prose.  V.  "  reveals  its  alien  origin  in 
the  character  of  its  contents  and  in  the  fact  that  it  breaks  away  from 
the  consideration  of  Moab  and  Ammon  into  a  prediction  of  universal 
dominion. 

*  So  e.  g.  Hi.,  Ke.,  Now..  t  Contra  Rosenm.,  de  W.,  Ke.,  KI.,  We.. 

%  So  Hi.,  Mau.,  Hd.,  Schw.,  Or.,  Dav.,  Dr..       §  Contra  Ew.,  Hi.,  Dav.,  van  H.. 
**  So  GASm.. 


230  ZEPHANIAH 

The  oracle  against  Moab  and  Ammon  even  cannot  be  assigned  to 
Zephaniah,  but  must  be  held  to  have  come  from  a  later  day;  so  Oort, 
Codgeleerde  Bijdragen,  1865,  pp.  812/.;  Schw.;  We.;  Bu.  SK.  LXVI, 
393  ff->  Cor.;  Sm.,  244;  Nov/.;  GASm.;  Baud.,  Einl.;  Marti;  CB.\ 
Siev.;  Beer;  Fag.;  Stk.;  Du.;  Kent.  The  considerations  which  have 
brought  so  many  interpreters  to  this  view  may  be  summarised,  (i)  The 
marked  difference  in  rhythm  from  the  context  on  both  sides  indicates 
diversity  of  authorship.  (2)  The  oracle  against  Philistia  in  w.  <-'  is 
more  naturally  followed  by  one  against  Egypt  (v.  "),  the  immediate 
neighbour  of  Philistia,  than  by  one  against  Moab  and  Ammon  on  the 
eastern  border  of  Judah.  Moreover,  if  Zephaniah  had  in  mind  a 
devastation  to  be  wrought  by  the  Scythians,  as  seems  probable,  it  is 
hardly  likely  that  he  would  switch  the  line  of  march  of  their  invading 
host  suddenly  away  from  the  sea-coast  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  Jordan. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Scythians  seem  to  have  confined  their  operations 
in  Palestine  to  the  coast.  (3)  The  conduct  of  Moab  and  Ammon  here 
denounced  was  that  in  which  they  indulged  when  emboldened  by  the 
disasters  that  befell  Judah  at  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity;  cf. 
Ob.  vv.  'o-u.  No  such  feeling  as  this  is  manifested  by  the  prophets 
against  Moab  and  Ammon  in  any  earlier  period.  (4)  The  expressions, 
'remnant  of  my  people '  and  'remainder  of  my  nation  '  are  used  in  such 
a  way  as  to  presuppose  the  exile  as  an  existing  fact  at  the  time  when 
this  oracle  was  written. 

8.  7'2-\r\'\  (&  pi.;  so  Schw.;  but  iK  is  preferable  even  though  the  co- 
ordinate noun  here  is  pi.;  for  out  of  a  total  of  more  than  seventy  oc- 
currences of  'n,  the  pi.  is  used  only  three  times  in  all,  twice  in  the  abs. 
and  once  in  cstr..  For  other  cases  of  sg.  and  pi.  conjoined,  v.  Is.  51'  Je. 
2"  Pr.  26*^. — y^riy  >J3}  So  always;  never  simply  '>;  while  it  is  always 
3X1D,  never  'd  'J3  (so  also  o-\n).  On  the  other  hand,  either  '^s-it:"  or 
''  •'J3  ,DnN  or  'n  •'J3.  Similar  peculiarities  appear  in  Ar.  (We.). — iSnj''] 
CB.  uvS',— oSnj]  <S  &"  =  •'Soj;  so  Schw.,  Now.,  Marti  (?),  Hal., 
Fag..  But  the  change  is  unnecessary  since  the  collective  antecedent  'Dj; 
furnishes  sufBcient  basis  for  a  pi.  sf.. — 9.  pare]  <S  Kal  Ad/xa<rKos,  wholly 
imcalled  for  in  this  context.  B  sicciias,  which  affords  no  light.  ^  and 
was  destroyed,  perhaps  conjectured  from  the  context.  Gr.  v^iap  or 
D\:r.p|-);  so  Now..  Marti  c*-i.  d  (Is.  14");  so  Roth..  Van  H.  ircpr, 
'place  of  weeds,'  a  denominative  from  cicp.  'c,  a  air.,  is  usually  ren- 
dered 'possession,'  'place  of  pxjssession,'  which  is  traced  to  P^o  (Gn. 
15');  but  the  latter  word  is  as  doubtful  as  this  (cf.  (6  MaaeK).  Reliable 
witness  to  the  meaning  of  a  is  entirely  lacking;  we  can  but  conjecture. — 
'r'y-yn]  Q»  iKXeXipL/i^vr]  =  ns-in  (Schw.).  IS  spinarum.  ®  V^'^'^l-  'n 
was  probably  some  rank  kind  of  weed,  growing  profusely  on  wild  and 
neglected  ground.  The  Syr.  equivalent  {hurla)  means  a  kind  of  horse- 
fodder,  some  species  of  vetches. — "njoi]  (&  wj  ^j/uwwct;  clearly  a  guess; 


2"""  231 

cf.  IS  et  acervi.  Ehr.  n">tci;  so  Fag..  Another  &ir.,  but  evidently 
from  \/  ^^3,  'dig';  whether  it  denotes  natural  or  artificial  caves  and  pits, 
or  may  be  used  of  both  kinds  is  uncertain. — n'7c]  <S  dXnivot,  probably  an 
inner-Greek  error  for  a\6s  (so  Aq.  2  6)  under  the  influence  of  Oifjiuvid. 
Now.  ni'7C,  'salt-wort'  or  'mallow'  (Jb.  30');  so  Marti,  Roth.  (?);  this 
goes  well  as  a  parallel  to  'weeds'  or  'vetches,'  but  is  wholly  out  of  place 
with  m jc,  if  '  pit '  or  '  cave '  be  the  true  sense  of  the  latter.  On  basis  of  (B, 
Hal.  reads  the  whole  phrase,  "  Damascus  shall  be  a  pirrn  of  thorns  and 
Edom  a  pit  of  salt,  etc.."  Schw.  questions  '12  'di  Snn  as  a  possible  cor- 
ruption of  nn^Di  n-i-:>n;  cf.  Je.  176. — aitai]  Gr.  Dua^.C?)- — ''i-']  Rd.  '>^iJ, 
with  all  the  Vrss.,  25  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.,  and  practically  all  inter- 
preters.— 10.  To  om.  iSnjM]  and  mxas]  solely  mtr.  cs.  (so  Now.'^;  cf. 
Siev.),  when  there  is  no  evidence  that  this  verse  was  ever  in  metrical 
form  is  an  arbitrary  method  of  procedure.  It  is  noteworthy  that 's  oc- 
curs in  Zephaniah  only  here  and  in  v.  '. — 0;]  (B^-^-^-Q  A  S»"  and  HP. 
48,  153,  233  om.. — ni>s3x]  #  adds,  'against  Israel,'  an  explanatory  gloss. 
— 11.  Niij]  ^^  iTri(pavTfi<T€Tai;  50  &.  (^^*  iwL(pavf}s  iarai.  Hence  Buhl 
(ZAW.  V,  182),  riKy.  B  horribilis  (similarly  ®). — ^^^  >a]  Rd.  ■'^ 
"n;,  with  Schw.  (or  r\v\);  so  Dr.,  Roth.  (?).  05  Kal  i^oKedpiicrei;  so 
&.  ?!  et  disperdet.  H  et  attenuabit.  Gr.  n-^r;  so  Fag..  CB.  ni3^ 
Now.  nnj^  (?).  Marti,  I'On  or  tdv  An  impf.  is  better  than  a  prophetic 
pf.  here;  and  the  Pi'el  is  necessary  since  the  Niph.  and  the  Ar.  equiv- 
alent seem  to  point  to  the  Qal  as  an  intransitive.  We.  says,  "  'n  is 
impossible  and  nrni  scarcely  right."  But  all  attempts  to  substitute 
another  vb.  thus  far  have  involved  too  radical  a  departure  from  iJ3. 
— •'nSx]  (S  Toi>s  deoiii  tGjv  idvuiv;  so  ^^.  0  om.  twv  id'.  &  =  oSd;  so 
Gr.. — ic]  For  the  sense '  from  the  stand-point  of,  in,  at,'  cf.  n^.^D  ,S-iod  .rr*?, 
3?.i?"  (V.fCj  etc.. — •'Vn]  Originally  'coasts,'  'islands';  but  later  designating 
countries  as  a  whole  (e.  g.  Is.  41' • «),  pars  pro  toto. — aMjn]  ^  =  the  seas, 
but  probably  an  inner  Syr.  error  of  j^*^  -  for  j'^'^v 

§  6.    THE  DOOM  OF  ETHIOPIA  AND  ASSYRIA  (2*'-^'). 

In  another  single  str.  of  six  lines,  Zephaniah  marks  the  southern 
limit  of  the  Scythian  invasion;  then,  returning  to  the  opposite  ex- 
treme of  the  world-empire  of  his  day,  annoimces  the  downfall  of 
Assyria  and  describes  in  detail  the  desolation  of  Nineveh. 

VOU,  too,  O  Ethiopians,  are  the  slain  of  my  sword. 

And  he  will  stretch  out  his  hand  against  the  north  and  destroy  Assyria; 
And  will  make  Nineveh  a  desolation,  a  drought  like  the  desert. 
And  herds  will  lie  down  in  the  midst  of  her,  every  beast  of  the  field. 
Both  pelican  and  porcupine  will  lodge  in  her  capitals. 
The  owl  will  hoot  in  the  window,  the  raven  on  the  threshold. 


232  ZEPHANIAH 

This  str.,  now  standing  alone,  perhaps  once  formed  the  close 
of  the  poem  beginning  in  2' . — 12.  You,  too,  O  Ethiopians]  The 
Ethiopians,  dwelling  south  of  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile  are 
threatened  with  punishment,  in  all  probability  because  the  fact 
that  they  had  ruled  Egypt  from  about  720  to  654  B.C.  was  still 
fresh  in  Zephaniah's  mind.  A  native  Egyptian  dynasty  had  se- 
cured possession  of  the  throne  once  more  only  about  twenty-five 
years  before  the  time  of  Zephaniah.  As  a  distant  and  powerful 
people  in  the  extreme  south  (3^°  Is.  11"  18^  ^-  Ez.  38'^),  the  Ethi- 
opians are  contrasted  with  the  Assyrians  in  the  far  north.  It  may 
be,  of  course,  that  Zephaniah  sarcastically  addresses  the  Egyp- 
tians themselves  by  this  name,  because  of  their  long  subjection  to 
Ethiopia. — Are  the  slain  of  my  sword]  Cf.  Ju.  f^  Is.  27^  34^  66** 
Je.  25^  Ez.  21"-  '^^•.  Zephaniah  probably  thought  of  the  Scyth- 
ians as  destined  to  bring  destruction  upon  those  southern  peoples. 
The  representation  of  the  Scythians  as  the  sword  of  Yahweh  {cf. 
Is.  10^)  recalls  the  later  designation  of  Attila  the  Hun  as  "the 
scourge  of  God."  The  prophet's  expectation  failed  of  fulfilment, 
for  the  Scythians  were  turned  back  at  the  border  of  Egypt.  Egypt 
suffered  no  serious  setback  till  Necho  was  defeated  at  Carche- 
mish  in  605  B.C.  by  Nebuchadrezzar.  Her  complete  overthrow 
was  not  accomplished  until  the  reign  of  Cambyses,  the  Persian, 
in  525  B.C.,  about  a  century  after  the  time  of  Zephaniah.  The 
prophet  is  almost  certainly  announcing  a  future  calamity  rather 
than  recording  Egypt's  actual  condition  when  he  spoke,  and  his 
oracle  is  probably  incomplete;  v.  i.. — 13.  And  he  will  stretch  out 
his  hand  against  the  north  and  destroy  Assyria]  Cf.  Is.  5^  9*"-  *^-  ^* 
10^  14^^  ^•.  As  the  greatest  political  power  of  the  time,  Assyria  is 
fittingly  reserved  to  the  last,  as  a  climax  to  the  series  of  judgments. 
Her  sins  were  too  well  knowoi  to  Zephaniah's  audience  for  them 
to  need  recapitulation  here. — And  will  make  Nineveh  a  desolation, 
a  drought  like  the  desert]  From  the  days  of  Sennacherib  on  down  to 
Zephaniah's  time  Nineveh  had  been  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  and  the  queen  city  of  the  world.  Her  reputation  was  world- 
wide and  grew  with  the  passing  years;  cf.  Jon.  i"  3^  ^"  4".  To  pre- 
dict her  speedy  downfall  was  an  exercise  of  undaunted  faith.  The 
devastation  with  which  Zephaniah  threatened  her  was  even  more 


212-14  233 

terrible  than  that  announced  as  impending  over  the  Philistine 
cities,  for  Nineveh  was  to  be  swallowed  up  wholly  by  the  desert. 
Such  a  condition  as  is  here  described  would  involve  the  drying  up 
of  the  Tigris,  which  ran  along  the  south-west  side  of  the  city,  and 
also  of  the  Khusur  which  skirted  the  north-west  side.  An  exten- 
sive system  of  canals  conveyed  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  within 
the  walls.  Gardens  and  orchards  accordingly  flourished.  But 
prophecy  knew  no  limits  to  the  power  of  Yahweh. 

14.  And  herds  will  lie  down  in  the  midst  of  her]  On  the  face  of 
things,  it  seems  a  bit  incongruous  for  herds  to  be  feeding  in  a  region 
'dry  as  the  desert';  but  the  foregoing  figure  pictured  the  complete 
destruction  of  the  city,  while  this  adds  to  that  picture  the  detail 
of  the  place's  total  desertion  by  man  (r/.  2^). — Every  beast  of  the 
field]  i.  e.  every  kind  of  animal.  For  the  text,  v.  i..  M  literally 
says,  "every  beast  of  a  nation."  A  common  interpretation  of 
this  is  as  an  abbreviated  form  of  'every  beast  of  every  kind';*  but 
there  is  no  clear  case  of  such  an  abbreviation,  nor  is  there  any  evi- 
dence that  'nation'  may  mean  'kind'  or  'sort.'  Others  interpret 
it  of  beasts  that  form  groups,  i.  e.  gregarious  animals  ;t  still  others, 
"all  beasts  in  crowds"  ;t  and  Davidson,  "Nineveh  shall  be  a  com- 
mon pasture  for  every  tribe  of  people."  But  these  all  force  the 
Hebrew  beyond  the  straining-point.  Hence,  We.  emends  to  "a 
motley  medley  of  mixed  people,"  which  does  not  satisfy  the  con- 
text at  all,  while  others  would  change  to  "every  beast  of  the 
swamp," §  forgetting  apparently  the  violent  conflict  thus  occa- 
sioned with  the  preceding  statement  regarding  the  drought  of 
the  region. — Both  pelican  and  porcupine  will  lodge  in  Jier  capitals] 
The  carved  heads  of  Nineveh's  many  columns  will,  for  the  most 
part,  be  lying  broken  upon  the  ground  and  defiled  by  being  made 
to  serve  as  perches  and  nests  for  unclean  birds  and  vermin.  The 
exact  meaning  of  the  two  words  rendered  'pelican'  and  'porcu- 
pine' is  in  doubt.  The  first  i3  rendered  'chameleon'  by  (g  and 
'cormorant'  by  H.  In  Lv.  11'*  Dt.  14",  it  is  classed  among  the 
unclean  birds;  in  Ps.  102^,  it  is  parallel  to  'owl'  and  is  made  an  in- 
habitant of  the  wilderness;  in  Is.  34",  it  is  included  among  birds 

*  So  e.  g.  Hi..  t  So  e.  g.  Rosenm,  de  W.. 

t  Mau.,  Ew.,  Ke.,  RVm..  §  Hal.,  van  H.,  Dr.  (?). 


234  ZEPHANIAH 

and  is  represented  as  frequenting  desolate  regions.  It  is  evidently, 
therefore,  some  kind  of  wild  bird  found  in  solitary  wastes.  The 
only  objection  to  'pelican'  is  that  as  a  consumer  of  fish,  it  would 
scarcely  be  found  in  a  region  'dry  as  the  desert';  perhaps,  poetic 
license  is  equal  to  this.  The  'porcupine'  is,  in  Is.  14^,  associated 
with  marshy  ground  and,  in  34",  with  desolate  regions  as  here. 
We  do  not  look  for  porcupines  in  marshes;  nor  are  they  addicted 
exclusively  to  desolate  places;  nor  should  we  expect  them  to  be 
associated  with  birds  as  in  Is.  34"  and  here.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  meaning,  'porcupine'  or  'hedgehog'  is  assured  for  this 
word  in  Syr.,  Ar.  and  Eth.,  The  alternative  rendering  'bittern,' 
which  finds  many  followers,  has  no  support  in  the  Vrss.  nor 
in  the  cognate  tongues. — The  owl  will  hoot  in  the  window,  the 
raven  on  the  threshold]  Owls  and  ravens  are  fit  occupants  of 
desolation;  cf.  Is.  34"  Ps.  102^.  In  the  picture  of  the  raven  at 
the  door,  Zephaniah  anticipated  Poe's  Raven.  M.  as  usually 
rendered  is,  "their  voice  shall  sing  in  the  windows;  desolation  (or 
drought)  shall  be  in  the  thresholds."  But  the  second  half  of  the 
sentence  presents  a  strange  collocation  of  circumstances;  and  the 
first  half  introduces  a  pronoun,  necessary  to  the  sense,  which  is 
not  present  in  M-  The  translation  here  adopted  has  the  support 
of  d>. — For  cedar-work  has  been  laid  bare]  This  fragment,  which 
has  no  relation  to  the  immediate  context,  is  probably  either  due 
to  corrupt  dittog.  from  the  following  line,*  or  is  a  misplaced 
gloss  on  'famish'  in  2".f — 15.  This  is  the  exultant  city  that  dwelt 
in  security]  In  the  regular  elegiac  rhythm,  a  stanza  of  triumph 
over  Nineveh  now  fallen  was  here  appended  to  the  original  oracle 
by  some  pious  reader.  The  phraseology  of  this  verse  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence;  v.  Is.  22^  23'  32"  47^-  ^^. — Saying  in  her  heart, 
"7  am  and  there  is  none  else."]  Nineveh  had  long  dwelt  supreme. 
Not  till  within  the  quarter-century  preceding  Zephaniah's  ap- 
pearance had  Assyria  received  any  serious  check  in  her  career  of 
world-conquest.  Judah  itself  had  been  vassal  for  a  half-century. 
The  book  of  Nahum  reflects  the  relief  and  satisfaction  of  the  Jews 
when  the  tyrant's  fall  became  inevitable. — How  has  she  become  a 

♦  So  Buhl  (Z/llK.  V,  182),  Schw.  (?),  Now.  (?),  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent  (?). 
1  So  Mara. 


2---  235 

niin,  a  lair  for  the  wild  beast]  Cf.  Je.  50'^  5 1*^  Her  destruction  was 
complete.  Xenophon,  passing  the  site  in  B.C.  401,  was  able  to 
learn  only  that  a  great  city  had  once  occupied  the  spot  and  had 
been  destroyed  because  Zeus  had  deprived  its  inhabitants  of  their 
wits.* — Every  one  who  passes  by  her  hisses  and  shakes  his  Jisi] 
Indicative  of  openly  expressed  scorn  and  fearless  rage.  The 
gesture  is  not  elsewhere  mentioned;  cf.  i  K.  9^  Je.  19^  49"  50" 
Ez.  2f^  Jb.  2f'  La.  2''  Ps.  22^ 

The  qina-Thythm  is  resumed  in  this  str.,  and  this  fact  lends  force  to  the 
view  that  in  reality  this  section  is  only  a  continuation  of  §  4,  which  is 
composed  in  the  same  measure.  Moreover,  the  course  of  the  Scythian 
invasion  led  through  Philistia  on  to  Egypt  and  the  writer  would  natu- 
rally follow  that  course  in  his  description  of  the  destruction  wrought  by 
them.  It  is  then,  at  least,  not  improbable  that  2'-'  was  once  continued  by 
2"  «•;  so  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Stk.,  Du.,  Kent. 

The  foregoing  considerations  also  support  the  view  that  this  section 
is  from  the  hand  of  Zephaniah  himself;  so  Schw.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti, 
Dr.,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Stk.,  Du.,  Kent.  It  evidently  anticipates  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh  and  was,  consequently,  written  prior  to  that  event.  The 
historical  situation  thus  indicated  seems  to  accord  with  the  opinion  that 
Zephaniah  wrote  this  section.  The  argument  of  Bu.  (SK.  1893,  pp. 
394/.;  so  also  Theiner,  and  Eich.,  Einl.*,  IV,  417)  for  the  later  origin  of 
this  oracle  is  by  no  means  conclusive.  His  first  objection  to  the  early 
date  is  that  Assy,  is  here  treated  without  any  reference  to  her  relation  to 
Israel  and  thus  the  oracle  lacks  any  inner  connection  with  the  situation 
and  differs  widely  from  Is.  10.  But  surely  the  prophets  were  not  mere 
copyists  or  venders  of  second-hand  goods.  Nor  was  it  essential  that 
they  should  always  furnish  an  invoice  of  the  injuries  inflicted  upon 
Israel  by  a  foe;  cf.  Am.  2'-'.  Knowledge  of  these  on  the  part  of  the  audi- 
ence might  sometimes  be  taken  for  granted.  The  second  consideration, 
viz.  that  the  phraseology  is  late,  concerns  chiefly  v.  '^,  the  late  origin  of 
which  must  be  granted;  v.  i.. 

The  fact  that  Nineveh  still  stands  furnishes  a  terminus  ad  quern  not 
only  for  this  oracle,  but  also  for  the  work  of  Zephaniah  as  a  whole.  The 
actual  fall  of  Nineveh  at  the  hands  of  the  Medes  occurred  in  607-606 
B.C..  At  what  particular  stage  of  the  long  struggle  that  preceded  her 
overthrow  Zephaniah  pronounced  this  sentence  upon  her,  we  cannot  tell 
with  certainty.  But  if,  as  seems  probable,  these  verses  constitute  a  part 
of  the  prophecy  beginning  in  2',  we  shall  have  to  place  it  in  connection 
with  the  movements  of  the  Scythians,  about  627-626  B.C.. 

*  Anabasis,  bk.  Ill,  ch.  IV,  10-12. 


236  ZEPHANIAH 

The  oracle  as  found  in  M  is  apparently  not  in  its  original  form.  It  is 
more  than  likely  that  v.  '=  is  only  the  beginning  of  what  was  once  a  more 
or  less  extended  judgment  upon  Egypt;  so  Schw.,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev., 
van  H.,  Roth..  It  is  scarcely  probable  that  Zephaniah  would  devote  rel- 
atively so  much  more  space  to  the  Philistines  than  to  the  Egyptians, 
when  the  latter  people  were  second  only  to  the  Assyrians  in  influence 
and  power  among  the  nations  of  western  Asia.  It  may  be  that  the 
course  of  the  Scythians  in  accepting  ransom  and  tribute  and  possibly 
repulse  from  Egypt  and  in  returning  from  her  border  without  doing  her 
any  serious  injury  ran  so  diametrically  counter  to  the  prophet's  expecta- 
tions that  the  remainder  of  the  original  prophecy  was  in  glaring  contra- 
diction to  the  facts  and  was  therefore  dropped.  In  compensation  for 
this  loss,  an  editor  has  added  v.  '^  Its  later  origin  is  revealed  by  its  al- 
most hackneyed  phraseology  and  by  the  fact  that  it  looks  upon  the  de- 
struction of  Nineveh  as  a  fait  accompli;  so  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Beer,  Fag., 
Roth.,  Du.. 

12,  OHN-DJ]  Gr.  joins  with  v.  ". — S'S'i:]  Gr.  'j:.  Siev.  adds  1^0.7. 
— oin]  &  om.  sf.;  so  3  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  2  of  de  R..  Schw.  '■>  3"i.n;  so 
GASm.,  Du..  We.  uin;  so  Oort^™-,  Now.,  Roth.,  Kent. — r^vr^]  Om. 
with  one  ms.  of  Kenn.;  so  Marti,  Now."^,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Stk..  The  Vrss. 
do  not  definitely  recognise  its  presence,  though  they  all  take  the  sentence 
as  declarative  rather  than  vocative.  The  usage  as  in  M  is  without  close 
analogy  in  OT.,  since  when  the  pronoun  is  used  as  here  to  strengthen  a 
pronominal  subj.  it  always  follows  that  subj.  immediately;  e.  g.  2  S.  7^' 
Is.  37"  Ps.  44^  The  same  usage  is  common  in  Syr.  (No.  Syr.  Gram- 
mar, §221)  and  in  Bibl.  Aramaic  (Ezr.  5")-  The  position  given  'n  here 
is  that  customary  with  nominal  subjects;  e.  g.  Gn.  34"  42"  Mai.  i'^. — 
13.  n>  a>i]  Rd.  n'  n^v,;  so  We.,  van  H..  CgXc.b.A.Q.r.  ^  and  HP. 
23,  26,  40,  42,  49,  62,  68,  86,  87,  91,  97,  106,  147,  153,  198,  228,  233, 
310  =  ''V  na.Nv,  so  3,  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Stk..  The  foregoing  sources 
for  the  most  part  retain  ist  pers.  all  through  verse.  Ew.  cm.  M  calls 
for  the  rendering,  "and  may  he  stretch  forth";  but  this  gives  a  dif- 
ficult connection  with  v.  '<.  As  the  text  stands,  we  should  expect  the 
pf.  with  waw  consec.  in  v.  ■'  as  in  v.  ",  but  the  received  text  is  hard  to 
account  for  on  the  supposition  that  that  was  the  original  text.  Another 
possibility  would  be  to  treat  them  as  impf.  with  waw  consec.  continuing  a 
prophetic  pf.  in  the  portion  of  the  text  now  missing  (so  Ew.);  but  that  is 
rendered  difficult  by  ix3-m  in  v.  '*.  The  simplest  procedure  is  to  point 
the  forms  as  impf.  with  simple  waw;  cf.  Ges.  ^""'^.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  attempt  to  secure  adherence  to  the  same  person  throughout  this 
oracle,  for  the  probability  of  a  hiatus  after  v.  '^  allows  room  for  the  in- 
troduction of  a  natural  change  of  person  in  the  material  now  lost. — 
^ai:::]  C  =  'ca. — 14.  a^-iiv]  We.  D'3-<;,  'Arabs.'  Stk.  om.. — '^2]  (6  & 
B  =  S31. — ••m]   Om.   as   corrupt  dittog.  of  the  foil,  oj  and  insert  -T" 


2---  237 

with  (5  31  and  de  R.  20;  so  Now.,  Others  prefer  V"?.!<7  to  nr;  so  Gr., 
Marti,  Siev.,  Roth.,  Stk.,  Kent.  (B  cm.  'j  and  adds  t^s  7^s;  so  21, 
with  N"!^  =  'field.'  Oort^""-  om.  '.1  and  changes  preceding  word  to 
abs.  nin.  Bach.  D)n,  'swamp.'  Hal.  N'^,  'valley';  so  van  H.,  but 
with  the  meaning  'swamp';  cj.  Dr..  The  use  of  'j  in  M,  is  abnormal. 
The  phrase  mj  Sd  niSs  Sj  (2  Ch.  32'^;  c/".  Ez.  17^'  443")  is  no  real  analogy 
for  the  proposed  correction  mj  So  'n  S3,  where  'j  =  'sort'  or  'kind'; 
for  in  2  Ch.  32'5  'j  retains  its  original  sense,  'nation'  or  'people'  and 
though  it  is  perfectly  natural  to  speak  of  the  'gods  of  the  nations,'  it  is 
not  so  apparent  why  the  animals  should  be  conceived  of  as  classified 
along  national  lines.  We.'s  proposal  to  resolve  the  problem  by  giving 
H'ln  the  sense  of  'group'  or  'family,'  as  perhaps  in  2   S.  23"-  "  Ps. 

68"  74"  {cf.  Ar.   -^)  is  untenable,  since  the  resulting  sense  does  not 

accord  with  the  preceding  ';'  1x311;  it  also  calls  for  'x  in  the  pi.. — nnnDoa] 
§  in  its  houses.  (5  iv  toTs  (parvio/jiaffiv. — pSna  Tiii:'i  Sip]  Rd. '3  '1  D^:;; 
so  We.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent,  (g  Kal 
6-qpla  (pwv-^aei  iv  Tois  diopiyfiaffiv  avrijs.  H  vox  cantantis  in  fenestra. 
Kenn.  112  (?),  245,  Tn:ri;  4,  ■nia'\  Schw.  suggests  that  -\-\w  represents 
the  name  of  a  bird,  e.  g.  iri  or  '\^^r.',  the  latter  is  adopted  by  Now.,  Hal., 
Dr.  (?),  being  joined  to  the  preceding  word  by  1.  Bach.  '3  ii^ie*  'p. — 
1D3  3in]  Rd.  37J;,  with  (5  K6paKes  iv  toTs  irvXuxriv  aCirijs;  so  Ew.,  Schw., 
Gr.,  We.,  Bach.,  GASm.,  OortK""-,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Siev.,  Fag., 
Roth.,  Du.,  Kent.  (S^*  HP.  228  om..  H  corvus.  Aq.  S  g>  =  3-in. 
— my  nnx  >3]  (5  dion  K^8pos  t6  dvdffrrjpM  ((S-*,  a.vTO.Wa'yiJ.a)  aiiTrjs. 
3  quoniam  attenuabo  robor  ejus  (=  niy).  &  because  its  root  is  laid 
bare,  perhaps  an  inner  Syr.  error  of  oii_a^  for  a  HgS  (Seb.).  Bach. 
'^'J?.  ^^1V.  ''2>  'for  one  has  laid  bare  shame.'  OortE""-  substitutes  ncNi 
for  the  whole  clause.  Ew.  treats  nnx  as  vb.  in  3d  pers.  Hiph.  -\/ 
7\]-\;  so  Hi.,  We. (?).  The  utt.  7\\-\h  might  be  pointed  nnx.  If  M  is 
correct,  niy  is  best  taken  with  indefinite  subj.  as  equivalent  to  the 
passive. — 15.  C5  connects  this  verse  with  ch.  3. — pni]  31  om..  Gr. 
nxtn;  so  Roth.. — nriSyn]  ^fortified;  similarly  ®. — idbn]  So  Is.  478-  i". 
Best  treated  as  analogous  to  ''jp  and  '>nSir  {cf.  Ges.  ^  'oi  and  152)^  Wi^h 
so-called  paragogic';  for 'n  elsewhere  takes  no  sf.,  nor  does  it  have 
the  meaning  'besides,'  which  the  addition  of  the  sf.  requires. — T3i::]  (& 
vop.-^. — pTi"]  ^  and  Kenn.  145  =  piJ"  Dr\  Bab.  Cod.  ca*'  originally, 
but  corrected  to  pT^';  so  de  R.  1092. — it"]  (g  =  vj\ — &  adds  at  end 
of  verse,  icni. 


238  ZEPHANIAH 


§  7.    THE    SIN    OF   JERUSALEM    AND    THE    RIGHT- 
EOUSNESS   OF   YAHWEH  (3^-^). 

An  incomplete  prophecy  of  which  only  two  full  strs.  and  part 
of  a  third  remain.  Str.  I  charges  Jerusalem  with  disobedience 
and  faithlessness  to  Yahweh  (vv.  *•  ^).  Str.  II  arraigns  the  offi- 
cials responsible  for  the  political,  judicial  and  religious  welfare 
of  the  city  (vv.  ^-  '').  Str.  Ill  sets  in  contrast  with  the  foregoing 
the  justice  and  faithfulness  of  Yahweh  (v.  ').  To  this  fragment 
are  loosely  attached  two  other  fragments  (vv.  ®-  '),  having  no  inti- 
mate connection  with  that  which  precedes  them. 

A  LAS,  O  defiant  and  defiled  one,  the  oppressing  city! 

She  has  h"stened  to  no  voice,  she  has  accepted  no  correction. 

In  Yahweh  she  has  not  trusted;  to  her  God  she  has  not  drawn  near. 
UER  princes  within  her  arc  roaring  h'ons. 

Her  judges  are  evening  wolves;  they  have  left  nothing  till  the  morning. 

Her  prophets  are  reckless,  men  of  treachery. 

Her  priests  have  profaned  the  holy;  they  have  done  violence  to  instruction. 
VAHWEH  is  righteous  within  her;  he  will  not  do  wrong. 

Morning  by  morning  he  establishes  his  justice;  light  fails  not. 

Str.  I  contains  three  lines  addressed  to  Jerusalem  and  charging 
her  with  rebellion  against  Yahweh. — 1.  Alas,  O  defiant  and  defiled 
one,  the  oppressing  city  I]  That  Jerusalem  is  the  one  thus  character- 
ised is  shown  by  v.  ^.  The  grounds  for  the  charge  are  given  in 
vv.  ^^;  cf.  Is.  i^'.  The  city's  attitude  toward  Yahweh  is  here  in- 
dicated, together  with  her  standing  in  his  sight  and  her  attitude 
toward  the  weak. — 2.  She  has  listened  to  no  voice;  she  has  accepted 
no  correction]  This  charge  is  repeated  almost  verbatim  in  Je.  7^*. 
Jerusalem  has  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  voice  of  God  as  it  has 
spoken  through  the  prophets.  This  is  a  frequent  accusation ;  cf. 
Je.  7^  ^-  11^-  ^  f-  22^'  Zc.  7^-'l  The  'correction'  referred  to  is  the 
chastening  afHictions  sent  upon  the  city  of  Yahweh,  which  failed 
to  turn  the  stubborn  and  rebellious  people  from  the  errors  of  their 
ways.  Cf.  Am.  4°-". — In  Yahweh  she  has  not  trusted;  to  her  God 
she  has  not  drawn  near]  The  implication  is  that  Jerusalem  has 
had  recourse  to  everything  and  everybody  but  Yahweh.  Horses 
and  chariots,  foreign  powers  and  foreign  gods  have  been  her  re- 


3'"*  239 

liance  rather  than  Yahweh,  who  alone  can  help  her.  Unwavering 
faith  in  Yahweh  was  always  demanded  of  Israel  by  the  prophets; 
cf.  I  K.  18^'  Is.  f  Ho.  4''  5'  Jos.  24^^  This  lack  of  faith  was  the 
inevitable  result  of  Jerusalem's  refusal  to  hearken  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  prophets,  her  religious  teachers. 

Str.  II  characterises  the  four  leading  classes  in  Jerusalem's 
civic  and  religious  life  and  furnishes  specific  illustrations  of  the 
general  proposition  laid  down  in  Str.  I. — 3.  Her  princes  within 
her  are  roaring  lions]  Those  who  should  shepherd  the  people  are 
themselves  devouring  them;  cf.  i^^-  Mi.  2^  Zc.  ii^-  ^  Pr.  28^^. — 
Her  judges  are  evening  wolves]  (^  has  'wolves  of  Arabia';  others 
suggest,  'wolves  of  the  Arabah'  {cf.  Je.  5^^);  butM  is  better,  since 
'evening'  is  brought  into  contrast  with  'morning'  of  the  following 
phrase;  cf.  Hb.  i^.  Wolves  are  in  the  habit  of  prowling  by  night 
in  search  of  prey.  Judges  are  set  for  the  defence  of  the  rights  of 
the  weak;  but  with  wolfish  greed,  these  seek  their  substance;  cf. 
Mi.  3"  Is.  i^^  Ez.  22^^. — They  have  left  nothing  till  the  morning]  A 
characteristic  of  the  rapacity  of  wolves  which  fittingly  illustrates 
the  temper  of  these  dishonest  officials.  This  translation  is  adopted 
from  0^  and  B,  but  is  without  other  support,  save  that  it  suits  the 
context  well.  The  meaning  of  the  verb  elsewhere  is  'gnaw'  or 
'crunch  bones';  but  the  negative  here  makes  that  meaning  alto- 
gether inappropriate.  The  phrase  may  be  descriptive  of  either 
the  wolves  or  the  judges;  but  in  the  present  uncertainty  as  to  its 
meaning,  it  is  impossible  to  decide  between  them.  The  same  im- 
certainty  renders  it  unwise  to  omit  the  phrase  as  a  gloss  as  some 
have  done.* — 4.  Her  prophets  are  reckless,  men  of  treachery]  This 
is  the  first  and  only  accusation  brought  against  the  prophets  by 
Zephaniah.  The  epithets  used  imply  a  wanton  disregard  of  Yah- 
weh and  his  moral  requirements.  The  prophets  of  past  genera- 
tions inculcated  faith  and  loyalty;  these  are  faithless  men;  cf. 
Mi.  2"  3^  ^-  ".  The  prophets  of  Israel's  higher  life  always  found 
themselves  in  conflict  with  another  class  of  prophets  whose  vision 
was  immeasurably  inferior;  v.  note  on  Mi.  3^. — Her  priests  have 
profaned  that  which  is  holy]  One  of  the  priestly  functions,  accord- 
ing to  Lv.  io^°,  was  "to  make  a  distinction  between  the  holy  and 

*  So  e.  g.  We.,  Marti,  Fag.. 


240  ZEPHANIAH 

the  common  and  between  the  unclean  and  the  clean."  There  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  this  function  was  not  one  of  the  earliest 
assumed  by  or  assigned  to  the  priests.  Zephaniah  probably  re- 
fers here  to  ritualistic  irregularities  which  reflected  a  criminal  care- 
lessness of  the  requirements  of  Yahweh  on  the  part  of  the  priests. 
— They  have  done  violence  to  instruction]  An  important  priestly 
function  was  that  of  delivering  the  judgment  of  Yahweh  in  cases 
of  doubt  and  dispute;  cf.  Dt.  17^"'^  2i'\  This  was  called  torah,  i.  e. 
'teaching'  or  'oracle,'  and  constituted  a  decision  by  the  court  of 
last  resort.  The  priests  evidently  sold  the  decision  to  the  highest 
bidder  and  so  brought  the  priesthood  of  Yahweh  into  disgrace  in 
the  eyes  of  all  right-minded  men.  They  prostituted  their  highest 
and  most  sacred  powers  to  the  accomplishment  of  selfish  and  base 
ends.  The  sensuousness  and  materialism  of  the  priesthood  al- 
ways constituted  a  most  serious  obstacle  in  the  path  of  the  true 
prophets;  cf.  Ho.  4"-^  5'  6^  Am.  7^°^-  Mi.  3"  Is.  28^  Jeremiah's 
estimate  of  the  priesthood  accords  with  that  of  Zephaniah;  cf. 
Je.  2«  5^»  6'^  14''. 

Str.  Ill  passes  over  to  a  consideration  of  the  character  of  Yah- 
weh as  it  is  manifested  not  only  in  his  dealings  with  his  people, 
but  even  in  the  regularity  of  the  course  of  nature. — 5.  Yaliweh  is 
righteous  within  her]  The  content  of  the  term  'righteous'  here  is 
at  least  partly  indicated  in  the  immediately  following  sentences. 
He  is  upright  and  reliable;  there  is  no  swerving  in  his  course  of 
action.  The  use  of  this  word  as  applied  to  Yahweh  is  not  neces- 
sarily an  evidence  of  the  late  origin  of  this  passage.  It  is  true  that 
the  thought  of  Yahweh  as  righteous  comes  into  prominence  first 
in  Is.  40_^.  {e.  g.  41'"  42"'  45^"-  ^*).  But  it  is  quite  improbable  that 
the  idea  burst  forth  suddenly  into  full  bloom;  there  naturally 
would  be  preliminary  stages  of  development.  Yahweh's  demand 
for  righteousness  on  the  part  of  his  people,  which  is  so  stronglv 
insisted  upon  by  Amos,  presupposes  righteousness  in  Yahweh  him- 
self. He  is  indeed  described  as  'righteous'  already  in  a  J  passage, 
viz.  Ex.  g",  and  the  same  epithet  is  employed  with  reference  to 
him  in  Dt.  32^  Je.  12*,  the  first  of  which  passages  is  probably  from 
about  the  same  time  as  Zephaniah. — lie  will  not  do  wrong]  This 
is  the  negative  side  of  the  preceding  positive  affirmation.     Un- 


3^-  '  241 

righteousness  or  injustice  on  Yahweh's  part  is  unthinkable. — 
Morning  by  morning  he  establishes  his  justice;  light  fails  not]  This 
is  a  concrete  illustration  taken  from  the  invariable  order  of  nature, 
which  was  recognised  by  the  prophets  as  the  order  of  God,  of  the 
absolute  and  unwavering  righteousness  of  Yahweh.  Just  as  he 
acts  with  unfailing  regularity  in  the  order  of  the  physical  universe 
so  likewise  does  he  in  the  moral  order;  cf.  Ho.  6''.  For  morning  as 
the  time  of  dispensing  justice,  cf.  Je.  21^^.  M,  as  rendered  in 
RV.,  reads,  "every  morning  (or,  morning  by  morning)  doth  he 
bring  his  justice  to  light;  he  faileth  not."  This  has  been  variously 
interpreted,  e.  g.  Yahweh  daily  manifests  his  justice  (i)  through 
the  protection  he  afifords  the  prophet,*  or  (2)  through  the  revela- 
tion of  the  rectitude  of  his  character  effected  by  the  temple-ritual 
and  the  teachings  of  the  prophets, f  or  (3)  by  the  fact  that  he  re- 
wards virtue  and  pvmishes  vice.|  But  the  Hebrew  of  M  cannot 
be  rendered  'bring  to  light,'  which  is  un-Hebraic;  it  can  only  be 
translated,  'he  establishes  his  justice  as  light.'  Yet  the  idiom 
'establish  justice  as  light,'  lit.  'give  his  justice  for  light,'  is  obscure 
in  meaning.  Moreover,  the  division  of  the  line  as  required  by  M 
brings  the  caesura  into  the  wrong  place.  Hence  the  slight  change 
of  text  here  adopted. — But  the  unjust  knows  not  shame]  This  is  a 
gloss  §  as  is  shown  by  its  superfluity  in  the  parallelism  and  by  the 
fact  that  the  context  is  not  contrasting  Yahweh  with  the  'unjust'  as 
a  class,  but  with  the  officials  in  particular  and  the  people  as  a  whole. 
Marti' s  attempt  to  save  the  line  by  an  emendation,  reading  'error 
is  unknown,'  does  not  aid  the  parallelism  and  involves  the  elision 
of  'shame'  as  a  gloss. 

Vv.  ^-  ^  have  no  relation  either  with  the  preceding  or  following 
context,  or  with  one  another.  They  are  isolated  fragments;  v.  i.. 
— 6.  /  have  cut  off  nations;  their  battlements  are  destroyed]  The 
perfect  tense  here  may  have  been  used  in  a  prophetic  sense,  "I 
will  cut  off,"  etc..  The  context  affords  no  aid  in  the  resolution  of 
that  doubt.  There  were  many  occasions  in  Israel's  history  when 
such  a  statement  might  have  been  made  as  historical  fact;  e.  g. 
after  the  Scythian  invasion,  or  after  the  victorious  career  of  Cyrus. 
There  were  even  more  occasions  when  prophets  longed  for  and 

*  Hal..  t  Ke.,  Hd..  t  Hi.,  Mau.,  Dr.,  el  al..  §  So  Schw.,  Du.,  el  al.. 


242  ZEPHANIAH 

predicted  such  victories  on  Yahweh's  part,  e.  g.  Je.  28'-  ■*•  '"•  ". 
Statements  concerning  the  nations  are  wholly  alien  to  this  context, 
which  is  concerned  solely  with  the  relations  between  Yahweh  and 
Judah.  The  nexus  usually  made  is  that  just  as  Yahweh's  ac- 
tivities in  the  course  of  nature  have  failed  to  influence  his  people, 
so  likewise  his  chastisements  of  foreign  nations  for  their  sins  have 
produced  no  effect  upon  Israel.  But  even  if  this  were  possible 
without  an  explicit  statement  to  that  effect  in  the  text,  yet  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  sudden  change  to  the  first  person  and  the  drop  to  the 
tetrameter  line  would  remain. — /  have  made  their  streets  desolate 
with  no  passer-by]  Schw.'s  proposal  to  render  'open  country' 
(as  in  Jb.  5^"  18^  Pr.  8^^  Ps.  144'')  instead  of  'streets,'  because 
streets  would  hardly  be  mentioned  before  the  towns  themselves, 
is  imreasonable.  The  prophets  were  not  fettered  by  logical  strait- 
jackets. — Their  cities  have  been  laid  waste,  so  that  there  is  no  man, 
no  inhabitant]  For  similar  pictures,  cf.  2^  Is.  5^  6"  Je.  9^"-  "  32^ 
33'°-  '^  Ez.  14^'.  The  phrase  "no  man"  is  probably  a  variant  of 
"no  inhabitant,"  since  the  one  renders  the  other  unnecessary  and 
the  metre  becomes  regular  when  one  is  omitted.* — 7.  /  thought, 
"Surely,  she  will  fear  me,  she  will  accept  correction"]  Yahweh 
is  evidently  recalling  his  former  thoughts  regarding.  Jerusalem. 
His  expectations  for  her  had  met  with  disappointment;  cf.  3^. 
M  and  the  Vrss.  have,  "thou  wilt  fear,  etc.";  but  in  view  of  the 
immediately  following  use  of  the  third  person  in  the  same  sentence, 
the  slight  change  necessary  to  produce  the  third  person  here  should 
probably  be  made. — ^^  And  there  will  not  be  cut  off  from  her  sight 
anything  that  I  have  laid  upon  her"]  i.  e.  Yahweh  had  hoped  that 
his  injunctions  had  been  so  deeply  engraved  upon  Jerusalem's 
mind  and  heart  that  the  memory  of  them  would  never  fade  away. 
For  this  sense  for  ^y  ipS ,  cf.  Jb.  36^  2  Ch.  36^  =  Ezr.  i\  For 
X.tx\.,v.i..  m  reads  "her  dwelUng"  in  place  of  "her  eyes";  but 
this  yields  a  wellnigh  impossible  sense.  The  usual  rendering,  as 
in  RV.,  "so  her  dwelling  should  not  be  cut  off,  according  to  all  that 
I  have  appointed  concerning  her,"  really  requires  a  change  of  text, 
since  it  involves  too  great  an  ellipsis;  for  the  itahcised  words  are 
not  present  in  fH.     Schw.  would  cut  the  Gordian  knot  by  drop- 

♦  So  Schw.,  Bach..  Marti.,  Hal.,  Now.s,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Stk.. 


3*"'  243 

ping  "all  that  I  have  appointed  concerning  her"  as  a  gloss.* 
— But  they  zealously  made  all  their  doings  corrupt]  They  deliber- 
ately, and  apparently  with  enthusiasm,  set  about  doing  the  exact 
opposite  of  that  which  Yahweh  required.  The  literal  rendering 
is  "they  rose  up  early  and  corrupted  all  their  doings";  this  figure 
is  found  elsewhere  only  in  Jeremiah  (eleven  times,  viz.  7"-  ^11^ 
24'  25'-  ■•  26'  29^'  32^  35"  44')  and  in  2  Ch.  36'\ 

The  measure  of  this  poem  is  irregular,  conforming  to  no  single  stand- 
ard. The  parallelism,  however,  is  very  regular;  hence  the  length  of  the 
lines  is  in  each  case  clearly  indicated.  The  gma-rhythm  is  found  in 
w.  «•  »b.  <b.  6;  while  vv.  '•  3»-  <»  have  lines  of  four  beats  each.  Str.  II 
is  brought  into  conformity  with  Str.  I  by  Marti  through  the  elision  of 
V^S  121J  nS  (v.  ')  and  nnja  >i:'jx  (v.  ");  so  also  Fag.  (c/.  Siev.).  But 
this  is  unnecessary  from  any  other  point  of  view  than  that  of  poetic 
form,  and  it  likewise  involves  placing  two  classes  of  offenders  in  one 
line,  while  a  full  line  is  devoted  to  each  of  the  other  classes.  Further- 
more, vv.  3b.  4 »^  as  they  stand  in  lU,  have  the  same  general  form  as  *^. 

That  the  oracle,  as  it  is  in  fll,  is  only  a  torso  is  practically  certain.  It 
is  shown  not  only  by  the  incomplete  character  of  Str.  Ill,  but  also  by  its 
failure  to  round  out  the  thought.  Strs.  I  and  II  denounce  Jerusalem 
and  its  leaders  for  sin  and  Str.  Ill  depicts  the  character  of  the  righteous 
God  in  contrast  to  his  wicked  city;  but  the  indispensable  conclusion, 
viz.  a  threat  of  punishment  upon  the  city,  is  wholly  lacking.  In  its 
place,  V.  »  opens  up  a  new  theme,  the  destruction  of  the  heathen  nations. 
For  this  reason,  Bu.  {SK.  1893)  would  place  v.  «  after  v.  ^.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  satisfactory,  for  it  forces  an  unwelcome  intruder  between  vv.  ' 
and  ',  which  are  intimately  interrelated,  and  the  resulting  connection  be- 
tween w.  '  and  '  is  little  better  than  that  between  w.  *  and  «.  For  in 
V  ',  the  prophet  speaks  of  Yahweh's  righteousness  and  uses  the  third 
person,  while  in  v.  '  Yahweh  himself  speaks  and  the  subject  is  the  city's 
wickedness  which  was  under  discussion  in  v.  '.  Vv.  «■  '  are  not  only 
out  of  place  where  they  are  located  in  M,  but  they  also  lack  any  mutual 
connection  of  their  own.  They  can  only  be  treated  as  two  separate 
fragments,  explicable  either  as  glosses,  or  as  torn  out  of  other  conte.xts 
wherein  they  originally  stood,  or  as  remnants  of  oracles  now  lost  to  us; 
cf.  GASm.  on  v.  ^ 

Some  interpreters  deny  3'-5  to  Zephaniah  and  place  it  somewhere  in 
the  exilic  or  postexilic  age;  so  Sta.'^^^,  644;  Schw.;  We.;  Marti;  Siev.; 
Beer(?);  Fag.;  Du..  But  the  evidence  cited  in  behalf  of  this  view  is 
hardly  convincing.  It  is  of  three  kinds,  (i)  linguistic,  (2)  late  parallels, 
(3)  a  different  conception  of  Israel's  sin  from  that  presented  in  i^  ^•.   The 

*  Similarly  Sipy,, 


244  ZEPHANIAH 

linguistic  argument  is  based  upon  nxj  ,Snj  ,  ny  ,  nisin  ,  pns  and  Sj?  ipE. 
But  with  our  present  sources  of  information  regarding  the  history  of 
Heb.  words  as  meagre  as  they  are,  no  confidence  can  be  placed  in  con- 
clusions based  upon  the  number  of  occurrences  or  the  character  of  the 
usage  of  such  words  as  these.  The  argument  from  parallel  passages  is 
to  the  efifect  that  this  oracle  reflects  the  same  social  and  religious  back- 
ground as  Mi.  7'-'  Is.  56*  "•  Ez.  22.  The  date  of  Mi.  7'-',  however,  is 
by  no  means  certain  {v.  ad  loc),  and  the  lapse  of  time  between  Zephaniah 
on  the  one  hand  and  Ezekiel  and  Is.  56  on  the  other  is  too  slight  to  war- 
rant the  conclusion  that  Zephaniah  could  not  have  held  such  sentiments 
as  are  here  expressed,  even  though  Ezekiel  and  the  author  of  Is.  56  ff. 
shared  them  at  a  later  period.  Nor  were  the  religious  and  social  con- 
ditions so  radically  different  in  Zephaniah's  time  as  necessarily  to  render 
his  utterances  widely  different  in  character  from  those  of  his  immediate 
successors.  The  third  argument,  that  the  charges  against  Jerusalem  are 
different  here  from  those  in  ch.  i,  is  certainly  true.  But  surely  no  prophet 
is  to  be  restricted  to  the  constant  reiteration  of  what  he  has  once  said. 
The  charges  are  exactly  such  as  might  be  expected  of  Zephaniah,  and 
indeed  they  do  breathe  forth  the  same  moral  indignation  as  that  which 
characterises  ch.  i.  Hence,  it  seems  the  part  of  caution  to  continue  to 
attribute  this  oracle  to  Zephaniah  until  more  convincing  testimony  to 
the  contrary  is  forthcoming;  so  e.  g.  Dav.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Bu.,  Dr., 
van  H.,  Roth.,  Stk.,  Kent. 

1.  nsiic]  A  n's  root  treated  as  a  n**?;  Ges.  ^"".  OJ  rj  iirKpavi^s;  cf. 
&,  the  well-known.  G  ij  aderova-a;  cf.  H  provocalrix.  Q[  '*'D!'0"',» 
'hasty.'  Bab.  Cod.  without  1;  so  many  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R..  Fag. 
r\-\ya.  Bach,  xyon  o\ — .T^njji]  =  n'l'^jji,  as  in  Is.  59'  and  often. 
This  is  perhaps  the  oldest  known  occurrence  of  this  weaker  form  of  the 
1/;  cf.  Mai.  I'.  The  anarthrous  form  of  this  and  the  preceding  prtc.  is 
not  sufficient  reason  for  making  them  predicates  (Schw.),  rather  than 
vocatives;  cf.  Ges.  ^"«'.  It  may  indicate  that  they  were  regarded  al- 
most as  appellative  proper  names  {cf.  Marti).  (&  Kal  dToXeKvTpufi^vTii. 
Schw.  rhvji.  Bach.  ^)^i':!\ — i^n]  Gr.  del.  n.  &  treats  ';  as  voca- 
tive, placing  it  at  beginning  of  the  verse  and  repeating  it  at  the  close  as  in 
m. — njrn]  ($  7)  irepiffTepd.  S  ij  dv67]Tos  &  of  Jonah. — 3.  nr-\x] 
<S  wy  V;  so  13  g*  {5. — 31;]  ®  t^s  'Apo^Siaj.  B  vespere;  so  g"  ®.  S 
iffirepivol.  Bach,  c]^;?,  as  in  Hb.  i«. — id-\j  n*^]  The  use  of  the  pf.  does 
not  justify  the  treatment  of  this  clause  as  a  gloss  (contra  We.,  Marti); 
all  the  vbs.  of  the  context  are  in  the  pf ..  The  pf .  here  is  used  as  a  gnomic 
aorist;  cf.  Ges.  ^  ""''.  In  Nu.  24',  'i  is  clearly  a  denominative  from  o-}i, 
meaning  'gnaw'  or  'crunch';  in  Ez.  23"  a  similar  sense  fits  poorly  and 
the  text  is  uncertain.  In  both  Ar.  and  S>t.  the  -[/  =  'cut  off'  and  the 
meaning  'leave  over'  found  in  the  Vrss.  is  not  far  removed  from  that. 
B    non   relinquebant.     ^   ovx    vweXlTrovro.     21    pD"!)"  n''.     Schw.    and 


3'"'  245 

Du.   om.   N^.     Bach.    -»,i:!^  ican  n'^.     Hal.   M3-\i  ti'?.     Roth,    wi';  n^. 

Several  interpreters  abandon  'j  as  hopeless;  so  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti, 

Fag.,    Stk.. — 4.    n^N>2j]    Gr.   n^s'^'j. — annc]    This   \/    in   its   various 

forms  always  denotes  a  human  characteristic,  viz.  Ju.  g*  Gn.  49*  and  in 

Je.  2352  where  it  is  applied  to  the  prophets  as  here.     (5  Trv€vimTo<f>6poL. 

Aq.  dafi^evrai.    "&  vesani. — nnja  fivm]  We  should  expect  either  a';:':s 

anja  or  nnja  'tf  jn.     The  ending  n"'  apparently  has  an  abstract  force 

here  =  to  m;  cf.  ni2K  and  Assy.  abiUu.     Marti  and  Fag.  om.  phrase 

as  gloss.     Siev.  om.  ■'•^'jx  and  reads  nja  with  'o  as  subj.,  all  the  re- 

niainder  of  v.  ■•  being  dropped. — lonn]    Gr.  IDNC. — 5.  n^]  (8  =  n'^i. — 

'2  -i|i33]  For  the  same  idiom,  with  distributive  force,  v.  Is.  50^  Ex.  i62> 

2  S.  13";  cf.  Ges  ^'23c,     (g  TrpwJ  7r/5w/.     H  wawe  mafie.     &  =  '221  '22. 

Roth.   om.  one  '22. — mN*?]  Schw.  makes  S  distributive   as  in  Am.  4' 

(g.  v.);  but  11X  is  never  used  as  a  synonym  of  a>\     Rd.  ii.v,  with  ?  om. 

as  dittog.  from  foil.  xS;  so  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Du.,  Kent.     (B  els  <pQs. 

H  in  lucent.     g>"  om.,  but  puts  it  in  marg..     Some  om.  as  dittog.  or 

gloss;    e.  g.  We.,  Roth.,  Stk..     Bach.    ])ii).     Van  H.    t-nS,— -n>'j   nS] 

eg  Kal  ovK  direKpvBT].     B  ei  non  abscondetur.      ^  and  will  not  delay. 

&"om.,  but  puts  it  in  marg..    Bach.  "icy>  ^*'^.   Roth. 'j  s'^i.   Van  H.  adds 

nxjS. — '2  Siy  y-ii''  n'^]  (S^  has  a  double  rendering,  viz.  ovk  tyvoy  dSiKlav 

iv  dTTaiT-fjcreL  {=p.iit'2)  Kal  ovk  els  v'ikos  ddiKiav  ev  dia<{)dopq,  (=  n'j'2).     (§■*■ 

HP.  23  om.  Kal  oiiK  direKpij^T]  .  .  .  diraiT'^cret.     (^Q  HP.  26,  49,    106, 

I3°>  ^53>  233,  311  om.  els  ^ws  .  .  .  d7raiT^<7€i.     HP.  95,   185  om.  Kal 

oiK   direKpi^Ti  .  .  .  ddiKlav.     HP.    198  om.   els  (pQs  Kal  oiiK   dweKpii^i}. 

HP.  239  and  Comp.  om.   iv   diraiT-qa-ei  to   end   of   verse.     HP,     238 

has  els  (pQs  to  end  of  verse  under  asterisk.     But  these  variants  are 

of  no  critical  value,  being  due  largely  to  copyists'  errors.     H  ?iesciil 

autem  iniquus  confusionem.     S>"  ^0^  ^Z&s]^  Po;  but  it  foil.  IM  in 

marg..     Marti,  S157  yiij  nSi;    so  Siev.,   Fag.,  Kent.     Roth.  ^.;!>^  nA  ^'^''' 

Van  H.  Sij?  yii'  nSi. — ne'2]  Om.  as  a  gloss  by  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  van 

H.,  Roth.,  and  Kent.     Marti,  however,  suggests  the  possibility  of  its 

being  a  remnant  of  an  original  oni2rnKi2rw'2. 

6.  uMj]  (i>  {nrepr}(pdvovs  =  D''N'J  (Schw.);  so  van  H.. — amjo]  (^yojvlai 
p     p 
avT^v.     §  ]i^o?,  'miseries,'  probably  an  inner-Syr.  error   for  j^^ol 

as  in  i'6  (Seb.). — nsj]  &ir.,  but  common  in  Aram..  It  occurs  also  in 
Assy.,  viz.  usaddi  =  "I  destroyed"  (III  R.  9,  No.  i,  8),  if  the  reading 
be  correct;  cf.  Dl."^^^,  563b;  Muss-Arnolt,  Assy.  Did.  870a;  also 
in  su-di-e  ami&ii  tu-sa-ad-di-iu-nu-ti  (IV  R.  55,  30b,  where  the  con- 
text is  too  fragmentary  to  render  exact  assignment  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  vb.  possible);  v.  Meissner,  Supplement  zu  den  Assy.  Worter- 
hiichern,  80b.  In  view  of  these  Assy,  possibilities,  the  common  state- 
ment that  'j  must  be  of  Aram,  origin  and  therefore  a  sign  of  late  age 
is  somewhat  hazardous.     The  fact  that  there  was  an  Aram,  speaking 


246  ZEPHANIAH 

colony  of  Jews  in  Elephantine  in  Egypt  at  least  as  early  as  shortly  after 
600  B.C.  also  makes  arguments  from  the  use  of  Aramaicisms  of  uncertain 
value.  Gr.  reads  ix.^j;  so  Bach.. — 7.  'mcN]  =  'I  thought,'  as  often, 
e.  g.  Gn,  20"  26». — in]  (g  ttXiJv. — ••npn  .  .  .  iNnv^]  Rd.  in  3d  pers. 
N-vn  and  npn;  so  We.,  GASm.,  Or.,  OortE"-,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag., 
Roth.,  Du..— n-13']  QJB  i^o\odpfv0jJT€.  (S^*  i^oXedpevdvTai.  (gAQr 
i^oXedpevdTJTe.  <15««.b.  HP.  68,  87,  91,  97,  228,  310  i^oXodpevdr).  Gr. 
■^r?'.  (?)•  Siev.  n->rn. — nji^c]  Rd.  n\^^^D,  with  (S  &;  so  Gr.,  We., 
GASm.,  Or.,  Oort'^"-,  Now.,  BDB.,  Marti,  Dr.,  van  H.,  Fag.,  Roth., 
Du.,  Kent.  Bach.  r\yyrg. — t^'n-'^d]  Hal.  'h  Sj3. — loiDrn  px]  <K  irot- 
fid^ov  6p6piffov;  so  &. — m^ncn]  (S  ^ipdaprai.  &  and  destroy.  JK  has 
two  vbs.  in  asyndeton,  the  first  of  which  is  logically  subordinate  to  the 
second;  Ges.  ^""e. — aniS'iSy]  ($  i7ri<f>v\\h  avruv.     U  cogitationes  suas. 

§  8.     JERUSALEM  DELIVERED  (3«-"). 

In  three  strs.  of  four  lines  each,  Jerusalem  is  assured  that  the 
nations  will  perish,  while  she  herself  after  her  purification  will  be 
restored  to  the  favour  of  Yahweh.  Str.  I  bids  Jerusalem  look 
forward  to  the  day  when  Yahweh 's  judgment  will  overtake  the 
nations  of  the  earth  (v.  *).  Str.  II  informs  her  that  a  work  of 
cleansing  and  elimination  must  take  place  among  her  own  peo- 
ple (vv.  "•  ").  Str.  Ill  states  the  characteristics  of  the  purified 
remnant  and  predicts  for  it  a  happy  and  peaceful  life. 

nPHEREFORE,  wait  for  me,  it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh,  for  the  day  when  I  arise 
as  a  witness. 
For  it  is  my  decision  to  gather  nations,  to  assemble  kingdoms, 
That  I  may  pour  out  upon  them  my  wrath,  all  the  heat  of  mine  anger. 
For  in  the  fire  of  my  zeal  all  the  earth  will  be  consumed. 
TN  that  day  thou  wilt  not  be  shamed  by  any  of  thy  deeds  wherein  thou  hast 
rebelled  against  me. 
For  then  I  shall  remove  from  the  midst  of  thee  thy  proudly  e.xulting  ones; 
And  thou  wilt  no  more  be  haughty  in  my  holy  mountain. 
But  I  shall  leave  in  the  midst  of  thee  a  people  humble  and  poor. 
A  ND  the  remnant  of  Israel  will  seek  refuge  in  the  name  of  Yahweh. 
They  will  do  no  wickedness  nor  will  they  speak  lies; 
Nor  will  there  be  found  in  their  mouth  a  deceitful  tongue. 
For  they  will  feed  and  lie  down  with  none  to  disturb  them. 

Str.  I  adjures  Israel  to  live  in  hope  of  seeing  Yahweh's  ven- 
geance upon  the  nations  in  general. — 8.  Therefore,  wait  for  me,  it  is 
the  oracle  0/  Yahweh]  If  'therefore'  is  based  upon  the  immediately 
preceding  context,  its  only  meaning  can  be  something  like  'in  view 


3'-"  247 

of  these  facts.'  The  word  'wait'  usually  implies  hope  and  confi- 
dence (e.  g.  Is,  8"  Hb.  2^  Ps.  S3^'^)i  but  not  always  so  (e.  g.  2  K. 
7^  9^  Jb.  32^).  Its  significance  here,  therefore,  must  be  deter- 
mined from  the  context.  To  whom  is  the  exhortation  addressed? 
Evidently  not  to  the  nations,  for  they  are  at  once  spoken  of  in  the 
third  person.  Consequently,  some  interpreters  say  that  the  prophet 
addresses  the  people  of  Judah  as  a  whole,  ironically  bidding  them 
await  the  day  of  universal  judgment,  when  they  themselves  will 
share  with  the  nations  in  the  destruction  decreed  by  Yahweh.* 
Others,  with  better  right,  look  upon  the  community  of  the  pious 
in  Judah  as  the  party  addressed,  and  find  here  a  word  of  comfort 
for  them,f  viz.  "wait  confidently  for  the  coming  day  of  judgment, 
when  you  will  be  vindicated  and  all  the  wicked  destroyed";  cf. 
V.  ". — For  the  day  when  I  shall  arise  as  a  witness]  This  defines 
more  explicitly  the  "for  me"  of  the  previous  clause.  M,  reads 
"rise  up  to  the  prey";  (^  ^  read  "rise  up  as  a  witness."  After 
the  verb,  'rise  up,'  something  expressive  of  aggressive  action  is 
expected,  but  'to  the  prey'  hardly  satisfies  the  expectation.  Ew. 
attempts  to  meet  it  by  rendering  "to  the  attack";  but  this  is  wholly 
imsupported  by  the  usage  of  the  Hebrew  word.  Most  of  the  re- 
cent interpreters  follow  Ci>-  For  the  thought  of  Yahweh  appear- 
ing as  a  witness,  cf.  Mi.  i^  Mai.  3^  Je.  29^,  Yahweh's  testimony 
will  be  given  not  against  Jerusalem,!  but  against  the  nations  or 
against  the  wicked  wherever  they  may  be,  whether  inside  or  out- 
side of  Israel. — For  it  is  my  decision  to  gather  nations,  to  assemble 
kingdoms]  There  is  not  a  word  here  about  gathering  them  to  or 
against  Jerusalem§  {cf.  Zc.  14^  ^-  Jo.  3""^^  Ez.  38,  39) ;  nor  is  it 
necessary  to  suppose  that  such  a  thought  was  in  the  writer's  mind. 
"The  'gathering'  merely  expresses  the  idea  that  they  shall  be  uni- 
versally and  simultaneously  judged";**  cf.  Je.  25^^"^  Is.  66^".  The 
'decision'  or  'decree'  is  the  purpose  formed  in  Yahweh's  own 
mind. — That  I  may  pour  out  upon  them  my  wrath,  all  the  heat  of 
mine  anger]  This  is  a  very  common  figure;  cf.  Ho.  5^  Je.  10^^  Is. 
42^^  Ps.  69^^  79^  and  fifteen  times  in  Ezekiel.  The  only  natural 
reference  of  the  pronoun  'them'  is  to  the  aforesaid  nations  and 

*  So  Hi.,  Mau.,  Now.,  GASm..  t  So  Hd.,  Or.,  Dr.,  Marti. 

X  Contra  Now..  §  Contra  Schw.,  Marti.  **  Dav.. 


248  ZEPHANIAH 

kingdoms. — For  hi  the  fire  of  my  zeal  all  the  earth  will  be  con- 
sumed] Cf.  i^^.  The  judgment  is  to  be  world-wide  and  all-em- 
bracing. In  this  fiery  furnace  all  the  dross  will  be  consumed; 
nothing  but  pure  metal  will  survive  the  ordeal.  This  sentence 
is  evidently  original  here;  it  forms  the  necessary  climax  to  the 
description  of  punishment.* 

At  this  point,  an  editor,  actuated  by  more  kindly  and  generous 
feelings  toward  the  nations  than  are  reflected  by  the  foregoing 
threats,  has  inserted  a  section  expressing  his  own  sentiments;  v.  i.. 
— 9.  For  then  I  shall  turn  unto  the  peoples  a  purified  speech]  An 
elli})tical  expression  meaning  that  Yahweh  will  turn  the  speech  of 
the  nations  that  is  now  impure  into  a  speech  that  will  be  pure;  cf. 
Is.  6^  The  impurity,  of  course,  consisted  in  the  fact  that  they 
prayed  to  and  swore  by  other  gods  than  Yahweh.  The  purifica- 
tion will  consist  in  their  being  brought  to  abandon  the  worship  of 
any  and  every  god  save  Yahweh;  cf.  Ho.  2"  Ps.  i6^  Contact  with 
other  gods  was,  from  the  point  of  view  of  Yahweh-worship,  fraught 
with  uncleanness  and  impurity  of  the  most  pronounced  type. — 
So  that  all  of  them  may  call  upon  the  name  of  Yahweh  and  serve 
him  with  one  consent]  The  result  of  the  purification  is  here  specifi- 
cally stated.  Yahweh  alone  v.ill  be  the  object  of  the  world's  wor- 
ship. The  same  expectation  of  the  conversion  of  the  nations  as 
a  whole  to  the  worship  of  Yahweh  is  found  in  Mi.  4^  Zc.  14'"  ^■ 
Is.  11^  19^^^-.  The  idiom  'call  upon  the  name  of  Yahweh'  prob- 
ably had  its  origin  in  the  cultus  and  dates  from  the  time  when  the 
mere  utterance  of  the  divine  name  per  se  was  believed  to  exercise 
a  kind  of  coercion  upon  the  deity  himself.  To  possess  the  name  of 
the  deity  was  to  hold  a  certain  power  over  him  and  thus,  within 
certain  clearly  defined  limits,  to  make  him  subservient  to  the  wor- 
shipper's will.f  Such  primitive  conceptions  were  far  from  the 
thought  of  the  writer  of  this  passage;  but  this  idiom  is  a  survi- 
val. "With  one  consent,"  lit.  "with  one  shoulder";  (&  "with  one 
yoke,"  rightly  interpreting  the  figure  which  does  not  occur  else- 
where in  Hebrew,  though  familiar  in  Syriac.  It  probably  rests 
upon  the  fact  that  o.xen  were  joined  together  by  one  yoke  in  their 

♦  Contra  Siev., 

t  Cj.  Giescbrccht,  Die  alttestamentliche  Schatzung  dcs  GoUesnamcns  (1901),  94  ff.. 


3"  ^"  249 

labour.  The  idea  of  unanimity  is  pictured  in  i  K.  22"  by  the  phrase 
"with  one  mouth."  The  essential  thought  finds  utterance  in  plain 
prose  in  Je.  32^''  Ez.  ii^^-  ^°,  though  there  predicated  of  Israel  in 
the  Messianic  age,  rather  than  of  the  nations  as  here.  There  is 
no  necessity  to  change  'Yahweh'  and  'him'  to  the  first  personal 
pronoun;  in  speeches  placed  upon  Yahweh's  lips  the  prophetic 
writers  frequently  lapse  into  the  third  person. — 10.  Beyond  the 
rivers  of  Cusli]  Cush  was  the  name  of  the  Nile  valley,  south  of 
the  Egyptian  border.  It  corresponds  in  general  to  the  Greek 
'Ethiopia.'  The  rivers  referred  to  are  the  branches  of  the  Nile 
that  traverse  the  most  southern  portion  of  the  region ;  viz.  the  At- 
bara,  the  Astasobas,  the  Astapus  or  Blue  Nile,  and  the  Bahr-el- 
Abjadh  or  White  Nile;  cf.  Is.  18^"'.  The  exact  force  of  the  prepo- 
sition, whether  'in  the  regions  beyond'  or  'from  the  regions  be- 
yond,' is  in  doubt.  The  former  sense  is  much  the  more  common 
(e.  g.  Is.  18^  Dt.  30^^  I  K.  4^^),  but  the  latter  is  also  clearly  estab- 
lished {e.  g.  Jb.  i^^  2  Ch.  20^).  In  view  of  Is.  19^^^-,  the  prefer- 
ence here  may  be  given  to  the  first  rendering.-— T/ze  prmces(?)  of 
the  daughter  of  Put{?)]  For  'he-goats'  as  a  figurative  appellation 
of  chiefs  or  leaders,  cf.  Is.  14^  Ez.  34^^.  Put  is  commonly  named 
alongside  of  Cush  and  seems  to  have  been  a  neighbouring  state. 
As  located  by  this  verse,  it  would  lie  south  of  Cush  and  thus  be 
representative  to  the  Hebrew  mind  of  the  most  distant  lands.  The 
foregoing  translation  rests  upon  a  wholly  conjectural  correction 
of  the  text;  but  it  is  the  most  attractive  correction  thus  far  offered. 
iHJ  is  quite  generally  considered  unintelligible.*  Some  seek  to 
solve  the  problem  by  omitting  these  words  wholly  as  a  gloss. f  But 
this  does  not  make  them  any  more  intelligible,  on  the  one  hand; 
and,  on  the  other,  it  renders  the  line  of  which  they  are  a  part  some- 
what short.  RV.  renders  "my  suppliants,  even  the  daughter  of 
my^^ispersed,"  which  is  made  the  subject  of  the  following  vcrb.f 
RVm.  renders  in  the  same  way,  but  makes  the  phrase  the  ob- 
ject of  the  following  verb.§  Another  rendering  which  takes  it 
as  subject  is,  "the  suppliants  of  the  daughter  of  my  dispersed,"  ** 

*  So  e.  g.  Evv.,  Schw.,  We.,  Oort,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  van  H.,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.. 
t  So  Schw.,  Wkl.U"'-,  149  /.,  van  H.,  Fag..     Cj.  Or.  who  suggests  that  ^xid  "'3  may  be  a 
gloss  on  <-\p^'.  t  So  also  B,  Lu.,  Rosenm.,  Hi.,  Hd.. 

§  So  also  Ke.;  cj.  Is.  662".  **  G.ASm.. 


250  ZEPHANIAH 

i.  e.  the  heathen  neighbours  of  the  exiled  Jews,  who  now  seek  the 
favour  of  those  they  once  oppressed  and  despised.  For  the  diffi- 
culties confronting  these  renderings,  v.  i..  Hommel  finds  in  the 
words  ordinarily  rendered  "daughter  of  my  dispersed"  the  name 
of  a  South  Arabian  species  of  incense,  which  the  nations  are  rep- 
resented as  bringing  to  Yahweh. — Will  lead  along  my  offerings] 
i.  e.  bear  offerings  to  Yahweh  in  processions,  a  common  custom  in 
the  worship  of  Semitic  gods.*  There  is  no  need  to  consider  the 
princes  as  bringing  offerings  to  Jerusalem;  they  are  rather  to 
bring  gifts  to  Yahweh 's  altars  wherever  they  may  be,  whether  at 
Jerusalem  or  in  Ethiopia  itself;  cf.  Is.  19^^  ^-  and  the  fact  that  there 
was  a  temple  of  Yahu  in  Elephantine.  The  offerings  will  testify 
to  the  recognition  of  Yahweh's  kingship  over  the  nations;  cf.  1  S. 
10"  2  S.  8^.  With  the  verse  as  a  whole,  cf.  2"  Is.  45"  66'°  Zc.  8=^ 
Ps.  ^2''^-. 

The  original  oracle  is  now  resumed  in  Str.  II  which  predicts  a 
work  of  cleansing  among  Yahweh's  people. — 11.  In  that  day,  thou 
wilt  not  be  shamed  by  any  of  thy  deeds  wherein  thou  hast  trans- 
gressed against  me]  Cf.  Ez.  39'^.  The  pious  community  in  Jerusa- 
lem is  addressed.  The  day  spoken  of  is  that  announced  in  v.  *, 
the  day  upon  which  the  heathen  are  to  be  judged.  The  word 
'shame'  is  used  in  Hebrew  in  two  senses,  a  subjective  and  an 
objective  one.  Those  who  find  here  the  subjective  sense  'feel 
shame'  explain  the  statement  in  various  ways;  e.  g.  (i)  Jerusalem 
will  no  more  be  ashamed  of  her  past  sins,  the  very  memory  of  them 
having  been  obliterated;!  (2)  such  crimes  as  Jerusalem  now  com- 
mits she  will  not  then  do,  and  thus  will  have  no  cause  for  shame. | 
Against  (i)  may  be  adduced  the  fact  that  the  memory  of  sin  and 
failure  is  a  most  effective  agency  in  producing  the  humility  de- 
siderated in  the  latter  part  of  the  verse,  and  the  query,  why  did  not 
the  prophet  say  "thou  wilt  no  longer  remember,"  if  that  was  ^^at 
he  meant?  As  to  (2),  it  was  hardly  necessary  for  the  prophet  to 
make  such  a  self-evident  statement  as  is  involved  in  this  interpre- 
tation.    It  is  better  to  interpret  it  objectively,  viz.  Jerusalem  will 

♦  V.  e.  g.  Naville,  Deir  el-Bahari  (Egypt  Exploration  Fund),  where  are  reproduced  the 
scenes  from  the  temple  wall  showing  the  prcxlucts  of  the  expedition  to  Punt  being  presented  to 
the  g(xl  Amon.  t  Ew.,  Dav..  t  Mau.,  Ke.,  Or.. 


3"- "  251 

not  be  put  to  shame  in  the  coming  age,  because  the  conditions  that 
have  occasioned  such  public  humiliation  in  the  past  will  have  given 
place  to  new  and  wholesome  ones;  the  wicked  will  have  been 
removed.*  Disaster  and  suffering  were  interpreted  as  signs  of 
Yahweh's  anger  against  sin,  hence  such  afflictions  were  as  brand- 
marks  of  shame,  known  and  read  of  all  men.  C/.  Is.  54^  65'®.  The 
removal  of  the  relative  clause  as  a  gloss  is  unwarranted,  since 
it  takes  away  tfie  necessary  definition  of  the  'deeds'  mentioned; 
metrical  necessities  cannot  outweigh  the  requirements  of  the 
thought.f — For  then  I  will  take  away  thy  proudly  exulting  ones 
from  the  midst  of  thee]  In  Is.  13^,  this  designation  is  applied  to  the 
Medes  as  the  warriors  of  Yahweh;  here  it  denotes  the  officials, 
viz.  priests,  prophets,  judges,  etc.,  who  jauntily  ignore  the  re- 
quirements of  Yahweh  and  rejoice  in  their  own  self-sufficiency. 
A  process  of  sifting  will  be  resolutely  carried  through. — And  thou 
wilt  no  more  he  haughty  in  my  holy  mountain]  Haughtiness,  arro- 
gance and  pride  were  always  oflfensive  to  the  prophets  who  without 
exception  were  the  friends  and  champions  of  the  poor  and  lowly. 
The  mountain  in  question  is,  of  course,  Mt.  Zion,  made  holy  by  the 
presence  of  Yahweh  in  his  temple. — 12a.  And  I  will  leave  in  the 
midst  of  thee  a  people  humble  and  poor]  It  is  safe  to  say  that  weak- 
ness and  poverty  do  not  exhaust  the  content  of  these  adjectives, 
even  if  they  form  a  large  part  of  it.  It  is  not  so  much  Israel's 
standing  on  battle-fields,  in  markets,  and  at  courts  that  is  meant, 
as  a  state  of  mind  and  heart,  an  attitude  toward  God;  cf.  Mi.  6^ 
Is.  66^  Mt.  5^-  ^  This  conception  of  the  ideal  religious  life  came 
late  in  Israel's  history;  v.  on  2^. 

Str.  Ill  describes  the  Israel  that  is  to  be  as  the  exact  opposite 
of  the  Israel  that  now  is.  Schw.  felt  the  need  of  supplementing 
v.  ^^^  in  some  way;  hence  supposed  that  something  had  been  lost 
at  the  end  of  the  verse.  This  supposition  becomes  unnecessary, 
if  v.  ^^^  be  read  with  v.  *^^,  a  proceeding  which  secures  excellent 
sense  and  at  the  same  time  gives  lines  i  and  2  of  Str.  Ill  their 
proper  length.  J — 12b,  13.  The  remnant  of  Israel  will  take  refuge  in 
the  name  of  Yahweh]  They  will  recognise  Yahweh  as  their  only 

♦  Hd.,  Stei.,  Now.,  Marti.  t  Conlra  Fag., 

t  So  Marti,  Now.^,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.. 


252  ZEPHANIAH 

but  all-sufficient  source  of  strength.  The  Israelites  of  the  past 
have  at  times  scouted  Yahweh's  aid  and  when  shaken  out  of  their 
ov\Ti  self-sufficiency  by  the  shock  of  great  calamities  have  turned  to 
the  gods  of  the  nations  for  help  rather  than  to  their  own  God;  cj. 
j5.  6.  12^  ^g  ^  consequence  of  this  positive  confidence  in  Yahweh, 
the  Israel  of  the  days  to  come  will  not  be  guilty  of  offences  such  as 
have  characterised  its  past. — They  will  not  do  wickedness,  nor  will 
they  speak  lies]  An  abiding  faith  in  Yahweh  will  keep  them  from 
the  perverse  and  devious  ways  of  the  ungodly.  Sure  of  themselves 
and  their  God,  they  will  have  no  need  to  take  refuge  in  lies.  This 
writer  evidently  sees  a  vital  connection  between  morality  and  re- 
ligion.— Nor  will  there  be  found  in  their  mouths  a  deceitful  tongue] 
The  emphasis  laid  here  upon  this  vice  is  a  reflection  of  the  fact 
that  lying  and  cheating  have  always  been  most  prevalent  practices 
among  Semites  and  are,  even  at  the  present  day. — For  they  will 
feed  and  lie  down  with  none  to  disturb  them]  A  common  figure  in 
prophecy;  cf  Is.  14'"  if  Ez.  34''-  ''  Mi.  4'  7"  Jb.  1 1'\  Lying  and 
kindred  sins  are  largely  due  to  fear  and  need.  In  the  coming  age, 
such  incentives  to  vice  will  be  lacking,  for  all  will  enjoy  abundance 
and  none  will  be  left  who  could  or  would  do  injury  to  any. 

The  strophical  divisions  of  this  poem  are  clearly  indicated  by  the  log- 
ical analysis  of  the  progress  of  the  thought.  The  poetic  lines  are  just 
as  clearly  shown  by  the  movement  of  the  parallelism.  The  rhythm  is 
prevailingly  hexameter,  with  a  few  descents  to  pentameter. 

Vv.  '•  '"  constitute  a  disturbing  element  within  this  oracle.  They  seem 
to  be  foreign  to,  if  not  also  later  than,  their  present  context;  so  Now., 
GASm.,  BDB.,  Grimm  {Lt- App.  87/.),  Dr.,  Cor.,  Bu.f'"^^'^^'-,  Marti, 
Siev.,  Beer,  Fag..  The  main  ground  for  this  opinion  is  the  fact  that  they 
manifest  a  totally  different  attitude  toward  the  nations  from  that  of  v.  '. 
In  the  latter,  the  nations  are  destined  to  be  destroyed;  here  they  are  to 
be  converted.  Moreover,  the  'for'  of  v. '  is  without  any  significance  in 
the  present  context;  the  purification  of  the  nations  is  surely  no  reason  for 
their  destruction;  nor  can  it  justify  the  'wait'  of  v.  *  unless  the  purifica- 
tion is  to  involve  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  within  Israel  as  well  as 
that  of  those  without.  But  this  is  not  stated  and  is  too  important  a  state- 
ment to  have  been  taken  for  granted.  Still  further,  the  elimination  of 
w.  '•  '"  leaves  a  good  connection  between  vv.  ^  and  ". 

The  date  of  w.  '"  is  open  to  discussion.  Some  scholars  regard  them, 
with  or  without  w.  ••  '",  as  the  work  of  Zephaniah;  so  e.  g.  Dav.,  Now., 


3""  253 

GASm.,  Or.,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Cor.,  Bu.^"'^''-,  van  H.,  Stk..  Others  assign 
them  to  a  later  age;  so  e.  g.  Sta.*^^',  644/.,  Schw.,  We.,  Marti,  Siev., 
Beer,  Fag.,  Roth.,  Du.,  Kent.  The  argument  for  their  genuineness  rests 
largely  upon  what  seems  an  impossible  exegesis  of  v.  s;  viz.  that  it  is 
the  logical  continuation  of  v.  '  and  is  addressed  to  the  pious  in  Judah, 
who  are  bidden  to  wait  until  Yahweh  shall  have  gathered  the  nations  and 
by  means  of  them  inflicted  punishment  upon  the  ungodly  oppressors 
within  Judah  itself.  But  this  involves  passing  over  cu  and  nio'^rD, 
the  nearest  and  the  most  natural  antecedents  of  the  pronoun  in  Dn>Sy 
and  seeking  its  antecedent  in  the  distant  i.T'ntt'n  iD''3B'n  of  v.  '.  Nat- 
urally interpreted,  v.  ^  becomes  a  promise  to  Judah  that  the  nations  who 
have  oppressed  her  will  be  destroyed.  Judah,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to 
be  cleansed  and  saved  (w.  "•  ■'').  This  sharp  discrimination  between 
the  heathen  and  Judah  does  not  appear  in  Zephaniah's  picture  of  the 
day  of  doom  in  ch.  i.  Likewise,  the  characterisation  of  Judah  as  'hum- 
ble and  poor'  (v.  ")  holds  up  an  ideal  of  religion  which  belongs  to  Is- 
rael's last  days  {cf.  2').  The  frank  recognition  of  the  doctrine  of  the  rem- 
nant also  belongs  in  the  later  period  of  Israelitish  life.  The  abrupt  man- 
ner in  which  the  trend  of  thought  is  changed  in  v.  ^  is  a  further  indication 
that  the  present  consecution  of  thought  is  not  the  original  one.  After 
V.  ',  we  expect  an  announcement  of  dire  disaster  upon  the  wicked  Is- 
raelites; but  instead  we  get  such  an  announcement  against  the  nations. 
Not  improbably,  the  original  conclusion  of  this  oracle,  expressing  some 
unfavourable  Judgment  upon  Judah,  was  deliberately  dropped  and  the 
present  passage  put  in  its  place;  cf.  Grimm,  Lt.  App.  87  ff.. 

8.  According  to  the  Mas.,  this  is  the  only  verse  in  the  OT.  which  con- 
tains all  the  letters  of  the  Heb.  alphabet,  including  the  final  forms.  B*, 
however,  does  not  appear  here. — irn]  05  H  =  ''sn;  so  Marti,  Now.'^, 
Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth..— ij?';']  Rd.  i-;h_,  with  (S  g»  S;  so  Hi.,  Schw.,  Gr.,  We., 
GASm.,  Now.,  Marti,  Or.,  van  H.,  Roth.,  Fag.,  Du..  "B  in  futurum. 
Hal.  l^];S. — nON"':']  (&  crvva-yuyi^. — •'xapS]  Rd.  van*?,  with  d  tov  etVS^- 
^affdai  and  &  3;  so  Schw.,  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Siev.,  van  H.,  Fag.. 
Gr.  van'?- — hidScd]  (S  ^ao-iXets. — •'dj;?]  (gsAQr  jjP.  48,  153,  233  om.; 
so  GASm.. — 9.  Vn  ^D^N]  =  S  ^on,  i  S.  10',  i.  e.  'bestow  upon  by  way 
of  exchange.' — D>DJ?  Sn]  Gr.  ■'EK  ha.  Schw.  D^Dy.S.  Bach,  d^dj;  S3. — 
HDi']  Bach.  nPDB'D.  —  mna]  (&  els  yevekv  ovr^s  =  nnna.  Aq.  9 
i^eiXey/x^vov;  cf.  "B  electum;  so  &. — dSd]  (S  trdvTas.  IB  omnes. — 
'>  u-yi\  Marti,  •<'0t2;  so  Fag.,  Roth.. — najjS]  Marti,  '''^^'ii^,;  so  Fag..  Roth. 
lapS. — aor]  <g  &  =  yoke. — 10,  '«sifl  na  nnj?]  Rd.  t3i£3  na  inny;  so  Hal.. 
(8^  HP.  48,  irpocrdi^o/Mi  iv  SieffTapuhois  fwv.  CS^  Q  HP.  26,  49, 
106,  130,  153,  198,  233,  239,  311  and  &  om.;  &"  has  it  in  marg.;  HP. 
22,  97,  238  have  it  under  asterisk.  (&^  ■=•  ^  '^''*'  {postea  ras)  irpoad^^oiJLai 
(HP,  62,  86,  147,  7rpo(r5^x<'MO')  to"^?  iKeTerjoin-ds  fie  (95,  185,  /ierd)  rCiv 
iffirapnivwv   (36,    51,    132,    228,   240,    dieairapnivwv).     S    iKerevovTo.  fie 


254  ZEPHANIAH 

T^Kva  Twv  SieaKopiri<T/xi¥(ov  utt'  ifwv.  V  inde  supplices  mei,filii  disper- 
sorum  meorum.  Gr.  'iJi  ''1KT,-  Schw,  i:«iDn_  nnw.  Bach,  'a  ip?E,l 
'xn.  Oort^™  ,  ''X1CJ3  '*?  nny.  Ew.  dis  for  ■'xid;  so  Gr.,  Dav.  (?), 
Hal.,  Dr.  (?).  Roth.  Tini  ^^'<-^p\  Ew.  connects  npp  with  -\rij;^(Ez.  8"), 
which  seems  to  mean  'odour,'  and  renders  'my  perfumes,'  which  serves 
as  the  obj.  of  the  vb.  with  '2  in  apposition.  But  the  textual  basis  of 
Ez.  8"  is  too  uncertain  to  permit  its  use  as  a  guide  to  interpretation  here. 
The  usual  rendering  'my  suppliants'  derives  it  from  n.'^j?  'to  pray,'  a  well- 
known  vb..  But  the  ambiguity  as  to  the  persons  so  designated  and  the 
fact  that  this  form  occurs  nowhere  else  make  it  more  probable  that  the 
text  is  here  at  fault.  The  usual  rendering  of  'xid  P3,  viz.  'daughter  of 
my  dispersed  ones,'  is  met  by  three  difficulties;  (i)  na  in  such  titles  is 
regularly  connected  only  with  proper  names,  e.  g.  oStt'n^  na  ,  nnao  na 
D"''7J  03  ,  jvs  na;  the  notable  exception,  'Oj?  na,  frequent  in  Jeremiah, 
is  not  closely  analogous  to  this  case  where  the  governing  noun  is  in  the 
pi.;  (2)  the  pass,  prtc,  yis,  nowhere  else  occurs;  (3)  the  uncertainty  as  to 
whether  'a  na  is  subj.  or  obj.  of  the  vb.  The  reading  oiis  involves  an 
error  in  only  one  letter  and  dittog.  of  the  initial '  of  the  foil.  vb..  na  here 
may  be  taken  as  'daughter'  (c/.  'd.  of  the  Chaldeans')  or  as  =  n^a,  cf. 
pp  nn  .roB'  n''a,  bit  Yakin,  etc.;  nia  and  na  are  at  times  confused  {cf. 
Qr.  and  Kt.  in  Is.  10").  Hommel's  interpretation  of  'd  'a  {v.  s.)  rests 
upon  three  contentions;  (i)  that  Cush  is  not  Ethiopia,  but  a  region  in 
S.  Arabia;  (2)  that  'a  'a  follows  the  analogy  of  other  Semitic  plant- 
names  (e.  g.  bint  el  'inab=  'wine';  bandi  en-ndr  =  'nettle'),  is  to  be 
connected  with  the  S.  Ar.  'Cbn  (found  in  Glaser,  No.  1083,  1.  4,  between 
the  names  of  two  kinds  of  incense),  and  is  the  name  of  some  special 
variety  of  incense;  and  (3)  that  the  \/  nny  originally  meant  'to  offer 
incense.'  On  this  basis,  the  rendering  would  be,  'my  incense-bearers 
will  bring  a  costly  kind  of  incense  as  my  offering.'  But  the  identifica- 
tion of  Cush  with  S.  Arabia  finds  little  favour  because  of  insufficient 
evidence  (so  Ko.,  Fiinf  neue  arab.  Landschaftsnamen  [1902]  and  Ed. 
Meyer,  Die  Israeliten  und  Hire  N achbarstamme  [1906],  315-317;  contra 
Glaser,  Skizze  d.  Gesch.  u.  Ceogr.  Arabiens,  II,  33.  Hommel,  Au/sdtze 
und  Abhandlungen,  No.  VIII;  Che.  art.  Cush,  EB.;  Wkl.  KAT.',  137, 
144),  the  use  of  na  with  a  plant-name  is  without  analogy  in  Heb.;  and 
the  connection  of  'inj;  with  incense  has  no  support  in  Heb.  outside  of  the 
dubious  passage,  Ez.  38. — inms]  Rd.  ^r'r.:v,  with  (S;  so  Ew.,  Schw.. — 
11.  'n  ova]  &  joins  to  v.  '"  and  takes  first  clause  as  a  question,  "wilt 
thou  not  blush,  etc.?" — nS]  Stei.,  Hal.  nS. — nnajS]  An  inf.  cstr.  in  n__; 
cf.  Ges.  ^"'«.— 12.  loni]  Gr.  'Dm;  so  We.,  GortEra-,  Now.. — '>  oca] 
Roth.  'p-fa. — 13.  'y  nnxB']  <S  joins  with  v.  "  as  subj.  of  icn. — '^  nS] 


3"-'"  255 


§  9-    THE   WORLD-WIDE    RENOWN    OF    REDEEMED 
ISRAEL  (3"-'°). 

In  two  strs.  of  vinequal  length,  a  late  writer  contrasts  the  Israel 
of  the  coming  Golden  Age  with  the  Israel  as  known  in  his  own  time. 
Str.  I  bids  the  people  of  Yahweh  rejoice  because  Yahweh  is 
about  to  repulse  all  their  foes  and  to  favour  his  own  people  with 
his  gracious  presence  henceforth  (vv.  "•  ^^-  ").  Str.  II  declares 
that  Yahweh  is  to  destroy  all  Israel's  oppressors,  rescue  her  af- 
flicted ones  and  make  his  people  the  object  of  the  world's  praise 
(vv.  ''•  "). 

r^RY  aloud,  O  daughter  of  Zion;  shout,  O  Israel! 

Be  glad  and  rejoice  with  all  your  heart,  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem. 
Yahweh  has  taken  away  thine  opponents,  he  has  turned  aside  thine  enemies. 
The  king  of  Israel  is  in  the  midst  of  thee;   thou  wilt  no  more  see  calamity. 
Yahweh,  thy  God,  is  in  the  midst  of  thee,  a  warrior  who  delivers. 
He  will  rejoice  over  thee  with  gladness;  he  will  renew  thee  in  his  love. 
T  WILL  take  away  those  smiting  thee,  and  those  bringing  reproach  upon  thee. 
Behold,  I  will  deal  with  all  thine  oppressors  at  that  time; 
And  I  will  deliver  the  halt,  and  the  outcast  I  will  gather. 
And  I  will  make  them  a  praise  and  renown  in  all  the  earth. 

Str.  I  exhorts  the  community  of  the  pious  to  rejoice  enthusi- 
astically in  the  evidences  of  the  return  of  Yahweh's  favour. — 14. 
Cry  aloud,  O  daughter  of  Zion;  shout,  O  Israel]  The  context  shows 
that  joyous  exclamations  are  called  for.  'Israel'  is  used  as  the 
name  of  the  chosen  people  of  Yahweh,  a  common  usage  long  after 
Israel  proper  had  ceased  to  exist.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  change 
with  (g  to  'daughter  of  Jerusalem';*  cf.  Mi.  2^^  Je.  17'^  50"*^- 
Ez.  4^-  "  6^  ^•. — Rejoice  and  exult  with  all  your  heart,  O  daughter 
of  Jerusalem]  Cf.  Zc.  9^  Is.  54^  In  'daughter'  the  people  in  gen- 
eral are  personified.  The  smaller  towns,  villages  and  hamlets 
surrounding  a  large  city  were  known  as  its  'daughters';  e.  g.  Nu. 
2J.25. 32  J  Q]^^  2^3 J  hence  it  was  an  easy  step  to  the  thought  of  the 
inhabitants  of  these  smaller  places  as  the  daughter  of  the  mother 
city  {cf.  2  S.  2^°).  As  Jerusalem  came  to  occupy  more  and  more 
the  central  place  in  Hebrew  thought,  and  as  the  territory  dwindled 
to  smaller  and  smaller  proportions,  it  became  perfectly  natural  to 

*  Contra  Now.. 


2S6  2EPIL\NIAH 

represent  the  capital  as  the  mother  of  the  entire  community.  The 
same  usage  obtained,  however,  with  regard  to  Egypt  (Je.  46"-  ^*), 
Babylon  (Is.  47'),  Edom  (La.  4*),  Sidon  (Is.  23^')  and  Tarshish 
(Is.  23'"). — 15.  YaJiweh  has  removed  thine  opponents ;  he  has  put 
thine  enemies  out  of  the  way]  The  prophet  transports  himself  in 
imagination  to  the  future  for  which  he  so  ardently  longs  and  pro- 
ceeds to  describe  it  as  though  it  were  actually  realised.  This 
contemplated  repulse  of  the  foe  is  the  ground  of  the  rejoicing  called 
for  in  V.  ".  The  afflicted  and  distressed  condition  of  Judah  at  the 
time  of  the  actual  writing  of  this  passage  is  thus  taken  for  granted. 
M,  has  "thy  judgments"  for  "thine  opponents,"  i.  e.  the  calami- 
ties that  have  come  upon  thee  as  penalties  for  thy  sins.  But  the 
parallelism  calls  for  a  word  denoting  persons. — The  king  oj  Israel 
is  in  the  midst  of  thee]  The  name  "  Yahweh"  inserted  in  IH  after 
"Israel"  is  a  correct  interpretation  of  the  phrase  "king  of  Israel" 
{cf.  V.  "),  but  is  due  to  a  glossator,  as  is  shown  by  the  awkwardness 
of  the  syntax  and  the  undue  length  of  the  line.  The  representa- 
tion of  Yahweh  as  Israel's  king  is  a  familiar  OT.  view;  cf.  Is.  6^ 
41^^  44"  Ps.  90^^  Ob.  ^^  Similar  conceptions  among  other  Semitic 
peoples  are  attested  by  the  names  Melek,  Moloch,  Milcom  and  the 
like,  bestowed  upon  their  gods;  v.  note  on  i^.  Yahweh's  presence 
in  Israel  is  a  guarantee  of  security  and  prosperity  for  his  people. 
— Thou  wilt  no  more  see  disaster]  The  Hebrew  text  here  wavers 
between  'see'  and  'fear';  (g  and  ^  agree  upon  the  former;  B 
follows  the  latter;  while  01  compromises  by  incorporating  both  read- 
ings in  its  rendering.  Either  reading  furnishes  admirable  sense, 
the  essential  meaning  being  the  same  in  either  case.  To  'see'  here 
means  to  realise  as  a  personal  experience;  cf.  Je.  5*^  Is.  44^®. — 16. 
At  this  point  an  editorial  addition  appears,  which  does  not  con- 
form to  the  metrical  norm  of  the  context  and  does  introduce  a 
foreign  element  between  vv.  *^  and  "  which  naturally  go  together.* 
— In  that  day,  it  will  he  said  to  Jerusalem,  "Fear  not,  O  Zion;  let 
not  thy  hands  drop"]  The  language  calls  up  the  picture  of  a  man 
at  work  upon  a  hard  task  suddenly  letting  go  of  his  work  in  despair; 
cf.  2  S.  4*  Is.  13'  Je.  6-*  Heb.  12'-. — 17.  Here  the  original  oracle  is 
resumed. — Yahweh,  thy  God,  is  in  the  midst  of  thee,  a  warrior  ivho 

♦  So  Marti,  Fag.;  cj.  Roth,  who  drops  only  the  introductory  words  in  the  third  person. 


3"-"  ^57 

delivers]  This  line  is  chiefly  an  elaboration  of  the  last  line  of  v.  ^^ 
For  similar  descriptions  of  Yahweh  as  a  warrior  bringing  deliv- 
erance, cf.  Is.  9''  42'^  Je.  14^  20".  The  primitive  conception  of 
Yahweh  as  he  who  fights  in  behalf  of  his  own  people  has  been 
transformed  into  the  thought  of  him  who  fights  in  behalf  of  the 
righteous,  not  because  they  are,  it  is  true,  his  people,  but  because 
of  their  righteousness. — He  will  rejoice  over  thee  with  gladness]  The 
imaginary  stand-point  is  here  abandoned  and  the  writer  frankly 
looks  to  the  future. — He  will  renew  thee  in  his  love]  M,  reads, 
"he  will  be  silent  in  his  love."  This  has  been  interpreted  in 
widely  different  ways.  Some  explain  as,  'he  will  because  of  his 
love  keep  silent  regarding  his  people's  sins';*  others,  'God's  love 
will  be  so  strong  and  deep  as  to  hush  motion  or  speech;  it  will  be 
silent  ecstasy ';t  while  one  explains  the  silence  as  due  to  Yah- 
weh's  meditative  planning  of  good  deeds  toward  Israel. {  But  the 
thought  of  silence  seems  wholly  out  of  keeping  with  the  spirit  of 
the  context  and  is  definitely  in  conflict  with  the  'shout'  or  'ring- 
ing cry'  of  the  next  line,  though  the  latter  is  probably  a  later  ac- 
cretion. Hence  recent  interpreters,  for  the  most  part,  have  ques- 
tioned the  correctness  of  the  text.  Many  have  followed  (&,  but 
with  differing  interpretations;  e.  g.  he  will  do  new  things  {cf.  Is. 
43^^)  the  like  of  which  have  not  heretofore  been  known  ;§  or,  he 
renews  his  love;**  or,  he  renews  himself  in  his  love;ff  or,  with  the 
rendering  given  above,JJ  through  the  manifestations  of  favour  in- 
spired by  his  love  for  thee,  he  will  restore  thee  to  pristine  vigour 
and  glory,  givuig  thee  newness  of  life.  This  is  a  thought,  not  ex- 
actly parallel  to  that  of  the  other  half  of  the  line  as  we  should  ex- 
pect, but  at  least  not  wholly  foreign  to  the  context,  and  it  is  based 
upon  a  text  from  which  M,  might  easily  have  arisen.  To  drop 
the  phrase,  as  some  do,§§  on  the  ground  that  it  records  the  lament  of 
a  reader,  does  not  adequately  explain  it,  while  it  complicates  the 
textual  and  metrical  situation.  Where  it  stands,  it  exactly  con- 
forms to  the  measure  of  the  line. — He  will  exult  over  thee  with 
shouting  as  in  the  days  of  a  festival]  This  line,  which  incorporates 

*  So  Mau.,  Hd..         t  So  Dav.,  Or..  %  Hal.. 

§  Hi,.  **  Buhl,  ZAW.  V,  183;  GASm.;  Du..  ft  Ew.. 

%%  Gr.,  Now..  §§  So  Bach.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Now.^,  Fag.. 


258  ZEPHANIAH 

the  first  two  words  of  v.  ^^  as  reproduced  by  <J5,  seems  to  be  an 
editorial  expansion  suggested  by  the  shout  of  v.  ^*.  It  adds  little 
or  nothing  to  the  thought  of  the  foregoing  line  and  it  reflects  the 
late  priestly  point  of  view  in  its  reference  to  the  days  of  festal  as- 
sembly, M,  which  opens  v.  ^^  with  the  last  two  words  of  this 
line,  presents  a  very  difficult,  if  not  wholly  unintelligible  text.  RV. 
renders,  'them  that  sorrow  for  the  solemn  assembly';  AV.,  'sor- 
rowful for  the  feast';  and  others,  'those  grieved  afar  from  the  as- 
sembly,' *  or  'them  that  are  removed  from  the  solemn  assembly.'  f 
But  in  addition  to  this  ambiguity,  the  difficulties  presented  by  the 
phrase  as  it  stands  are  insuperable.  It  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  as  a  part  of  v.  *^,  for  no  suitable  logical  connection 
between  it  and  the  remainder  of  the  verse  can  be  discovered.  Nor 
is  there  any  apparent  reason  why  the  phrase  should  hold  so  em- 
phatic a  position  at  the  head  of  the  sentence.  Nor  can  the  text 
of  (S  and  #  be  derived  from  M-  Consequently,  some  have  aban- 
doned the  phrase,  and  indeed  the  whole  of  v.  ^*,  as  hopeless; J 
while  others  exercise  great  ingenuity  in  attempts  to  discover  a 
satisfactory  substitute.  ($'s  rendering  seems  to  indicate  the  way 
of  escape  for  this  phrase,  at  least.  The  joyous  shout  on  the  festal 
occasion  is,  of  course,  that  of  the  worshippers,  and  to  this  the  joy 
of  Yahweh  is  likened.  This  afifords  an  interesting  side-light  upon 
the  spirit  and  attitude  of  the  devotees  of  the  later  priestly  law. 

Str.  II  represents  Yahweh  himself  as  telling  how  he  will  con- 
vert Judah's  present  disastrous  state  into  one  of  security  and  glory. 
— 18.  /  will  remove  those  smiting  thee  and  those  bringing  reproach 
upon  thee]  On  the  basis  of  M,  the  verb  must  be  taken  as  govern- 
ing the  two  words  which  have  here  been  connected  with  v.  '^. 
The  remainder  of  the  verse,  however,  is  unintelligible.  RV. 
reads,  'who  were  of  thee;  to  whom  the  burden  upon  her  was  a 
reproach." §  But  'of  thee'  is  literally  'from  thee,'  a  wholly 
un-Hebraic  idiom  for  the  expression  of  the  idea  of  'belonging 
to.'  Furthermore,  the  ellipsis  of  the  words  '  to  whom '  is  too  violent 
and  the  meaning  'burden'  is  nowhere  else  applicable  to  DSli'S. 

*  Hi..  Mau..  Dav.,  Dr.(?),  Or..  t  Dr.  {?);  similarly  G.\Sm.. 

X  So  e.  g.  Schw.,  Roth.. 

§  Similarly  AV.,  with  the  variation,  'to  whom  the  reproach  of  it  was  a  burden.' 


3"- "  259 

RVm.  is  even  less  satisfactory,  viz.  'they  have  been  sorrowful 
for  the  solemn  assembly  which  I  took  away  from  thee,  for  the  lift- 
ing up  of  reproach  against  her.'  This  involves  a  difficult  ellipsis  of 
'which,'  an  almost  impossible  syntax  in  'they  have  been  sorrow- 
ful,' and  the  insertion  of  the  preposition  'for'  before  'the  lifting 
up.*  Still  another  attempt  to  make  sense  is,*  'sorrowful  for  the 
feast  which  I  broke  off  are  certain  of  thee,  thou  land  over  which 
reproach  is  raised.'  But 'broke  oflf'is  an  unauthenticated  trans- 
lation of  the  verb,  'certain  of  thee'  is  an  unparalleled  Hebrew 
idiom  and  constitutes  an  impossible  subject  of  the  sentence,  and 
'is  raised '  is  a  very  free  rendering  of '  lifting  up.'  Several  scholars 
follow  (SI  more  or  less  closely  and  render,  '  thy  smitten  ones  I  will 
gather;  woe,  whosoever  lifts  up  reproach  upon  her.'  But  this  is 
at  best  a  rather  disjointed  utterance.  A  smoother  text  with  an 
appropriate  meaning  is  furnished  in,  'I  will  take  away  from  thee 
shame  and  will  lift  reproach  from  upon  thee.'f  But  the  word 
'shame'  is  too  far  removed  from  any  resemblance  to  M-  The 
translation  here  suggested  rests  partly  upon  (^  and  partly  upon 
^  and  presupposes  a  text  from  which  HI  might  have  been  de- 
rived with  relative  ease.  As  thus  read,  the  line  promises  the  over- 
throw of  Israel's  foes  who  have  afflicted  her  and  made  her  an 
occasion  for  the  taunts  of  all  the  surrounding  peoples.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  drop  any  part  of  the  line  or  to  transfer  it  to  another 
context.^ — 19.  Behold,  I  will  deal  with  all  thine  oppressors  at  that 
time]  A  statement  all  the  more  terrible  for  its  indefinite  and  gen- 
eral character.  It  leaves  available  all  the  terrors  of  divine  might 
for  the  execution  of  wrathful  judgment  upon  tyranny  and  iniquity. 
For  a  similarly  indefinite  use  of  the  idiom  'deal  with,'  cf.  Ez.  22" 
23^^'  ^^  Je.  21^  Ps.  109^^  The  'time'  referred  to  is,  of  course,  the 
great  day  of  Yahweh,  upon  which  all  of  Israel's  wrongs  are  to  be 
made  right. — And  I  will  rescue  the  halt  and  the  outcast  I  will 
gather]  Cf.  Mi.  4«-  ^  Ez.  34^"  Zc.  II^^  The  terms  'halt'  and  'out- 
cast' are  applied  to  the  dispersion  as  a  whole.  They  suggest  the 
homeless  and  crippled  condition  of  the  Hebrew  people  scattered 
among  the  nations,  like  a  flock  of  sheep  without  a  shepherd. — 

*  Ew..  t  Marti. 

X  Contra  Fag.  who  orn.  ICD  \1CDN  as  a  gloss;  and  Now.  and  van  H.  who  tr.  the  same  phrase 
to  follow  Nin.T  arj  in  v.  ". 


26o  ZEPHANIAH 

A  nd  I  will  make  them  a  praise  and  a  name  in  all  the  earth]  Those 
who  have  been  an  object  of  the  scorn  and  contempt  of  the  nations 
are  now  to  become  the  object  of  envy  and  renown  the  world  over. 
This  is  a  fitting  climax  to  a  prophecy  of  restoration.*  fj|  adds 
at  the  end  of  this  line  the  phrase,  their  shame]  This  has  always 
caused  difficulty  to  translators  and  interpreters,  (g  treated  it  as 
a  verb,  'and  they  will  be  ashamed';  but  this  calls  for  a  different 
text  and,  even  at  that,  is  very  poorly  suited  to  this  context.  H 
considered  it  as  in  the  construct  relation  with  the  preceding  word, 
'land  of  their  shame';  but  this  involves  an  anomaly  in  Hebrew 
grammar.  Others  render,  'whose  shame  was  in  all  the  earth ';t 
and  this  is  the  easiest  disposition  of  the  phrase,  if  it  must  be  re- 
tained. But  even  this  would  naturally  call  for  a  different  order  of 
words  in  M,  and  places  an  unnatural  emphasis  upon  the  preceding 
'them,'  %iz.  ' I  will  make  them  a  praise  whose  shame,  etc.'.  Hence 
it  is,  on  the  whole,  better  to  omit  the  phrase  either  as  a  gloss  or  as 
a  corrupt  dittog.  of  C3\m2tr  nS  '•nVw'^  in  v.  2".— 20.  This  verse 
is  generally  recognised  as  being  only  a  weak  variant  or  repetitious 
expansion  of  v.  *®,J  which  adds  nothing  to  the  thought  already  ex- 
pressed.— In  the  time  when  I  do  good  to  you  and  in  the  time  when 
I  gather  you]  Originally,  this  was  probably  the  continuation  and 
close  of  the  previous  line.  With  a  change  to  direct  address,  the 
fact  is  clearly  indicated  that  the  glorification  of  Israel  is  to  be 
simultaneous  with  the  return  of  the  exiles  now  scattered  through- 
out the  known  world. — For  I  will  make  you  a  name  and  a  praise 
among  all  the  peoples  of  the  earth]  A  repetition  of  v.  ^°°,  with  a 
slightly  different  order  of  words  and  a  change  of  person.  It  is 
likewise  continued  and  completed  by  the  addition  of  a  temporal 
clause,  viz.  When  I  turn  your  captivity  before  your  eyes,  saith 
Yahweh]  For  the  phrase  'turn  your  captivity,  v.  note  on  2^.  'Be- 
fore your  eyes,'  /'.  e.  in  your  own  lifetime;  cf.  Is.  52^ 

The  measure  of  this  section  is  pentameter,  which  is  on  the  whole  well 
sustained,  the  only  irregularity  being  in  cases  where  the  text  is  in  doubt. 
The  second  str.  has  suffered  textually  more  than  the  first.     Its  four  lines 

♦  Du.'s  proposition  to  close  the  poem  with  v.  '•,  makinf;  this  a  later  prose  supplement,  seems 
to  have  little  basis  beyond  the  somewhat  prosaic  character  of  v.  ".  But  v.  i'  also  is  open  to 
that  rriticism. 

t  So  Ew.,  RV'.;  cj.  AV.,  "every  land  where  they  have  been  put  to  shame." 

J  So  e.  ^.  Schw.,  We.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Sicv.,  Fag.,  Du.. 


3"-'"  26i 

might  be  increased  to  six  by  the  incorporation  of  v.  '»^-  "=;  but  this  is  un- 
attractive, if  for  no  other  reason  than  that  it  results  in  two  somewhat 
heavy  temporal  clauses,  in  apposition  one  with  the  other,  following  the 
main  clause. 

The  unity  of  the  section  has  been  disturbed;  w.  "•  "<=•  ^°  are  later  ad- 
ditions {v.  s.).  Not  only  so,  but  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Str.  II 
really  belongs  with  Str.  I.  The  change  of  person  in  v.  '^  might  point  to 
a  new  departure  in  the  thought;  and  the  variation  in  the  length  of  the 
two  strs.  suggests  different  origins  for  them;  so  e.  g.,  Roth.;  cf.  Dr..  But, 
on  the  whole,  it  is  simpler  to  treat  the  second  as  complementary  to  the 
first,  especially  since  the  basis  for  the  appearance  of  Yahweh  speaking 
in  his  own  person  is  laid  in  v.  ". 

The  passage  as  a  whole  (vv.  '^-^o)  is  quite  generally  assigned  to  an  ex- 
ilic or  postexilic  date  by  modern  interpreters;  the  defenders  of  Zepha- 
niah's  authorship  are  now  few,  viz.  Ko.  Einl.;  WRS.,  art.  Zephaniah, 
EB.;  Dr.  (?);  Or.,  and  Stk..  On  the  side  of  late  origin  may  be  cited, 
Oort,  Godgeleerde  Bijdragen,  1865,  PP-  8^2  ff.;  Sta.*^^'',  644;  Kue. 
Einl.  §  78;  We.;  Schw.;  Bu.  SK.  1S93,  PP-  393  ff-  ^"^  Cesch.  89;  Cor.; 
Wildeboer,  Litt.  d.  AT.;  Dav.;  Now.;  GASm.;  Grimm,  Lt.  A  pp.  95/.; 
Baudissin,  Einl.;  Strack,  Einl.^;  Beer;  Roth.;  Du.;  Kent.  The  consid- 
erations in  favour  of  the  late  date  are  convincing.  Threats  of  punish- 
ment give  way  here  wholly  to  promises  of  peace  and  pardon.  The  ces- 
sation of  Israel's  affliction  is  decreed;  the  restoration  of  the  favour  of 
'■I  is  assured.  The  exile  and  dispersion  are  taken  for  granted  as  well- 
known  facts.  The  return  of  exiles  is  predicted.  The  whole  spirit  and 
tone  of  the  section  is  that  of  Zc.  14  and  the  so-called  Deutero-Isaiah. 
The  total  severance  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  promises  here  made  from  all 
historical  agencies  is  characteristic  of  Messianic  and  eschatological  utter- 
ances of  later  times. 

1 .  u"'"^'"']  This  use  of  the  pi.  as  over  against  the  sg.  in  ^:-\  and  'ncc  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  SNiri  was  not  so  keenly  felt  to  be  an  individual  and 
personal  epithet  as  were  i^s  na  and  oSs'n'  n3;  the  collective  idea  was 
more  in  evidence. — '^niu"]  d  =  a'^i'n^  na;  so  Now.. — 15.  T:3Dii'?:]  Rd. 
"I'-^pij-p,  with  ®;  so  We.,  OortE™-,  Now.,  Marti,  Siev.,  Fag.,  Roth.. 
Hal.  i:o-3C'7.  The  objection  that  a  forensic  term  like  'i;'p  is  a  hardly 
suitable  designation  of  Israel's  enemies  is  not  weighty  in  view  of  Jb.  9" 
and  the  bitterness  and  wrath  that  Job  attributes  to  his  'opponent'  who  is 
none  less  than  '"  himself,  the  source  of  all  Job's  sufferings. — njs]  C5  Xe- 
XdrpwTai  ffe;  hence  Schw.  p  ^^:^.  Schw.  objects  to  M  on  the  ground 
that  in  its  seven  other  occurrences  njs  always  means  'make  clear,'  'pre- 
pare,' a  meaning  not  suitable  here.  But  &  ul  H  approve  the  meaning 
'remove,'  'take  away';  this  is  a  legitimate  and  natural  development  of 
the  primary  meaning,  'turn';  and  it  is  not  so  certain  that  this  is  not  the 
meaning  required  in  Ps.  So'". — I^'n]  Rd.  t:'n',  with  many  mss.  of  Kenn. 


262  ZEPHANIAH 

and  de  R.,  (S  »  B  S.— I'r-c]  (S><<=»  '"<>•'•  '■  •>•  A.Y  HP.  22,  26,  36,  42,  51, 
62,  86,  95,  106,  185,  228,  238,  240, 311,  /3o(ri\ei5<r«  =  •:\^v;  so  Marti,  Siev., 
Fag.,  Roth.. — ':'N->r'']  Marti,  Fag.,  Roth.  om..  Siev.  tr.  to  foil.  ia"<p3. — 
-i<-\r]  (6  ovK  6fri  =  iS;  so  ft.  "B  non  timebis  =  ''Ni'n;  so  Bab.  Cod.,  38 
mss.  of  Kenn.  and  31  of  de  R  and  the  Baer  and  Ginsburg  Bibles.  QI 
thou  shall  nol  be  alarmed  at  the  siglU  of  evil. — 16.  ^cn']  (&  ipei  Kiipios. — 
•'NT'O  Sn]  (6  positively,  Odpffei. — 17.  j;^cm>]  Adjectival  impf.  =  a  rela- 
tive clause.  <S  ffuxrei.  ae.  &  treats  as  prtc  . — 'r^  yhy  ca"]  (8  iird^et 
iirl  <ri  €i)<ppoff{ivt}v. — 'iy^-in']  Rd.  r^n',  with  (5  Kaiviei  <r(  and  &;  so  Buhl 
{ZAW.  V,  183),  GASm.,  Dr.,  Roth.,  Du..  B  silebit.  Houb.  vnny,  so 
New.,  Ew.,  Hi..  Gr.  iB-nn'';  so  Now..  Bach.  B'\s  Drn/.  Schw.  nnm  (?); 
so  Oort^™-.  Mijller  {SK.  1907,  p.  310),  rnn^  =  'he  roars,'  or  'effer- 
vesces,' 'boils  over'  {cf.  Ps.  45^);  so  van  H.. — i.iansa]  Some  del.  3.  The 
force  of  a  in  nnara  and  nj-\3  seems  to  call  for  the  meaning  'with'  or 
'in'  here  also.  This  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  nn  does  not  elsewhere 
take  an  obj.  with  a. — t'^^]  Fag.  om.. — 18.  •";^^2D  uu]  Rd.  li'^D  oi'3  and 
join  it  to  V.  '%  with  <8>  ws  iv  vi^^P'}  eopTTJs  and  &  QI;  so  Buhl  {ZAW. 
V,  183),  Schw.  (?),  Gr.,  OortE'"-,  Now.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Fag.,  Du..  V 
nugas,  qui  a  lege  recesserant.  Hal.  'cD  \Jio,  Hoph.  prtc.  of  -j/  nj^;  so 
Dr.  (?).  Bach,  'cd  D''i.r3  [^'^■':)■]•  Siev.  'co  ^r.wjj.  B's  nugas  is  an 
etymolog}^  suggested  by  the  resemblance  in  sound,  but  without  any  basis 
in  fact.  The  form  in  M  must  be  Niph.  prtc.  1/  nj^,  with  an  obtusion  of  ^ 
to  V,  Ges.  ^«".  The  fem.  n^'ji:  occurs  in  La.  i*.  The  form  might 
also  be  derived  from  another  nj'-  which  in  Hiph.  =  'push  away';  but  no 
Niph.  form  of  this  root  occurs  elsewhere,  nor  is  the  only  known  form  of 
the  Hiph.  (2  S.  20'^)  absolutely  guaranteed  textually.  Cf.  Ko.  I,  582. 
— \-^ddn]  (S  =  'ay,  9  mss.  of  HP.  =  Kal  awA^ei.  ^  I  will  cause  to  pass 
away.  Bach.  D'n£3pN. — ice]  Rd.  T?c,  with  <8  roiis  (rvvrerpifin^vovs 
{+  ffov  (gAQ);  so  Schw.  (?),  Now.,  van  H..  B.  quia  ex  te.  Hal.  -)?>:. 
Buhl  (/.  c),  TiONC.  The  only  other  case  cited  for  the  prep.  |C  as  =  '  belong- 
ing to'  or  'springing  from'  is  Is.  58"  and  there  the  text  is  almost  certainly 
corrupt  as  it  is  here.  The  Snicks  of  Ezr.  2='  is  not  quite  analogous. — 
nscn  vn]  Rd.  O'N^is'Dn;  cf.  &  those  who  were  speaking.  (&  oiial  rls 
(Xa^ev  =  KZ'i  'D  MH.  Aq.  of;  so  S.  B  erant  ut  non  ultra  habeas. 
(6's  MH  is  adopted  by  Buhl,  Schw.,  Oort^""-,  Now.,  van  H.,  Fag..  We. 
Ptft'i:.  Hal.  "inKa'p;  so  Dr.  (?).  Buhl,  Nb*'  ^c;  so  Now.,  van  H.,  Fag.. 
Marti,  vnn'fj)  nnSs;  so  Now."  (?),  Roth.  (?).  Siev.  lv'<JB'p  vn.  The 
rendering  of  j?  'z'o  by  "the  burden  upon  her"  is  liable  to  three  objec- 
tions; (i)  the  anarthrous  character  of  'r:;  (2)  the  elision  of  the  relative 
pronoun  and  the  copula;  (3)  the  meaning  'burden'  is  required  nowhere 
else.  The  Hiph.  prtc.  here  proposed  is  not  elsewhere  found;  but  the 
use  of  the  Hiph.  is  assured  by  Lv.  22'*,  even  if  2  S.  17"  be  unsafe.  The 
literal  rendering  with  this  reading  becomes,  'those  who  smote  thee  and 
those  who  caused  (others)  to  lift  up  reproach  against  thee.' — n^^y]  Rd. 


16-20  263 


3 

-1^^?,  with  »,  Bab.  Cod.,  and  several  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.;  so  OortE™-, 
Fag  .     We.    on^^r;    so  Hal..— 19.  nu-y]  H  inter jiciam.     Gr.  adds  rhz', 
so  Now.,  Marti,  "siev.,  Fag..     Van  H.  tr. ':-.]  to  foU.  'y  and  reads  it  n^.;.- 
yr^n  Sa  pn]  <5   «?»'   <^oi  ^"^e"  '^«''';   b^""  GASm.  'hj^Id'?  Sj-hn;    simi- 
larly Du      (S^  «"««"  ^AwC  (so  9  mss.  of  HP.).     Roth.  ^JjpS  "ins.    » 
(/^^m  a//  A«m6/e  in  the  midst  of  thee.-^^r^n  nya]  (S^^'^Q^  HP.  48,  228, 
add  X^«  Ki^ptos.    &H  under  asterisk.     Marti  om.  as  dittog.  from  v.  ^»;  so 
Siev     Fag  — 2>PceM]  CS^Bom..     No.  Gotting.  gel.  Anzeig.  1871,  p.  897, 
dd.  D  and  makes  foil,  'co  obj..-D.-]  <S  pL.-cnro]  «  Kara.<rx..^^<ro.Tac. 
»  om.;  so  Schw.,  We.,  Dav.,  Now.,  GASm.,  OortE--,  Dr.  (?)   Marti, 
Siev    Fag.,  Roth.,  Du..     Gr.  inserts  nnn  before 'a;  so  Hal.,  Dr.  (?).    As 
parallel  cases  for  a  cstr.  with  the  art.,  there  have  been  cited  Jos.  3^'  8>' 
I  S  2"  2  K  7"  Je.  25";  but  in  every  one  of  these  instances  there  is  good 
ground  for' suspecting  corruption  of  the  text.-20.  no«  N>nn  nya]  Rd., 
with  Buhl   O>0^n  n>'3  (c/.  «  iv  t<?  /ca^v  iKehif  Srav  KaXds  ititv  iroi-nao,); 
so  also  van  H..     Cf.  Schw.  (?),  =^o>«  N^nn  nio;  so  Gr.,  GASm    OortE-, 
Du  ->«p  np.3i]  Rd.  'p  n>:3i,  with  Buhl.     «  /cal  ^.  ry  /caw  ^rav  ehS^- 
^oM«*.     Schw.  nP«  t<>nn  nv3i;  so  We.,  Now.,  GASm.  (?),  Marti,  Dr., 
Siev    Fag    Roth..     It  is  difficult  to  see  how  so  easy  and  natural  a  read- 
ing i  this'latter  one  could  have  given  way  to  the  rarer  idiom  suggested 
by  M,  which  bears  the  stamp  of  originality.     If  this  be  correct,  there  is  a 
strong  presupposition  in  favour  of  the  similar  reading  here  adopted  for 
the  first  part  of  the  line.-=3>nu..]  Rd.  D.^nu-f,  with  (S  »  B  and  14 
Heb.  mss.;  so  Schw..  We.,  Now.,  GASm.,  BDB.,  Marti.  Fag.. 


A  CRITICAL   AND    EXEGETICAL 
COMMENTARY  ON  NAHUM 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  BOOK  OF 
NAHUM. 

§  I.    THE  BOOK  OF  NAHUM. 

lis  Contents. 

The  first  section  of  the  book  of  Nahum  as  it  now  stands  sets 
forth  the  avenging  wrath  of  Yahweh  {i^-^°).  Though  manifested 
with  reluctance,  yet  its  exhibition  against  the  ungodly  is  inevitable. 
Its  outpouring  throws  the  physical  universe  into  convulsions,  but 
Yahweh  furnishes  shelter  from  his  wrath  to  those  that  trust  in  him. 
Those  that  oppose  him  are  irrevocably  destroyed.  The  second 
section  (i"-2^)  alternates  between  words  of  reproach  or  threaten- 
ing against  some  imnamed  foe  (supposedly  Nineveh)  and  promises 
of  comfort  and  deliverance  to  Judah. 

The  remainder  of  the  book  deals  with  one  subject,  viz.  the 
approaching  destruction  of  Nineveh.  The  material,  however, 
divides  itself  into  two  sections,  viz.  2^^"  and  3^"^^.  The  former  of 
these  begins  so  abruptly  as  to  suggest  that  the  original  beginning  of 
the  section  is  either  lost  or  else  embodied  in  i"-2^.  The  section 
as  a  whole  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  attack  upon  Nineveh,  the 
capture,  the  weeping  of  the  women,  the  flight  of  the  defenders  and 
the  plunder  of  the  city's  treasures  and  closes  with  a  taunt-song  con- 
trasting Nineveh's  past  tyranny  and  robbery  with  the  waste  and 
desolate  state  which  awaits  her.  The  closing  section  (3^"®),  ad- 
dressed directly  to  the  doomed  city,  first  of  all  presents  concretely 
the  awful  state  in  store  for  her.  The  reason  for  this  is  then  as- 
signed as  lying  in  her  treacherous  treatment  of  other  nations. 
Hence  she  is  to  be  made  the  butt  of  the  scorn  of  these  nations.  If 
she  flatters  herself  that  she  is  impregnable,  let  her  recall  the  over- 
throw of  the  invincible  Thebes.  Panic  wiU  seize  her  defenders 
and  she  will  fall  an  easy  prey.    No  matter  how  zealous  she  be  in 

267 


268  NAHUM 

strengthening  her  defences,  fire  and  sword  will  destroy  her,  and 
her  population  will  scatter  like  a  brood  of  locusts,  leaving  behind 
no  clue.  Her  destruction  will  be  total  and  final  and  will  call  forth 
the  plaudits  of  all  peoples. 

Its  Unity. 

No  question  was  raised  as  to  the  unity  of  the  book  of  Nahum 
until  the  appearance  of  Gunk.'s  article  in  ZAW.  for  1893.  Ber- 
thold  had,  indeed,  in  18 14*  asserted  that  the  three  chapters  were 
independent  one  of  another  and  claimed  that,  though  from  one  au- 
thor, they  were  separated  by  slight  intervals  of  time.  Gunk.,  how- 
ever, asserted  not  only  the  independence  of  ch.  i,  but  also  its  origin 
from  a  different  hand.  Essentially  this  view  has  been  followed  by 
nearly  all  succeeding  interpreters. f  The  considerations  pointing 
to  another  and  later  origin  for  i^"^**  are  as  follows.  The  acrostic 
form  in  which  the  material  is  cast  seems  too  mechanical  and  arti- 
ficial for  a  poet  of  Nahum's  vigour  and  freshness.  The  psalm-like 
character  of  the  language,  first  noted  by  We.,  is  in  marked  con- 
trast with  the  language  of  prophecy.  The  theological  and  abstract 
nature  of  the  thought  of  i^  ^-  is  strikingly  different  from  that  of  the 
concrete  and  vivid  tableaux  of  chs.  2  and  3.  This  is  the  language 
of  reflection,  not  that  of  prophetic  passion  forged  in  the  heat  of  cur- 
rent controversy  and  hope.  The  descriptions  here  might  be  ap- 
plied to  almost  any  foe;  they  lack  the  specific  detail  of  chs.  2  and  3. 
In  i^  ^-j  the  wrath  of  Yahweh  is  let  loose  upon  Bashan,  Carmel 
and  Lebanon;  whereas,  in  chs.  2  and  3,  Nineveh  is  the  sole  object 
of  his  anger.  The  indefinite  and  eschatological  character  of  the 
acrostic  distinguishes  it  sharply  from  genuine  prophecy,  such  as  is 
found  in  chs.  2  and  3.  It  is  true,  as  is  urged  by  GASm.,  that 
vagueness  and  eschatological  tone  are  found  in  Zephaniah;  but 
there  the  eschatological  material  leads  naturally  and  smoothly 
to  the  announcement  of  the  coming  historical  events  which  are  to 

*  FJnl.,  cited  by  Hap.. 

t  Exceptions  are  Da  v.,  who  refrains  from  a  decision;  GASm.,  who  admits  "  many  provocations 
to  belief"  in  the  late  origin  of  ch.  i,  but  docs  not  regard  it  as  proved,  and  therefore  leaves  the 
question  open-  and  Or.,  who  ascribes  the  acrostic  to  Nahum  whom  he  believes  to  have  used  so 
much  of  an  earlier  f)ocm  of  his  own  as  seemed  appropriate  here. 


UNITY  269 

fulfil  the  expectations  of  the  prophet.  Here,  the  eschatological 
theophany  is  without  practical  issue  and  lacks  connection  of  any 
kind  with  the  final  catastrophe,  which  is  historically  mediated. 

Various  hypotheses  have  been  formulated  as  to  the  way  in  which 
the  acrostic  became  a  part  of  the  book  of  Nahum.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  the  union  was  deliberate  rather  than  accidental. 
But,  was  the  acrostic  as  it  now  stands  originally  written  as  an  intro- 
duction to  Nahum?  Or  was  it,  though  written  for  this  purpose, 
thoroughly  revised  at  some  later  date?*  Or  again,  is  it  a  poem 
found  ready  at  hand  and  forced  into  this  service  by  some  editor  who 
failed  to  appreciate  its  acrostic  form?t  These  questions  cannot 
be  answered  with  any  high  degree  of  assurance;  but  the  last 
mentioned  hypothesis  seems  the  more  likely;  for  the  introduction 
does  not  fit  sufficiently  well  to  have  been  made  to  order. 

From  the  remainder  of  ch.  i,  viz.  vv.  "-^^  a  portion  consisting 
of  w.  ^^-  "■  ^^  is  to  be  joined  with  chap.  2  and  set  aside  as  an  inter- 
polation, which  balances  the  foregoing  judgment  upon  the  heathen 
with  an  announcement  of  deliverance  for  the  people  of  God.  The 
genuine  Nahum  first  appears  in  i"-  "  2^-  ^  This,  however,  is 
scarcely  to  be  accepted  as  the  original  opening  of  the  prophecy.  It 
is  altogether  too  abrupt  and  broken.  The  probability  is  that  the 
acrostic  has  displaced  some  material  which  formed  the  original 
beginning  of  the  prophecy. 

The  only  other  extraneous  matter  in  the  book  is  found  at  the 
very  end,  viz.  3*^-  ^^.  These  verses  were  suspected  as  later  than 
the  rest  by  We.;  and  the  fact  that  they  seem  to  reflect  the  fall  of 
Nineveh,  together  with  their  variation  from  the  str.  norm  of  their 
context,  makes  it  probable  that  We.  suspected  the  truth. 

One  other  portion,  viz.  2"-3^,  has  been  suspected  of  having  been 
subjected  to  a  thorough  working  over.J  The  grounds  alleged  for 
this  suspicion  were  (i)  the  probability  that  the  original  metre  was 
elegiac,  (2)  the  theological  colouring  which  was  thought  to  recall 
the  style  of  Ezekiel.  But  the  only  theological  element  in  the  pas- 
sage is  the  statement  that  Nineveh's  downfall  is  due  to  Yahweh's 
indignation  against  her  sins.     The  fact  that  elsewhere  Nahum 

*  So  We..  t  So  Now.,  Dr.,  van  H.,  Kennedy. 

t  Viz.  by  Bu.  EB.  (1902);  but  the  passage  remains  unchallenged  in  his  Gesch.  (1906). 


270  NAIIUM 

says  nothing  directly  about  Yahweh's  part  in  the  punishment 
surely  does  not  prohibit  him  from  speaking  of  it  here,  especially 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  idea  is  one  characteristic  of  all  genu- 
ine prophecy. 

Attempts  to  dissolve  Nahum  into  its  original  elements  and  to 
reconstruct  these  in  combinations  wholly  new  and  radically  differ- 
ent from  that  found  in  M  have  been  made  by  Hap.  and  Hpt.. 
The  former  regards  ch.  i  as  having  been  constituted  of  two  differ- 
ent sections,  viz.  i^^"  and  i^^b-is  xhese  were  worked  over  and 
cemented  together  by  i"-  ^"^.  Chs.  2  and  3  Hap.  declares  to  be 
independent  of  ch.  i  and  each  independent  of  the  other,  the  three 
chapters  having  been  written  by  three  different  hands.  This  view 
finds  no  adequate  support  in  the  text  and  is  cited  merely  as  a  curi- 
osity of  interpretation. 

Hpt.  designates  the  book  as  a  liturgical  collection  of  four  poems, 
the  first  two  belonging  to  the  Maccabaean  age  and  the  last  two  to 
the  days  immediately  preceding  the  fall  of  Nineveh  in  606  B.C.. 
The  materials  belonging  to  the  four  poems  are:  (i)  i^^°;  (2)  3^"^ 

jU.  14  2I   1I2.  15  22.   (2)   ^8-15.   (^)   ^2.  3  23a-5.  8b.  6-8a.   7.   9-12^       J^  SUppOrt 

of  this  extraordinary  bouleversement,  not  a  shred  of  argument  is 
proffered.  Something  more  than  a  mere  ipse  dixit  is  needed  to 
render  such  a  proposal  worthy  of  serious  consideration. 

Its  Poetic  Form. 

For  the  last  thirty  years,  the  poetic  form  of  ch.  i  has  been  the 
subject  of  repeated  consideration.  The  remainder  of  the  book 
has  received  relatively  little  attention.  Bick.  first  presented  a  re- 
construction of  ch.  I  showing  its  acrostic  character.*  By  an  in- 
genious but  fanciful  method,  he  found  the  acrostic  completed 
within  i^^**  (v.  following  commentary),  Gunk.f  abandoned  the 
attempt  to  discover  the  complete  alphabet  in  the  initial  letters  of 
the  lines  in  w.  ^^°  and,  on  the  basis  of  We.'s  elimination  of  i^^-"  2^ 
as  an  interpolation,  blazed  a  new  path  by  carrying  the  acrostic  on 
through  ch.  i  and  into  the  beginning  of  ch.  2,  its  constituent  ele- 

*  In  ZDMG.  XXXIV  (1880),  550  f!.;  similarly  also  in  Carmine  Veleris  Teslamenti  melrice 
(1882),  and  on  vv.  '-'"  in  Zeitschrifl  fiir  Kathol.  Theologie  for  1886,  pp.  550  ff.. 
t  la  ZAW.  XIII  (1893). 


POETIC   FORM  271 

ments  being  i^*°-  *'•  "  2^-  ^.  This  new  trail  was  followed  by  Bick. 
in  his  latest  publication  on  the  subject,*  but  with  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent arrangement  of  the  materials,  w.  ^^-  ^°-  ^  being  placed  be- 
tween w.  ^  and  ^°  and  some  new  readings  being  proposed.  Gunk, 
in  tumf  accepted  some  of  Bick.'s  modifications  and  supplied  the 
missing  3  and  p  lines  of  which  he  had  despaired  in  1893.  Now. 
in  his  first  edition  (1897)  accepted  in  essence  the  conclusions  of 
Gimk.  and  Bick.|  Dav.  (1896)  and  Dr.§  both  assumed  a  scepti- 
cal attitude  toward  the  existence  of  an  acrostic;  while  GASm. 
(1898)  recognised  the  traces  of  an  alphabetical  arrangement  as  far 
as  i^,  though  questioning  the  success  of  the  preceding  efforts  to 
restore  it.  We.  (1898)  granted  the  alphabetic  structure  of  w.  ^, 
but  denied  any  further  trace  of  it.**  Grayff  admitted  the  exist- 
ence of  the  acrostic  throughout  ch.  i  and  on  into  ch.  2,  but  regarded 
attempts  to  restore  it  beyond  i®  as  wholly  conjectural. JJ  Siev. 
likewise  abandoned  the  effort  to  restore  the  acrostic  beyond  i^,  but 
declared  that  the  rhythm  showed  that  the  acrostic  was  not  con- 
tinued in  ch.  2.§§  Am.  (1901)  presented  the  view  that  the  pres- 
ence of  the  acrostic  is  due  to  the  work  of  a  redactor,  who  cited  it 
from  memory  but  forgot  the  latter  part  of  it  together  with  its  orig- 
inal order  and  the  fact  that  it  was  an  acrostic;  consequently  it  can 
be  recovered  only  in  w.  *'**'•  "^  and  there  only  by  dint  of  much 
change  of  text  and  transposition  of  words  and  clauses.  Marti 
(1904)  too  limits  the  acrostic  to  w.  ^^°  and  declares  it  to  be  a  torso, 
the  balance  of  which  is  irrecoverable.***  Van  H.  renews  the  at- 
tempt to  complete  the  acrostic  within  1^-2^,  but  the  many  violent 
emendations  and  transpositions  involved  in  his  reconstruction  of 
the  latter  part  mark  his  effort  as  only  an  academic  exercise. 

In  the  following  commentary,  the  acrostic  is  carried  only  through 

*  Beilrdge  zur  semit.  Metrik  (1894). 

t  Schopjung  und  Chaos  (1895),  pp.  102  /.. 

%  So  also  Hap.  Psalm  Na.  (1900)  and  Das  Buck  Na.  (1902). 

§  In   Expos.  T.  1897. 

**  So  also  N0W.2  (1903);  Lohr,  ZAW.  XXV  (1905),  174  /.. 

tt  Exp.  for  1898,  pp.  207-220. 

XX  So  also  Kennedy  in  DB.  art.  Nahum  (1900).  Dr.  (1906)  follows  Gray's  reconstruction 
of  w.  *■',  but  questions  the  acrostic  character  of  vv.  'o  S-. 

§§  Metrische  Studien  (1901). 

***  So  also  Hpt.  JBL.  XXVI  (1907)  and  ZDMG.  LXI  (1907),  275-97;  Stk.  (1908);  Du. 
(1910). 


272  NAHUM 

i'°  and  the  reconstruction  is  substantially  that  of  Gunk,  as  emended 
by  Bick.,  Marti,  et  al..  Hexameter  rhythm  prevails  throughout 
this  poem,  with  the  caesura  after  the  third  beat,  except  in  1.  i  where 
it  follows  the  fourth  beat.  The  poem  was  perhaps  organised  orig- 
inally into  strs.  of  sLx  lines  each,  but  nothing  certain  can  be  gath- 
ered from  the  fragment  before  us. 

The  poetic  form  of  chs.  2  and  3  remains  to  be  considered. 
Greve  (1793)  was  one  of  the  first  to  treat  the  prophecy  as  poetry. 
Eich.  (1816)  arranged  it  in  strs..  Poetical  versions  were  offered 
also  by  Justi  (1820),  New.  (1836),  A.  G.  Hoelemannus  (1842),  Um. 
(1844),  Bretschneider  (1861)  and  Ew.  (1867).  But  none  of  these 
had  any  inkling  of  the  nature  of  Heb.  metre.  In  recent  times,  Bu. 
has  pointed  out  the  existence  of  elegiac  rhythm  in  chs.  2  and  3.* 
Rub.  contributed  a  study  of  the  oracle  in  i'^-  "  2^-  *'^*,-\  concerning 
the  poetic  form  of  which  he  said,  "the  whole  prophecy  is  written 
in  lines  or  arC'^^ot,  every  (xrC'Xp^  consisting  of  two  or  three  KwXa." 
Accordingly  he  found  twenty  arL')(OL,  of  which  fourteen  were  com- 
posed of  two  KOika  each,  five  of  three  KoiKa  each,  and  one  of  only 
one  KwXov.  But  the  unevenness  of  the  KOiXa,  which  range  from 
three  beats  to  six  in  length,  robs  this  arrangement  of  any  real  value. 
In  1901,  Siev.  arranged  2^'^  in  pentameters,  following  Bu.'s  hint. 
Hap.  (1902)  was  the  first  in  recent  times  to  arrange  the  whole  book 
as  poetry.  His  str.  arrangement  in  part  coincides  with  that  pre- 
sented in  this  commentary ;  e.  g.  the  number  of  strs.  in  chs.  2  and 
3  is  the  same  in  both  arrangements  and  the  first  and  second  strs.  of 
ch.  3  include  the  same  materials  in  both.  But  Hap.'s  reconstruc- 
tion is  subject  to  serious  criticism  at  several  points;  e.  g.  2^'^  can 
hardly  be  made  to  yield  two  lines,  nor  2^°  four;  nor  can  ]^'0'^^  i<b^ 
'\Di<bD  b^p  liy  (2"^)  be  divided  into  two  lines;  nor  is  it  easy  to 
justify  the  presence  of  dimeter  (3^)  and  tetrameter  (3^")  lines  in 
the  same  str.  in  immediate  juxtaposition  (so  also  in  3").  Marti 
(1904)  finds  one  seven-line  str.  in  elegiac  rhythm  in  i'^-  "•  ^^  2^  and 
organises  i"-  "  2^-  ^-3^^  into  a  series  of  four-line  strs.,  which  as  a 
rule  exhibit  the  same  elegiac  movement.  But  this  adherence 
to  the  four-line  str.  is  possible  only  at  the  cost  of  disregarding 

♦  First  in  2.41^^.  11  (1882),  35;  also  in  EB.  3263  and  Gesch.  p.  90. 
t  PSBA.  XX  (1898),  173-85. 


POETIC  FORM  273 

logical  continuity.  The  study  by  Hpt.  (1907)  is  valuable  not  for 
its  poetic  analysis  and  arrangement  which  are  arbitrary  in  the  ex- 
treme (v.  p.  270),  but  for  the  many  lexicographical  and  grammat- 
ical hints  it  contains.  Stk.  (1908)  attempts  no  str.  analysis,  but 
prints  his  text  in  metrical  lines  and  indicates  their  metrical  charac- 
ter. In  this  task,  he  is  under  no  compulsion  to  produce  lines  con- 
forming to  a  imiform  metrical  standard;  but,  on  the  contrar)^,  in 
3^"*^,  for  example,  permits  the  appearance  of  heptameter,  dimeter, 
trimeter,  hexameter,  tetrameter  and  octameter  lines.  This  is  to 
disregard  all  knowTi  laws  of  poetic  form  and  introduce  chaos. 
Du.  (1910)  recognises  the  elegiac  metre  throughout  chs.  2  and 
3  and,  like  Marti,  applies  the  standard  of  the  fovu^-line  str.  con- 
sistently throughout  the  prophecy.  He,  however,  secures  four 
four-line  strs.  from  2^'^  where  Marti  finds  only  three,  two  from 
2"  to  Marti's  one,  and  three  from  3®-  ^"  to  Marti's  two.  His  ar- 
rangement also  involves  transposing  3**^  to  follow  3'^*. 

In  the  reconstruction  of  the  poetical  form  of  i"-3^®  presented  in 
this  commentary,  the  text  is  divided  into  three  sections,  viz.  (i) 
ji2.  13. 15  ^2^  (2)  x".  "  2^-  ^'^,  (3)  s'-''-  The  first  is  composed  of 
a  single  eight-line  str.  in  almost  perfect  elegiac  rhythm.  The 
second  comprises  five  strs.,  the  first  four  having  six  lines  each  and 
the  fifth  one  only  three.  Here  elegiac  rhythm  reveals  itself  in 
i"  2^-  ''•  ^-  *•  ^-  ^^;  the  variants  from  this  are  tetrameter  and  hex- 
ameter lines.  In  the  third  section,  six  strs.  are  contained,  hav- 
ing 8.6.6.6.8.4  lines  each,  though  the  final  str.  may  be  a  later 
accretion  (v.  p.  269).  Elegiac  rhythm  recurs  here  in  3^''-  ^-  ^-  ^^• 
11.  12.  M.  15.  18.  19.  j.j^g  remaining  lines  are  chiefly  tetrameters  and 
hexameters  as  in  ch.  2.  To  create  elegiac  rhythm  consistently 
throughout  chs.  2  and  3  involves  a  treatment  of  the  text  which 
does  despite  to  all  sound  canons  of  textual  criticism. 

Though  the  rhythm  and  metre  of  Nahum  are  not  so  smooth  and 
regular  as  is  the  case  with  some  Heb.  prophets,  yet  in  some  re- 
spects the  poetry  of  Nahum  is  unsurpassed  in  the  OT..  His  excel- 
lence is  not  in  sublimity  of  thought,  depth  of  feeling,  purity  of 
motive,  or  insight  into  truth  and  Ufe.  It  is  rather  in  his  descrip- 
tive powers.  He  has  an  unexcelled  capacity  to  bring  a  situation 
vividly  before  the  mind's  eye.     His  constructive  imagination  lays 


274  NAHUM 

hold  of  the  central  elements  of  a  scene  and  with  realistic  imagery 
and  picturesque  phraseology  recreates  it  for  his  readers.  Accurate 
and  detailed  observation  assists  in  giving  his  pictures  verisimilitude. 
Lowth  righdy  said,*  "Ex  omnibus  minoribus  prophetis  nemo 
videtur  aequare  sublimitatem,  ardorem  et  audaces  spiritus  Na- 
humi.  .  .  ,  Apparatus  ad  excidium  Ninivae  ejusque  excidii  de- 
scriptio  et  amplificatio  ardentissimis  coloribus  exprimitur  et  ad- 
mirabilem  habet  evidentiam  et  pondus."  Through  the  whole  scene 
there  moves  a  mighty  passion  and  a  great  joy  which  lift  the  nar- 
rative out  of  the  commonplace  into  the  majestic  and  make  of  it 
great  literature. 

§  2.    THE  TIMES   OF  NAHUM. 

The  upper  limit  for  the  period  of  Nahum's  activity  is  established 
by  3^.  The  fall  of  Thebes  is  there  referred  to  as  already  past.  But 
Thebes  suffered  more  than  once  at  the  hands  of  Assyria.  In  670 
B.C.,  Esarhaddon  had  conquered  the  whole  of  lower  Egypt,  in- 
cluding Memphis,  and  had  organised  it  into  Assyrian  dependencies. 
The  list  of  the  Egyptian  princes  who  swore  allegiance  to  him  at 
this  time  includes  the  name  of  the  Prince  of  Thebes;  but  Thebes 
was  not  then  attacked  by  Esarhaddon.  Again,  about  667  B.C., 
Ashurbanipal  forced  Taharka  to  flee  from  Thebes  and  take  up  an 
intrenched  position  farther  south ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  Thebes 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Assyria  at  that  time.f  Finally,  in  661  B.C., 
Ashurbanipal  captured  Thebes  and  carried  oflf  an  enormous  booty 
to  Nineveh.  This  event  was  the  beginning  of  the  end  for  the  great- 
est city  of  Egypt  and  the  ancient  world.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
but  that  Nahum's  reference  was  to  this  occasion.  So  far  as  we  now 
know,  there  was  no  other  attack  upon  Thebes  prior  to  the  fall  of 
Nineveh,  which  accords  with  the  description  of  3*.  It  is  true  that 
by  652  B.C.,  Piankhi  I  had  regained  Thebes;  but  she  never  recov- 
ered her  former  greatness  and  the  tradition  of  her  impregnability 
had  been  irremediably  shattered. 

The  lower  Hm.it  for  the  period  of  Nahum's  prophetic  work  is  fixed 
by  the  date  of  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  to  which  the  prophet  looks  for- 

*  De  sacra  poesi  Hebraeorum^  (1770),  II,  434. 
t.K.  Breasted,  History  oj  Egypt  (1905),  537. 


HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  275 

ward  with  exulting  confidence.     That  we  are  not  dealing  with  a 
vaticinumt  post  evenhm  is  clear:  the  hope  of  the  prophet  is  too 
genuine  and  fresh;  the  details  of  the  siege  and  conquest  are  too 
minute  and  would  be  somewhat  superfluous,  to  say  the  least;  and 
the  total  lack  of  any  shadow  cast  by  the  knowledge,  or  even  sus- 
picion, that  Babylon  was  a  far  more  severe  taskmaster  than 
Nineveh  had  ever  been  would  be  inexplicable.    The  date  of 
Nineveh's  fall  is  determined  by  the  statement  of  Nabonidus  that 
he  restored  the  temple  of  Sin  at  Harran  fifty-four  years  after  its 
destruction.*    This  destruction  of  Harran  was  at  the  same  time  as 
that  of  Nineveh,  or  at  most  not  more  than  a  year  earlier.    The 
restoration  of  the  temple  of  Sin  occurred  in  the  third  year  of 
Nabonidus,t  i.  e.  553  b.c.     Hence  the  fall  of  Harran  was  about 
607  and  that  of  Nineveh  about  607  or  606  B.C.. 

The  specific  portion  of  the  period  between  661  B.C.  and  606 
B  c   in  which  Nahum  prophesied  is  more  difficult  to  determme. 
On  the  one  hand,  it  is  urged  that  the  memory  of  the  fall  of  Thebes 
is  so  vivid  that  no  long  time  can  have  elapsed  since  that  event. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  the  fall  of  Nineveh  is  thought 
of  as  imminent  and  that  the  mvasion  of  Assyria  has  akeady  begun 
(3«)      Hence,  some  seeking  to  combine  both  of  these  elements  m 
the  picture  would  place  Nahum  in  connection  with  the  revolt  of 
Babylon  under  Shamash-shum-ukin  {v.  p.  160). J    But  that  revolt 
spread  among  and  included  a  great  many  peoples,  while  the  proph- 
ecy of  Nahum  seems  to  picture  the  fall  of  the  city  as  due  to  the 
work  of  one  great  foe  (2^) .     Furthermore,  there  is  no  suggestion  of 
a  schism  in  the  realm  of  Assyria  in  Nahum's  description;  the  at- 
tack is  rather  from  an  outside  foe.     Nor,  indeed,  was  the  situation 
of  Nineveh  at  any  time  during  the  revolt  so  precarious  as  to  war- 
rant such  a  confident  expectation  of  her  destruction  as  Nahum  en- 
tertains.   Babylon  in  that  revolt  was  not  so  intent  upon  destroymg 
Nineveh  and  Assyria  as  upon  gaining  her  o^tl  independence  from 
or  even  domination  over  Assyria.    Then,  too,  if  Nahum  had  had 
this  revolt  in  mind,  he  would  hardly  have  anticipated  the  destruc- 

*  Stele  of  Nabonidus,  col.  X. 

t  Cylinder  of  Nabonidus  from  Abu-habba,  col.  1, 1.  28. 

%  So  e.  g.  Hi.;  WTd.'^"*-.  124/  ;  K6.  Einl.\  Kl.  SK.  1910,  pp.  501  f- 


276  NAHUM 

tion  of  Nineveh  so  vividly.  He  would  have  been  much  more  likely 
to  have  conceived  of  Nineveh  as  becoming  the  capital  of  the  new 
Babylonian  power  and  his  threats  of  destruction  would  have  been 
confined  to  the  dynasty  reigning  in  Nineveh. 

Another  point  of  connection  for  the  prophecy  is  found  by  some 
in  the  Scythian  invasion  of  western  Asia.*  But  it  is  by  no  means 
clear  that  those  barbarians  ever  troubled  Nineveh  directly.  In- 
deed, they  seem  to  have  been  her  salvation  from  the  Medes  in 
625  B.C.  (v.  p.  163).  Nor  does  Nahum's  description  of  the 
attack  upon  Nineveh  accord  well  with  what  is  known  of  Scythian 
methods  of  warfare.  The  latter  were  scarcely  adapted  to  the 
capture  of  mighty  strongholds  by  direct  assault.  The  Scyth- 
ians hardly  possessed  the  machinery  requisite  for  such  an  under- 
taking. 

The  first  attack  upon  Nineveh  by  Cyaxares  (525  B.C.)  is  favoured 
by  several  writers  as  furnishing  the  occasion  for  the  hopes  of 
Nahum;t  while  the  second  attack,  resulting  in  the  destruction  of 
the  city,  is  preferred  by  the  majority.  The  choice  lies  between 
these  two.  To  both  alike  objection  is  made  on  the  groimd  that 
the  memory  of  the  fall  of  Thebes  would  hardly  have  remained  so 
long  as  vivid  as  is  presupposed  by  the  question  in  3^.  To  this  it 
may  be  replied  that  the  fall  of  Thebes  made  a  profound  impression 
in  Judah,  since  it  dealt  a  mortal  blow  to  the  hope  for  deliverance 
through  Egypt  so  long  encouraged  by  the  Egyptian  party  in  Jeru- 
salem. Then,  too,  the  lapse  of  time  made  it  all  the  easier  for  Na- 
hum  to  ignore  as  he  did  the  agency  of  Assyria  in  the  downfall  of 
Thebes.  Examples  of  even  longer  memory  are  furnished  by  Zc. 
14^  Nu.  13^^.  Hence,  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  suppose,  with 
We.,  that  Nahum  referred  to  some  destruction  of  Thebes  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventh  century  of  which  no  other  record  has  been 
discovered.  With  the  elimination  of  ch.  i  as  a  later  preface  to  the 
prophecy,  there  disappears  the  objection  to  a  date  near  the  final 
fall  of  Nineveh  that  arises  from  the  fact  that  Nineveh's  oppressive 
dominance  over  Judah  is  presupposed  by  i^^.  The  statements  of 
2^°  3*  apply  as  well  to  the  city  of  626-608  B.C.  as  to  that  of  any 

♦  So  e.g.  Jrm.. 

t  So  e.  g.  Kue.  Ondenoek  (1889);  WUdebocr,  Letlerkunde  des  Ouden  Verbonds^  (19°?).  vaa  H.. 


HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  277 

earlier  period.  Nineveh  did  not  change  her  character  as  her  power 
diminished.  The  sufferings  of  Judah  at  the  hands  of  Nineveh  had 
lasted  too  long  and  been  too  humiliating  and  agonising  to  be  for- 
gotten the  moment  the  hand  of  the  oppressor  was  lifted.  To  a 
Semitic  people,  tenacious  of  revenge,  the  downfall  of  an  ancient 
tyrant  would  be  an  occasion  for  joyous  celebration  long  after  re- 
lease from  the  tyranny  had  been  realised. 

There  is  little  to  choose  between  the  first  and  the  second  siege 
of  Cyaxares.  The  actual  occurrence  of  the  first  has  indeed  been 
called  in  question;*  but  without  sufficient  reason.  It  is  true  the 
only  testimony  to  its  actuality  is  that  of  Hdt..  But  on  the  other 
hand,  the  only  testimony  cited  against  it  is  the  statement  of  Aby- 
denus,  quoted  by  Eusebius;  viz.  "Saracus  certior  factus  quod  ex- 
ercitus  locustarum  instar  mari  exiens  impetum  faceret,  Busalos- 
sorum  ducem  confestim  Babelonem  misit."  This  is  interpreted 
by  We.  as  applying  to  an  attack  of  the  Scythians  from  the  Black 
Sea  upon  Babylon  at  the  very  time  when  Nineveh,  according  to 
Hdt.,  was  undergoing  siege  at  the  hands  of  the  Medes,  thus  being 
hindered  by  her  own  necessities  from  sending  aid  to  any  other  city. 
However,  waiving  the  question  as  to  the  relative  values  of  Hdt. 
and^Abydenus  as  historians,  it  is  far  from  certain  that  the  citation 
from  the  latter  has  anything  to  do  with  the  time  about  625  B.C.. 
Saracus,  generally  identified  with  Sin-shar-ishkun,  was  not  the  im- 
mediate successor  of  Ashurbanipal  upon  the  throne  of  Assyria, 
as  would  be  the  case  if  he  had  been  king  in  625  B.C..  Babylon  was 
independent  of  Nineveh  and  under  its  own  king  from  626  on;  hence 
the  interest  of  the  king  of  Assyria  in  its  defence  is  strange.  More- 
over, why  should  a  king  of  Assyria  send  his  army  to  defend  Baby- 
lon from  a  foe  advancing  from  the  north,  thus  leaving  his  own 
capital  inviting  attack  from  the  same  foe  by  the  weakness  of  its 
defence  ?  The  datum  concerning  Saracus  must  be  accounted  for 
in  some  more  satisfactory  way. 

The  certain  fact  is  that  at  the  time  of  Nahum's  utterance,  the 
prestige  of  Nineveh  was  wholly  gone.  She  was  threatened  with 
immediate  destruction.  The  enemy  was  already  in  the  land  and 
her  downfall  seemed  certain.     This  interpretation  might  have  been 

■*  E.  g.  by  We. 


278  NAiroM 

placed  by  Nahum  upon  the  situation  as  it  was  either  in  625  B.C. 
or  in  608-606  B.C..  But  the  degree  of  animosity  toward  Nineveh 
accords  better,  perhaps,  with  the  post-Deuteronomic  date,  608- 
606  B.C.,  than  with  the  pre-Deuteronomic  period.*  The  expecta- 
tion of  Nahum  was  certainly  not  fulfilled  till  about  606  B.C.  and, 
if  the  prophet  is  to  be  credited  with  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the 
movements  of  his  day,  we  shall  be  forced  to  interpret  his  utterance 
as  applying  to  the  final  siege.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  is  better 
to  place  him  there  than  at  the  earlier  date,  until  we  have  more  def- 
inite information  as  to  the  course  of  events  in  Assyria  during  her 
last  days  and  as  to  the  exactness  of  the  information  in  possession 
of  the  Hebrews  regarding  the  political  movements  of  the  time.  In 
any  case,  the  significance  of  the  prophecy  will  remain  the  same, 
whichever  of  the  two  dates  be  chosen. 

The  assignment  of  Nahum  to  the  Maccabaean  age,  as  proposed 
by  Hap.  and  Hpt.,  is  put  practically  out  of  the  question  by  the  testi- 
mony of  BS.  48^°-^  49^-  ^-  ^^  as  to  the  history  of  the  Canon.  The 
mention  there  of  "the  twelve  prophets"  shows  that  at  that  time  the 
Book  of  the  Twelve  was  already  known  and  held  in  high  esteem. 
It  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  denied  that  the  Book  of  the  Twelve  under- 
went more  or  less  modification  after  that  date,  viz.  c.  180  B.C..  But 
it  is  scarcely  to  be  conceived  that  a  new  name  was  added  to  the 
twelve  already  known  and  that  one  of  the  latter  was  dropped.  Yet 
this  is  involved  in  the  proposition  to  make  Nahum  a  product  of 
the  Maccabaean  period. f  Nor  are  the  positive  arguments  brought 
forward  by  Hap.  at  all  convincing.  The  differences  between 
Nahum  and  the  rest  of  the  pre-exilic  prophets  included  in  the 
Canon  are  certainly  striking;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  Nahum 
is  necessarily  postexilic  or  Maccabaean.  The  character  of  the 
differences  is  not  such  as  to  make  them  inconsistent  with  pre-exilic 
origin  {y.  p.  281).  Nor  is  3^  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  failure 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  take  Alexandria.  That  failure  was 
not  due  to  the  strength  of  Alexandria,  as  would  be  required  by 
3*,  but  to  the  intervention  of  the  power  of  Rome.    Nor  is  3*  ex- 

♦  v.  Bertholet,  Die  Stellung  der  Israelilen  zu  den  Fremden  (1905),  105  /.. 
t  C/.  Frands  Brown  on  The  Decline  of  Prophecy,  in  Essays  in  Modern  Theology  and  Related 
Svbjecls  Gathered  and  Published  as  a  Testimonial  to  Chas.  A.  Briggs  {19 11),  p.  67. 


THE  IiIAN   NAHUM  279 

plicable  only  on  the  basis  of  the  religious  intolerance  and  propa- 
gandisra  of  Antiochus  (v.  note  ad  loc). 

If  Nahum  lived  and  prophesied  in  the  days  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  downfall  of  Nineveh,  his  lot  was  cast  in  desperate  times. 
The  good  King  Josiah  had  but  recently  fallen  in  battle  at  Megiddo. 
His  successor  Jehoahaz  had  been  taken  prisoner  to  Egypt,  after 
a  reign  of  only  three  months,  and  Jehoiakim  had  been  imposed 
upon  Judah  as  a  vassal  of  Pharaoh  Necho.  A  heavy  annual 
tribute  was  laid  upon  Judah  and  it  was  Jehoiakim 's  ungra- 
cious task  to  collect  and  transmit  it  to  Egypt.  The  practical 
freedom  that  had  been  enjoyed  for  some  time  under  Josiah  had 
given  place  to  a  galling  servitude.  The  news  of  the  approaching 
end  of  a  former  taskmaster  was  a  ray  of  light  amid  Egyptian 
darkness. 


§  3.    THE  MAN  AND  THE  MESSAGE. 

The  Man. 

Beyond  the  slight  information  furnished  by  the  book  itself,  noth- 
ing is  at  hand  from  which  to  reconstruct  the  personality  and  the 
environment  of  Nahum.  He  must  remain  little  more  to  us  than  a 
voice.  For  details  regarding  his  name  and  residence,  v.  pp.  285^.. 
Some  interpreters  have  sought  to  make  him  a  resident  of  Assyria 
and  an  eye-witness  of  the  scenes  he  describes.  But  his  knowledge 
of  Assyrian  words,  places  and  customs  is  only  such  as  was  easily 
within  the  reach  of  any  intelligent  Hebrew  of  his  times.  Assyrian 
matters  had  been  of  absorbing  interest  to  the  politicians  of  Judah 
for  more  than  a  century.  Assyrian  armies  were  no  uncommon 
sight  in  Syria,  however  unwelcome  they  may  have  been.  Travel 
and  commerce  between  Jerusalem  and  Nineveh  were  constant 
and  continuous.  The  main  facts  concerning  the  structure  and 
defences  of  Nineveh  were  doubtless  known  to  the  leading  men  of 
Judah.  Nor  does  the  vividness  of  Nahum's  picture  of  the  move- 
ments against  Nineveh  prove  anything  in  favour  of  his  residence 
in  Assyria.  The  scenes  of  ch.  i  are  just  as  vivid  as  anything  in  the 
book,  yet  the  writer  there  was  evidently  drawing  upon  his  imag- 


28o  NAHUM 

ination.  The  whole  spirit  and  background  of  the  prophecy  are 
Hebrew  and  the  burden  of  proof  rests  upon  him  who  would  seek 
to  account  for  its  origin  on  foreign  soil. 

Nahum  was  an  enthusiastic,  optimistic  patriot.  The  oppres- 
sion and  humiliation  endured  by  his  people  for  generations  had 
long  rankled  in  his  soul.  He  is  a  fair  representative  of  the  state 
of  mind  of  the  average  man  of  his  times,  whose  faith  in  Yahweh's 
goodness  and  power  had  been  severely  tried  by  the  continuous 
spectacle  of  the  sufferings  of  Israel.  The  prospect  of  the  speedy 
overthrow  of  the  ancient  tyrant  who  had  done  the  most  to  ren- 
der life  intolerable  for  the  people  of  Yahweh  brought  with  it  a 
great  revulsion  of  feeling  to  men  like  Nahum.  Sorrow  and  dis- 
couragement approximating  despair  gave  way  to  exuberant  joy 
and  returning  hope.  Assyria  was  to  receive  the  due  reward  of  all 
her  evil  deeds;  Yahweh  was  to  vindicate  himself  by  his  righteous 
acts;  and  for  Israel  the  dawn  of  a  new  day  was  discernible  upon 
the  horizon. 

The  Message. 

The  prophecy  of  Nahum  is  simple  and  unique.  It  concerns 
itself  with  only  one  theme — Nineveh  is  on  the  brink  of  destruc- 
tion ;  there  is  no  possibility  of  escape  for  her.  In  ecstatic  contem- 
plation of  this  'consummation  devoutly  to  be  wished  for,'  the 
prophet  is  wholly  absorbed.     He  can,  he  will  see  nothing  else. 

This  it  is  that  sets  him  apart  from  all  preceding  prophecy.  His 
predecessors  have  been  interested  primarily,  and  almost  exclu- 
sively, in  the  sin  of  Israel.  Their  task  had  been  that  of  calling  their 
countrymen  to  repentance  and  of  pointing  out  to  them  a  much  more 
excellent  way  to  assure  themselves  of  the  favour  of  God  than  that 
along  which  they  had  been  travelling.  The  future  of  Israel  was 
precious  indeed  in  the  sight  of  God;  but  only  a  radical  readjust- 
ment of  life  in  the  present  could  make  that  future  anything  but 
disastrous.  Of  all  this,  Nahum  has  not  a  word.  In  place  of  it, 
there  appears  a  certain  fiery  form  of  indignation  against  Judah's 
ancient  foe,  which  exhibits  a  degree  of  animosity  for  which  the 
great  ethical  prophets  furnish  no  parallel.  The  pent-up  feelings  of 
generations  of  suffering  patriots  here  burst  forth  into  flame.     The 


THE  MESSAGE  281 

whole  prophecy  is  a  paean  of  triumph  over  a  prostrate  foe  and 
breathes  out  the  spirit  of  exultant  revenge. 

The  contrast  between  the  message  of  Nahum  and  that  of  Jere- 
miah, his  contemporary,  is  striking.  To  the  prophet  of  larger 
vision  and  deeper  insight,  the  event  which  filled  Nahum's  entire 
range  of  vision  was  of  relatively  slight  importance.  The  passing 
of  the  Assyrian  dominion  is  not  even  mentioned  by  Jeremiah,  nor 
does  the  name  of  Nineveh  once  appear  in  his  utterances.  The 
two  men  belonged  to  different  religious  and  political  parties.  If 
Nahum  was  not  in  active  opposition  to  Jeremiah,  he  was  at  least 
indifferent  to  his  efforts.  Instead  of  grieving  over  the  sin  of  Judah 
and  striving  with  might  and  main  to  warn  her  of  the  error  of  her 
ways  that  she  herself  might  turn  and  live,  Nahum  was  apparently 
content  to  lead  her  in  a  jubilant  celebration  of  the  approaching 
death  of  Assyria.  Jeremiah  was  too  overwhelmed  by  sorrow  and 
alarm  for  his  own  people  to  obtain  any  solace  from  the  misfortune 
of  another,  which  could  bring  no  relief  to  the  desperate  situation  of 
Judah. 

In  Nahum,  a  representative  of  the  old,  narrow  and  shallow 
prophetism  finds  its  place  in  the  Canon  of  Scripture.  His  point  of 
view  is  essentially  one  with  that  of  such  men  as  Hananiah  (Je.  28), 
the  four  hundred  prophets  in  opposition  to  Micaiah  ben  Imlah 
(i  K.  22),  and  the  so-called  "false  prophets"  in  general.  For 
such  prophets,  the  relation  between  Yahweh  and  his  nation  Israel 
was  indissoluble.  Yahweh  might  become  angered  at  his  people 
and  give  them  over  temporarily  into  the  power  of  the  foe.  But  he 
could  no  more  wholly  abandon  them  than  a  mother  could  desert  her 
child.  The  obligation  upon  Israel  was  to  be  loyal  to  Yahweh  as  he 
was  loyal  to  her;  to  eschew  all  foreign  cults;  to  perform  the  cultus 
of  Yahweh  with  zealous  adherence  to  all  of  its  requirements;  and 
to  conform  to  the  traditional  customs  and  ethics  of  the  community. 
The  possibility  that  new  occasions  might  teach  new  duties,  that 
the  advancing  civilisation  with  its  more  complex  life  might  render 
the  old  usages  and  laws  inadequate,  and  that  Yahweh  might  care 
more  for  full  justice  and  overflowing  mercy  than  for  the  blood  of 
bulls  and  goats  had  not  been  realised  by  them.  The  teaching  that 
for  a  lack  of  fundamental,  ethical  qualities  Yahweh  was  intending 


282  NAHUM 

to  bring  destruction  upon  his  nation  was  branded  by  them  as 
treason  both  to  Israel  and  to  Yahweh.  Patriotism  and  religion 
combined  in  requiring  the  belief  that  Yahweh  was  able  and  willing 
to  deliver  his  people  out  of  every  danger.  Never  could  he  suffer 
the  adherents  of  other  gods  to  triumph  permanently  over  his  own 
people.  Never  could  the  land  of  Judah  and  the  temple  of  Yahweh 
be  desecrated  by  being  abandoned  to  the  possession  of  the  heathen. 
Nor  could  insult  and  injury  to  Yahweh  and  his  people  be  allowed 
by  him  to  go  unavenged.  To  men  of  such  a  way  of  thinking,  the 
prospect  of  the  downfall  of  Nineveh  would  bring  a  joy  without 
alloy.  The  prophecy  of  Nahum  is  a  faithful  transcript  of  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  of  a  prophet  with  such  a  point  of  view.  The 
overthrow  of  Nineveh  not  only  brought  to  Nahum  and  those  of  like 
mind  satisfaction  of  the  natural,  human  desire  for  vengeance,  but 
it  also  enabled  them  to  justify  the  ways  of  God  to  men.  Such  ob- 
jective demonstration  of  the  justice  of  Yahweh  was  essential  to  the 
validity  of  their  theology.  By  such  vindication  of  Yahweh  and 
his  people,  faith  in  Yahweh  was  made  possible  for  them.  Hence, 
the  joy  of  Nahum  is  not  only  and  merely  exultation  over  a  fallen 
foe,  it  is  also  the  glad  cry  of  an  assured  faith  in  the  God  of  the 
fathers. 

§  4.     LITERATURE  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NAHUM. 

Commentaries. 

In  addition  to  the  commentaries  on  the  Minor  Prophets  as  a 
whole  by  Ewald  (1867),  Kleinert  (1868),  Hitzig-Steiner  (1881), 
von  Orelli  (1888;  3d  ed.  1908),  Wellhausen  (1892;  3d  ed.  1898), 
Nowack  (1897;  2d  ed.  1903),  G.  A.  Smith  (1898),  Marti  (1903) 
and  van  Hoonacker  (1908),  special  mention  must  be  made  of 
Strauss  (1853), Davidson  (i896),Kolraodin  (i898),Happel  (1902), 
Driver  (1906),  Haupt  (1907),  Kautzsch  (1909)  and  Kent  (1910). 

Introduction. 

All  the  'Introductions'  to  the  OT.  as  a  whole  contain  sections 
summarising  the  main  facts  about  Nahum  as  do  also  the  introduc- 
tions to  most  of  the  aforesaid  commentaries.     In  addition  to  these, 


LITERATURE  283 

the  following  are  worthy  of  special  mention: — Billerbeck  und 
Jeremias,  Der  Uniergang  Nineveh's  toid  die  Weissagungsschrift 
des  Nahum  von  Elkosch,  BAS.  Ill  (1898),  87-188.  P.  Kleinert, 
Nahum  und  der  Fall  Nineves,  SK.  LXXXIII  (1910),  501-533. 
Thomas  Friedrich,  Nineve's  Ende  und  die  Aiisgdnge  des  Assyr- 
ischen  Reiches,  in  Festgaben  zu  Ehren  Max  Biidinger's  (1898),  13- 
52.  Budde,  art.  Nahum,  EB.  Ill  (1902).  A.  R.  S.  Kennedy, 
art.  Nahum,  DB.  Ill  (1900).  Volck,  art.  Nahum,  PRE?  XIII 
(1903).  W.  Staerk,  Das  Assyrische  Weltreich  im  Urteil  der 
Propheten  (1908),  174-181. 

Special  studies  on  ch.  i  and  on  the  poetic  form  of  the  book  are 
cited  in  §  I  (pp.  2^0 Jf.). 

Miscellaneous. 

M.  Adler,  A  Specimen  of  a  Commentary  and  Collated  Text  of  the 
Targum  to  the  Prophet  Nahum,  JQR.  VII  (1895),  630-657. 
Reinke,  Zur  Kritik  der  alteren  Versionen  des  Propheten  Nahum 
(1867).  A.  W.  Greenup,  The  Yalkut  of  Rabbi  Machir  Bar  Abba 
Mart  on  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum  and  Habakkuk 
[Edited  for  the  first  time  from  the  imique  ms.  (Harley  5704)  in  the 
British  Museum]  (1910).  Fr.  Buhl,  Einige  textkritische  Bemer- 
kungen  zu  den  Kleinen  Propheten,  ZAW.  V  (1885),  79-84.  E. 
Mahler,  Untersuchung  einer  in  Buche  Nahum  auf  den  Untergang 
Ninives  bezogenen  Finsterniss  (1886).  B.  Duhm,  Anmerkungen 
zu  den  Zwblf  Propheten,  V,  Buck  Nahum,  ZAW.  XXXI  (191 1), 
100-107. 


A  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF 
NAHUM. 

§  I.    THE  SUPERSCRIPTIONS  (i^. 

These  inform  us  as  to  the  name  of  the  author,  his  clan,  the 
nature  of  his  book,  and  the  subject  of  his  preaching.  In  common 
with  the  superscriptions  to  Joel,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Habakkuk  and 
Malachi  among  the  prophetic  books,  it  refrains  from  any  statement 
regarding  the  time  of  this  prophet's  activity.  Nahum  is  the  only 
book  in  the  OT.  carrying  two  superscriptions  at  its  head  and  is 
also  the  only  prophecy  entitling  itself  a  'book.' 

I.  An  oracle  on  Nineveh]  Nahum  is  pre-eminently  a  book  of  one 
idea,  viz.  the  doom  of  Nineveh.  This  title  thus  exactly  fits  the 
contents  of  the  book.  This  type  of  superscription  is  common  in 
Isaiah,  viz.  13^  15^  17*  19'  21^"  22^  23^  30^:  On  the  fall  of  Nine- 
veh, V.  pp.  163/.. — The  book  of  the  vision  of  Nahum  the  Elkoshite] 
The  use  of  the  word  '  book '  here  carries  no  such  special  significance 
as  some  older  commentators  imagined;  viz.  that  it  shows  that  the 
prophecy  of  Nahum  was  never  spoken  but  was  originally  prepared 
in  written  form.*  The  word  'vision'  expressly  characterises  the 
following  message  as  a  revelation.  The  prophecies  of  Isaiah  (i*) 
and  Obadiah  (v.  *)  are  also  so  designated.  The  name  Nahum 
occurs  only  here  in  the  OT..  Everything  alleged  regarding 
Nahum,  aside  from  the  statement  of  the  superscription,  is  of  late 
origin  and  of  little  value.  Other  names  from  the  same  root  and 
so  of  similar  meaning  are  Nehemiah,  Nehum  (Ne.  f;  but  cf. 
Ezr.  2^=Rehum),  Nahamani  (Ne.  7''),  Menahem  and  Tanhumeth 
(Je.  40*).  The  name  seems  to  be  an  appellation  meaning  'com- 
forting' or  'comforter.'  Its  appropriateness  to  the  author  of  this 
prophecy,  which  brings  the  promise  of  such  great  comfort  to  Judah, 
raises  the  suspicion  that  the  name  is  not  a  birth  name  but  one  be- 

♦So  Gebhardt,  Tamovius,  Pu.,  Kc. 
284 


I>  285 

stowed  upon  this  prophet  by  a  later  editor  because  of  the  character 
of  his  message.  The  term  'Elkoshite'  seems  to  be  a  gentilic  ad- 
jective derived  from  a  place-name.  But  no  thoroughly  reliable 
information  is  available  as  to  the  location  of  Elkosh  {v.  i.). 

The  essential  accuracy  of  the  superscriptions  Is  generally  acknowl- 
edged. The  first,  stating  the  contents  of  the  book,  accords  perfectly 
with  the  bulk  of  the  subject-matter;  while  the  second,  being  beyond  the 
possibility  of  a  satisfactory  test,  and  being  in  no  way  derivable  from  the 
text  of  the  book  itself,  must  be  given  the  benefit  of  every  doubt  and  be 
held  to  rest  upon  sound  tradition.  Owing  to  the  twofold  character  of 
the  heading,  however,  suspicion  has  been  cast  upon  its  genuineness. 
Grimm  (1791)  was  the  first  to  see  here  the  work  of  a  later  hand.  He  has 
had  many  followers,  who  have  declared  the  superscription  in  whole  or 
in  part  to  be  of  late  origin;  so  Eich.  {Einl.  Ill,  371),  Ew.,  Hd.,  Or.,  Dav., 
Now.,  Arn.,  Hap.,  Bu.  (EB.),  Marti,  Kau.,  Du.,  Kent.  It  is  probable 
that  the  two  portions  of  the  legend  come  from  different  hands,  as  Ew., 
Or.,  Bu.,  et  al.  suggest;  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  regard  each  as  having 
belonged  originally  to  its  own  special  portion  of  the  book  as  Hpt.  et  al. 
maintain.  If  any  part  of  the  heading  be  from  Nahum  himself,  it  is 
probably  only  the  last  three  words,  "  Vision  of  Nahum  the  Elkoshite." 
The  order  of  the  parts  would  have  been  exactly  the  reverse  had  they  both 
been  due  to  the  prophet  and  the  word  "book"  would  surely  not  have  ap- 
peared. In  view  of  the  extent  of  the  editorial  labour  upon  the  begin- 
ning of  this  book,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  older  portion  of  the  heading 
came  from  an  editor  than  that  it  came  from  the  prophet  himself.  The 
addition  of  superscriptions,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  seems  to  have  been  a 
favourite  form  of  editorial  exercise.  The  information  furnished  by  this 
editor,  however,  probably  goes  back  to  a  relatively  early  date,  for  no 
source  whence  it  might  have  been  obtained  is  now  known. 

1.  NB*:;]  (5  'S.ij/j.fjia.  Aq.  dp/xa.  &  m'hutha  =  'scourge'  or  'affliction,' 
the  only  place  where  &  so  renders  the  word  (Seb.).  'd  is  here  fol- 
lowed by  an  objective  gen..  The  rendering  'burden'  was  favoured  by 
early  interpreters  and  explained  by  the  fact  that  disaster  was  the  prevail- 
ing theme  of  prophecy,  hence  the  term  'burden'  came  to  be  applied  to 
all  prophecies.  But  'oracle'  or  'utterance'  {cf.  Sip  nz'i)  is  a  better  ren- 
dering in  superscriptions,  where  'burden'  is  sometimes  wholly  inappro- 
priate, e.  g.  Zc.  12'. — ainj]  Of  the  same  measure  as  h^st'  'bereaved,'  ainn 
'compassionate,'  ^iSn  'tame'  or  'chief,'  pjn  'merciful,'  nicj:  'pillar'; 
and  with  transitive  force;  cf.  Barth,  NB.  §§  37,  132.  An  abstract  sub- 
stantive 'comfort'  is  less  suitable  as  a  name  and  less  in  accord  with  the 
significance  of  other  words  of  the  formation;  contra  BDB..  The  name 
occurs  also  in  Lk.  3^5  2  Esd.  i",  Jos.  Ant.  IX,  xi,  3,  the  Mishnah  (Baba 
Bathra  V  2,  Shabb.  II  i,  Nazir  V  4,  Peah  II  6),  on  Jewish  ossuaries 


286  NAHUM 

(Clermont-Ganneau,  Revue  Archeol.  Ser.  Ill,  vol.  I,  No.  41)  and  in 
PhcEnician  {CIS.  I,  No.  123;  Ges.,  Mon.  Phcen.  Nos.  3,  7;  Boeckh,  Corp. 
Ins.  CrcEC.  II,  25,  26).  It  is  likely  that  the  name  is  a  shortened  form  of 
iH'cnj  or  ^Hr:rM  (Kennedy,  DB.  Ill,  473).  Abar.  explained  it  as  con- 
nected with  nj  (On.  5^9);  cf.  Sayce,  Exp.T.  XV,  514,  who  treats  D  as  due 
to  mimmation;  but  such  usage  is  not  well  attested  in  Heb.. — i^'pSKn]  JJ 
^np  P'JC.  C6'^  ToO'E\K£(7a/oi;.  (S***  'EX/cawr^ou.  (6**«- ''"EXfceo'coi;.  Eus. 
Onom.  ^E\K€ai.  Hesychius  {vita  proph.)  'EX/ceo-etv.  "B  Elcesaei.  Four 
sites  lay  claim  to  the  honour  of  having  been  the  home  of  Nahum.  The 
first  claimant  is  Al-Kush,  a  village  about  25  miles  N.  of  Mosul,  where  the 
natives  with  one  consent  regard  a  certain  plaster  box  as  the  tomb  of 
Nahum  (Layard,  Nineveh  and  Its  Remains  [1849],  I,  233).  But  Asse- 
mani  {Biblioth.  Orient.  [1719^^.],  I.  525,  III,  352)  declares  that  the  tradi- 
tion dates  no  further  back  than  the  i6th  century  a.d.;  the  Ar.  form  of 
the  name  seems  to  reflect  the  Ar.  period;  the  name  of  the  place  itself  is 
first  attested  in  the  8th  century  a.d.  {cf.  No.  ZDMG.  XXXI,  165);  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela  in  1165  a.d.  was  shown  another  tomb  of  Nahum  at 
'Ain  Japhata,  S.  of  Babylon;  and  the  tradition  is  worth  no  more  than 
similar  traditions  as  to  the  graves  of  Jonah,  Obadiah,  and  Jepthah  of 
Gilead.  The  acceptance  of  this  site  usually  carries  with  it  the  conclu- 
sion that  Nahum  was  one  of  the  exiles  from  Samaria  or  a  descendant  of 
them,  who  had  been  settled  N.  of  Nineveh.  But  the  whole  tone  of  the 
prophecy  points  to  a  scion  of  Judah  as  its  author.  This  last  objection 
also  holds  against  the  next  two  applicants.  Jerome  in  his  commentary 
on  Nahum  says,  "Quum  Elcese  usque  hodie  in  Galilea  viculus  sit,  par- 
vus quidem  et  vix  minis  veterum  aedificiorum  indicans  vestigia,  sed 
tamen  notus  Judaeis  et  mihi  quoque  a  circumducente  monstratus." 
This  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  modern  El  Kauze,  N.E.  of 
Ramieh  and  about  seven  miles  W.  of  Tibnin.  But  there  is  no  indica- 
tion of  Nahum's  Galilaean  origin;  on  the  contrary,  his  utter  silence  as 
to  any  hope  for  the  northern  kingdom  and  its  exiles  seems  fatal  to  such 
a  theory.  His  reference  to  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib  in  i"  likewise 
points  to  his  primary  interest  in  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  Hi.  identified 
Elkosh  with  Capernaum  {(&  Ka<f>apvaovfi;  ^  Kaphar  Nahum  =  'village 
of  Nahum');  but  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  oinj  formed  the  latter  part 
of  this  name,  for  Jos.  writes  Ke(papv(I>iJ.r}  and  Jerome  on  Mt.  11'^,  Diyj  (& 
of  Mt.  4"  ii23  =  amj;  so  also  Talmud)  and  the  evidence  is  insufficient 
to  outweigh  the  improbability  of  a  Galilaean  residence  for  Nahum.  The 
least  difficult  tradition  locates  Elkosh  in  S.  Judah.  The  de  vitis  proph- 
etarum,  wrongly  ascribed  to  Epiphanius  (a  native  of  Judah  who  was 
Bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus  in  367  a.d.),  in  some  mss.  says  "He 
(Nahum)  came  from  Elkesei  beyond  Jordan  toward  Begabar  of  the 
tribe  of  Simeon."  But  the  tribe  of  Simeon  was  located  in  S.W.  Judah 
and  "  beyond  Jordan"  is  therefore  unintelligible  in  this  connection.     The 


12-10  287 

difficulty  is  solved  by  two  recensions  of  viiae  proph.  published  by  Tisch- 
endorf  in  1855  and  based  upon  older  Greek  mss.,  in  one  of  which  the 
passage  runs,  "Nahum,  son  of  Elkesaios,  was  of  Jesbe  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon";  and  the  other  reads,  "Nahum  was  from  Elkese  beyond  Isbe- 
gabarin  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,"     The  phrase  "beyond  Jordan"  is  thus 
shown  to  be  a  gloss.     This  is  also  supported  by  the  citations  from  the 
Vitae  incorporated  in  the  Syriac  translation  of  the  OT.  by  Paul  of  Telia 
(617  A.D.),  where  the  reading  is  "Nahum  was  of  Elkosh,  beyond  Beth- 
Gabre,  of 'the  tribe  of  Simeon"  (v.  Nestle,  ZDPV.  I,  122/.=  Pal.  Ex- 
plor.  Fund's  Quarterly  Statement  for  1879,  p.  136;  Idem,  Marginalien 
und  Materialien  [1893],  43  /•)•     Beth-Gabre  is  the  modern  Beit-jibrin, 
i.  e.  the  ancient  Eleutheropolis.     About  six  miles  E.  of  Beit-jibrin,  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  Wady  es-Sur,  there  is  an  old  well  named  Bir  el- 
Kaus,  which  might  be  a  survival  of  Elkosh.     This  is  an  altogether  suit- 
able region  for  the  prophet's  home  and  may  be  tentatively  adopted  in 
lieu  of  a  better-accredited  claimant.     This  would  make  Nahum  come 
from  the  same  district  as  his  predecessor  Micah.     An  ingenious  hypoth- 
esis is  proposed  by  Hap.,  viz.  that  the  following  acrostic  originally  fell 
into  two  sections,  the  first  including  vv.  2-'».     The  opening  word  of  this 
section  was  Ss,  the  closing  one  was  t'P.     An  editor  attached  as  a  de- 
scriptive heading  to  this  section  the  words,  "vision  of  Nahum  from  Sn 
to  vp."     By  later  misunderstanding,  the  present  text  arose.      Such  a 
method  of  designating  a  portion  of  a  text  is  not  elsewhere  used  in  the 
OT.  and  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  loss  of  the  connecting  prep- 
ositions. 

§  2.    THE  AVENGING  WRATH  OF  YAHWEH  (i^-^"). 

A  fragment  of  an  acrostic  poem,  the  fifteen  lines  of  which  be- 
gin with  the  successive  letters  of  the  Heb.  alphabet  in  their  natural 
order.  Owing  to  the  formal  character  of  the  poem,  there  is  no 
clearly  marked  logical  progress,  nor  organisation  into  strs..  The 
general  thought  concerns  itself  with  the  terrors  of  Yahweh's  anger 
against  his  foes.  In  an  ever-changing  series  of  bold  and  striking 
metaphors,  the  poet  seeks  to  create  a  vivid  impression  of  this  di- 
vine wrath  and  thus  to  quicken  the  faith  and  hope  of  those  who 
have  trusted  in  and  obeyed  Yahweh. 

(X)  A.  jealous  and  avenging  God  is  Yahweh,  and  filled  with  wrath. 
(3)  In  storm  and  tempest  is  his  way,  and  clouds  are  the  dust  of  his  feet. 
(;i)  He  rebukes  the  sea  and  dries  it  up,  and  all  the  streams  he  makes  dry. 
(^)  Bashan  and  Carmel  wither,  and  the  bud  of  Lebanon  languishes. 


288  NAinJM 

(n)  The  mountains  quake  at  him,  and  the  hills  melt. 

("))  And  the  earth  is  laid  waste  before  him,  the  world  with  all  its  inhabitants. 

(I )  His  anger — who  can  stand  fast  before  it?     Who  can  stand  in  the  heat  of  his 

wrath? 
(n)  His  fury  is  poured  out  like  fire,  and  the  rocks  are  burst  asunder  because  of 

him. 
(l3)  Yahweh  is  good  to  those  waiting  for  him,  a  stronghold  in  the  day  of  distress. 

( 1 )  Yahweh  knows  those  that  seek  refuge  in  him,  and  with  an   overflowing 

flood.  .  .  . 

(2)  A  full  end  will  he  make  of  his  adversaries,  and  his  enemies  he  will  pursue 

into  darkness. 

(7)  He  will  not  take  vengeance  twice  upon  his  foes,  for  unto  complete  destruc- 
tion he  is  about  to  work. 

(12)  What  do  you  devise  against  Yahweh? 

(J)  Yahweh  takes  vengeance  on  his  adversaries  and  lays  up  wrath  for  his  foes. 

(D)  Thorns  cut  down  and  dried  out — they  will  be  consumed  like  dry  stubble. 

2.  A  jealous  and  avenging  God  is  Yahweh,  and  full  of  wratJi] 
"The  truth  that  no  historical  crime  can  ever  as  a  crime  be  forgot- 
ten by  Yahweh  through  the  flight  of  time,  but  must  in  all  cases, 
either  sooner  or  later,  be  punished  by  the  living  and  all-observing 
God,  is  brought  forward  briefly  and  with  dignified  repose  at  the 
very  beginning."*  For  the  attribute  of  jealousy  as  applied  to 
Yahweh,  cf.  Jos.  24^*  Ex.  20^  34"  Dt.  4^*  6*^.  Yahweh  is  here  pre- 
sented as  the  originator  and  guardian  of  the  law  of  righteousness, 
who  regards  every  violation  of  that  law  as  an  offence  against  him- 
self which  must  be  fitly  punished.  The  particular  form  of  offence 
here  resented  is  evidently  the  wrongs  done  to  Israel  by  the  great 
powers.  The  thought  of  Yahweh's  vengeance  upon  his  foes  was 
a  favourite  one  from  the  time  of  Jeremiah  on  to  the  end;  e.  g. 
Je.  11==''  51"  Ez.  25"-  "  Dt.  32^  Is.  61"  63'  Ps.  94^  cf.  Rom.  12'". 
— In  m  there  appear  at  this  point  two  lines  (w.  ^^-  ^*)  which  are 
shown  not  to  have  been  originally  placed  here  by  the  fact  that  they 
break  the  continuity  of  the  acrostic.  The  first  of  these  lines  in  all 
probability  originally  followed  v.  ",  where  it  belongs  alphabetically. 
Its  presence  here  may  be  accounted  for  as  due  to  the  fact  that  it 
expresses  essentially  the  same  thought  as  line  i  and  begins  with  the 
word  '  vengeful '  or  '  avenging '  that  occurs  also  there.  Some  editor, 
not  recognising  the  alphabetic  structure,  placed  the  line  where  it 
seemed  to  belong  logically.     The  second  added  line  (v.  ^'^)  reads, 

*Ew.. 


l'-*  289 

YaJiweh  is  slow  to  anger  and  great  in  mercy,  but  Yahweh  will  by 
no  means  leave  unpunished]  This  seems  to  be  a  gloss*  intended  to 
modify  the  absolute  statement  of  line  i  by  presenting  another  and 
complementary  phase  of  the  divine  character.  Not  only  does  it 
depart  from  the  alphabetic  order,  but  it  is  an  abnormally  long  line, 
imless  with  Bick.  we  drop  the  last  clause  as  a  later  appendix  to  the 
line,  in  which  case  the  line  becomes  too  short.  For  the  thought 
and  phraseology  of  this  line,  cf.  Nu.  14"  ^-  Ex.  34^  ^-  Jo.  2*^.  After 
the  strong  statement  of  Yahweh's  wrath  in  v.  ^^,  the  glossator  felt 
the  need  of  a  reference  to  the  patience  and  mercy  of  God,  but  was 
careful  to  add  that  even  so,  Yahweh  was  not  one  to  let  the  wicked 
go  scot-free.  M,  has  ''great  in  strength,"  an  idiom  nowhere  else 
occurring,  which  is  here  changed  to  "great  in  mercy"  as  in  Ps. 
145';  cf.  also  Ex.  34'  Nu.  iV«  Ne.  9^^  Ps.  103^  Jo.  2'^  Jon.  4'.  If 
M  be  original,  the  strength  spoken  of  must  be  moral  strength,  and 
the  thought  probably  is  that  Yahweh's  self-control  is  too  great  to 
permit  him  to  act  upon  the  impulse  of  sudden  outbursts  of  wrath. 
— 3b.  In  storm  and  tempest  is  his  way  and  clouds  are  the  dust  oj 
his  feet]  The  acrostic  structure  is  resumed  here.  The  theophanies 
of  the  OT,  are  usually  set  to  the  accompaniment  of  convulsions  of 
nature,  particularly  so  when  the  deity  is  represented  as  manifest- 
ing himself  in  wrath;  cf.  Mi.  i^  ^-  Ju.  5^  ^-  Jb.  38^  40^  Zc.  9"  Hb. 
3^""  Is.  50^  ^•.  The  storm  clouds  are  by  a  beautiful  figure  repre- 
sented as  the  fine  dust  stirred  up  by  the  feet  of  Yahweh  as  he  passes 
along  in  his  wrath.  There  is  nothing  gained,  but  much  lost,  by 
the  emendation  "clouds  and  dust  are  at  his  feet"  {v.  i.).  Dav. 
well  says,  "the  splendid  words  .  .  ,  like  the  others  'the  earth  is  his 
footstool'  need  to  be  conceived,  not  explained." — 4.  He  rebukes 
the  sea  and  dries  it  up,  and  all  the  streams  he  makes  dry]  Cf  Is. 
50^  51*"  Ps.  66^  'jf^  Io6^  Yahweh  is  absolute  lord  of  creation  and 
does  with  it  as  he  will.  Under  other  conditions,  Yahweh  is  repre- 
sented as  doing  the  e.xact  opposite  of  what  he  does  here  (Is.  35^-  ^-  ^). 
— Bashan  withers  away  and  Carmel,  and  the  bud  of  Lebanon  lan- 
guishes] Bashan  was  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  the  regions  east 

*  So  Gunk.,  We.,  Now.,  Gray,  Or.,  Hap.,  Dr.,  van  H..  Cf.  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk.  and  Kent  who 
excerpt  the  last  clause  and  use  it  to  complete  the  D  line  in  v.  ';  while  Du.  begins  the  poem 
with  V.  '  and  completes  the  c  line  with  v. '. 


290  NAHUM 

of  the  Jordan  and  seems  to  have  been  famous  for  its  flocks  (Am. 
i'  4'  Mi.  7'^)  and  trees.  With  it,  the  wooded  heights  of  Carmel  and 
the  snow-clad  summits  of  Lebanon  are  mentioned  as  representa- 
tives of  the  regions  least  likely  to  show  the  effects  of  an  ordinary 
drought.  It  is  forcing  the  language  to  argue  from  the  mention  of 
these  particular  regions,  as  Hap.  does,  that  the  poem  must  have 
come  from  the  period  of  the  Syrian  dominion  and  that  destruction 
is  threatened  upon  regions  belonging  to  the  Syrians,  the  foes  of 
Yahweh.  Against  another  view,  viz.  that  these  three  regions  repre- 
sent three  extreme  points  in  east,  west  and  north  and  so  comprise 
the  whole  land,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  nowhere  else  is  the  land 
as  a  whole  so  indicated. — 5.  Mountains  quake  before  him  and  the 
hills  melt]  The  very  pillars  of  the  earth,  as  the  ancients  considered 
the  mountains  (Jb.  9^-  ^),  tremble  and  dissolve  before  the  wrath  of 
Yahweh.  For  similar  representations,  cf.  Mi.  i^  Zc.  14*  Ex.  19^ 
Dt.  4"  Ju.  5''  Jb.  28'  Ps.  114'  Is.  6V  ■ '  Hb.  3^^  Earthquakes  or 
volcanic  disturbances  were  apparently  familiar  phenomena  to 
the  Hebrews  and  furnished  the  materials  in  large  part  for  their 
descriptions  of  theophanies. — And  the  earth  is  laid  waste  before 
him,  the  world  with  all  those  dwelling  therein]  M  is  rendered  by 
RV.,  "and  the  earth  is  upheaved,  etc.";  but  this  is  a  very  doubtful 
rendering.  Having  taken  up  particular  aspects  of  nature  thus 
far,  the  writer  here  includes  the  whole  world,  animate  and  inani- 
mate. The  Hebrews,  knowing  practically  nothing  of  natural  law 
or  secondary  causes,  conceived  of  both  the  physical  and  the  moral 
universe  as  governed  directly  and  immediately  by  Yahweh  him- 
self. There  was  for  them  but  one  world  and  that  was  God's 
world.  Hence  when  disorder  and  disobedience  were  rife  in  the 
moral  realm,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  physical  realm  should  share 
in  the  shock  occasioned  by  the  divine  visitation  upon  sin. 

With  the  seventh  line,  the  writer  takes  a  fresh  start.  Having 
devoted  the  last  four  lines  to  illustrations  of  the  terrible  wrath  of 
Yahweh  as  manifested  in  the  physical  world,  he  now,  as  in  line  i, 
again  brings  the  wrath  itself  to  the  forefront. — 6.  His  anger — who 
can  standfast  before  it?  Who  can  stand  in  the  heat  of  his  wrath?] 
For  text,  v.  i..  For  similar  formulations  of  the  same  thought,  v. 
Am.  f  Mai.  3^  Je.  10";  cf.  Ps.  24^     This  is  a  direct  and  personal 


I''""  291 

application  of  the  lesson  taught  by  the  preceding  illustrations. 
No  nation  can  stand  before  such  a  God,  for  he  is  a  consuming  fire 
(Dt.  4^^). — His  fury  is  poured  out  like  fire]  A  favourite  figure  to 
express  the  divine  anger  (Je.  f^  42^®  44*  2  Ch.  12^  34^^-  ^).  The 
destructive  and  purificatory  effects  of  fire  have  always  appealed 
to  the  religious  imagination  as  a  fit  symbol  of  divine  wrath  and 
holiness.  The  Persian  fire-worship  is  the  notable  illustration  of 
this. — And  the  rocks  are  hurst  asunder  because  of  him]  Cf.  Mi. 
i^  Je.  4^^  23^^  51^^-  *^.  Whether  this  effect  is  conceived  of  as  due 
to  the  heat  already  mentioned,  or  to  some  other  aspect  of  the  di- 
vine power,  is  not  certain;  but  in  any  case,  it  is  the  awful  presence 
of  God  which  produces  such  catastrophic  results. — 7.  Yahweh  is 
good  to  those  who  wait  for  him]  Another  side  of  the  divine  nature  is 
now  emphasised.  The  wrath  of  Yahweh  is  vented  upon  those  who 
hate  him;  but  for  those  who  put  their  trust  in  him  he  has  loving- 
kindness  (Dt.  5^  ^•).  The  whole  history  of  Israel  from  the  As- 
syrian period  to  the  end  was  one  long  agony  of  waiting.  The  ful- 
filment of  her  hopes  was  constantly  deferred.  The  history  of  no 
other  people  can  furnish  a  parallel  to  the  strength  and  persistence 
of  Israel's  faith  and  hope.  The  odds  were  apparently  all  against 
her,  but  she  refused  to  let  go  her  faith  in  God.  One  of  the  exhor- 
tations most  frequently  upon  the  lips  of  prophets  and  psalmists 
was  the  summons  to  patience  and  hope;  e.  g.  Gn.  49^^  Is.  8^^  30^^ 
64^  Hb.  2^  Zp.  f  Ps.  25^-  21  27"  37^-  ^-  '•  ^-  ^'  39'  52"  ii8'-  '  La. 
3^.  Disappointed  in  one  expectation,  Israel  did  but  transform  it 
into  another  and  continue  to  "expect  great  things  from  God." — 
A  refuge  in  the  day  of  distress]  A  place  whither  to  flee  from  the 
storm;  this  is  a  common  way  of  speaking  of  Yahweh;  e.  g.  Je.  16*^ 
Ps.  27^  31^-  ^  2>f^  52^  Is.  17^°  25*  32^  Jo.  4^^. — Yahweh  knows  those 
that  take  refuge  in  him]  Cf.  Ps.  i®.  The  'knowledge'  here  spoken 
of  is  inclusive  of  that  tender  interest  and  watchcare  which  inhere 
in  a  father's  love  (Am.  3^).  When  they  flee  to  him  for  aid,  they 
will  not  be  received  as  strangers,  but  with  open  arms  as  Yahweh's 
children;  cf.  Ps.  2^^  5"  46,  144^. — 8.  And  with  an  overflowing 
flood  .  .  .]  This  sentence  is  evidently  incomplete.  Most  interpreters 
make  it  refer  to  the  pious  followers  of  Yahweh  and  so  supply  either 
"he  will  deliver  them"  or  "he  will  guard  them"  {v.  i.).     But  in 


292  NAHUM 

view  of  the  fact  that  '  flood '  is  always  used  in  connection  wnth  de- 
structive activities  (Ps.  32"  Pr.  27*  Jb.  38^  Is.  54^  Dn.  9^^  ii^^),  it 
is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  sentence  refers  to  the  foes  of  Yah- 
weh  and  should  therefore  be  completed  after  this  fashion  "he  will 
destroy  the  wicked."  Some  have  seen  in  the  'overflowing  flood'  a 
definite  allusion  to  the  invading  army  that  was  to  destroy  Nineveh 
{cj.  Is.  8*)  ;*  but  it  is  rather  a  general  characterisation  of  the  over- 
whelming destruction  which  Yahweh  will  bring  upon  his  foes  when 
he  asserts  his  divine  majesty.  Von  Orelli,  by  omitting  a  conjunc- 
tion, secures  the  following  line,  "he  knows  those  who  trust  in  him 
when  the  flood  overflows."  But  such  a  line  is  too  short  for  the 
metre  and  involves  the  use  of  the  phrase  'in  flood'  as  the  equivalent 
of  a  temporal  clause. — A  full  end  will  he  make  of  his  adversaries] 
M  reads  for  the  last  phrase,  "of  her  place";  this  is  usually  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  Nineveh.  But  there  has  been  no  mention  of 
Nineveh  thus  far  in  the  poem;  hence  the  suffix  "her"  is  without 
any  antecedent.  Modem  interpreters,  therefore,  prefer  to  follow 
the  suggestion  of  (^  ®.  This  is  the  first  specific  mention  of  the 
foes  of  Yahweh,  though  the  previous  lines  have,  of  course,  been 
spoken  with  reference  to  them.  Here,  Yahweh 's  treatment  of 
them  is  brought  into  immediate  and  striking  contrast  with  his  at- 
titude toward  the  pious. — And  his  enemies  he  will  pursue  into  dark- 
ness] A  figure  suggestive  of  the  hopelessness  and  desolation  that 
will  overtake  the  foes  of  Yahweh;  there  will  be  no  way  of  escape 
for  them.  The  syntax  permits  equally  well  the  rendering,  "dark- 
ness will  pursue  his  enemies,"  f  and  the  sense  is  almost  equally 
good.  But  in  the  parallel  clauses,  Yahweh  is  the  subject  and  it  is 
more  natural  that  the  overthrow  of  Yahweh 's  foes  should  be  re- 
ferred directly  to  him  himself,  rather  than  to  one  of  his  agencies. 
The  change  from  'pursue'  to  'thrust  out'  (Jb.  18*^)  seems  im- 
necessary  {v.  i.);  cf  Pr.  13^'. — 9c.  He  will  not  tuke  vengeance  twice 
upon  his  adversaries]  The  exigiencies  of  the  acrostic  structure 
require  the  placing  of  this  line  here  rather  than  where  it  is  in  M- 
M  reads,  "not  twice  will  affliction  arise."  This  is  a  less  proba- 
ble reading  than  that  suggested  by  (g  because  (i)  Yahweh  is  the 

♦  So  e.  g.  Sanctius,  Rosenm.,  Hi.,  Hd.. 

t  So  e.  J.  «  B  »,  Cal.,  Mau.,  Hd.,  Stei.,  New.,  Dav.,  Hap 


I  293 

subject  of  the  action  in  the  parallel  clause,  (2)  no  close  analogy  for 
iSJ's  phrase  is  known,  (3)  M'&  thought  is  too  abstract  and  colour- 
less for  this  context.  The  specific  meaning  of  M  has  been  sought 
in  two  main  directions.  Some  find  a  promise  to  Judah  to  the  effect 
that  Assyria  shall  not  again  afflict  her  as  she  did  under  Sennacherib 
or  as  she  had  done  to  Samaria.*  Others  take  it  as  a  threat  against 
Nineveh  to  the  effect  that  no  second  disaster  will  be  needed  to  ac- 
complish her  overthrow.f  This  is  essentially  the  same  thought  as 
that  conveyed  by  the  reading  here  followed,  viz.  no  second  stroke 
of  chastisement  will  be  necessary  (cf.  1  S.  3^^  26^  2  S.  20^") ;  Yahweh 
will  punish  once  for  all.  None  will  dare  to  oppose  him  again. 
This  meaning  is  strongly  supported  by  the  remainder  of  the  line. 
— 9b.  For  unto  complete  destruction  he  is  about  to  work]  This  is  an 
exact  parallel  to  v.  ^^  and  fits  here  better  than  after  ^^.%  It  reaf- 
firms the  proposition  made  in  *^  and  clinches  it.  iM  has  here  "a 
full  end  he  is  about  to  make"  {cf.  Ez.  11'^);  this  yields  good  sense, 
but  lacks  any  formal  connective  with  the  preceding  half  of  the  line. 
By  using  the  first  two  words  of  v.  ^^  here,  we  not  only  secure  a 
smoother  connection,  but  also  account  satisfactorily  for  the  two 
words  which  at  the  beginning  of  v.  ^^  are  unintelligible  and  have 
baffled  all  interpreters.  For  the  idiom  "unto  complete  destruc- 
tion," cf.  Dn.  9^^  Ez.  13^^  2  Ch.  12^^;  and  for  the  absolute  use  of  the 
verb  'work'  (niry),  cf  1  K.  8^-  ^'  Je.  14'  Ez.  2o«  Ps.  22^*  37'  52^ 
Mai.  2"  Dn.  9'^. — 9a.  Whut  are  you  devising  against  Yahweh?] 
Not  "what  are  you  thinking  of  Yahweh  ?  "  §  The  verb  ntSTI  in  the 
Pi'el  with  ^S  or  ^j;  always  means  "to  plot"  or  "plan  against" 
(Ho.  f^  Dn.  11^).  The  writer  here  addresses  himself  directly  to 
the  foes  of  Yahweh  and  seeks  by  this  pointed  question  to  bring  out 
the  futility  of  all  human  devices  aimed  against  the  great  God;  cf 
Ps.  2,3^°-  The  answer  to  this  question,  or  whatever  else  it  may  have 
been  that  formed  the  original  conclusion  of  this  line,  is  now  lost. — 
2b.  Yahweh  takes  vengeance  on  his  adversaries  and  lays  up  wrath 


*  So  e.  g.  Jer.,  Sanctius,  Hd.,  Pu.,  Or.. 

t  So  e.  g.  Theodoret.,  Ra.,  Ki.,  Rosenm.,  Hi.,  Um.,  Ew.,  We.,  Hal.. 

t  The  order  9^.  b.  a  jg  that  adopted  by  Bick.,  Gunk.,  Gray,  Marti,  Now.^,  Hpt.,Stk.,  Du., 
Kent. 

§  Contra  Rosenm.,  Ew.,  Strauss,  Ke.,  We.,  Dav.,  GASm.,  Now.,  Am.,  Hap.,  Marti,  Kent. 
"Against  Yahweh"  is  adopted  by  (S  B  &,  Hi.,  Gray,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Hpt.,  van  H.,  Kau.. 


294  NAHUM 

for  his  foes]  The  right  of  this  line  to  stand  here  is  shown  by  its  near- 
ness in  thought  to  the  preceding  line,  by  its  fitting  into  the  acrostic 
at  this  point,  and  by  the  fact  that  it  is  superfluous  where  it  stands 
in  iJJ.*  Others  treat  the  line  as  a  part  of  the  gloss  on  v.  ^*t  ^- 
tended  to  limit  the  absolute  statement  there  made  by  the  additional 
suggestion  that  Yahweh's  vengeance  is  reserved  only  for  his  ene- 
mies. For  the  phrase  'lays  up  wrath,'  cj.  Je.  3^-  ^^  Ps.  103^,  where 
Yahweh's  attitude  toward  his  own  people  is  declared  to  be  just 
the  opposite  of  that  which  he  is  here  credited  with  holding  toward 
his  foes.  The  prohibition  of  this  state  of  mind  which  is  laid  upon 
Israel  in  Lv.  19^^  recognises  the  same  difference  between  Israel- 
ites and  non-Israelites;  cf.  Am.  i". — 10.  Thorns  cut  down  and 
dried  out — they  will  he  devoured  like  dry  stubble]  As  it  stands  in  iJJ, 
this  verse  is  wholly  unintelligible.  Modern  interpreters  have  for 
the  most  part  abandoned  it  as  hopeless  and  many  declare  the  re- 
covery of  the  original  text  impossible.!  A  literal  rendering  of  M 
would  yield,  "for  unto  thorns  entangled  and  Hke  their  drink  soaked, 
they  will  be  devoured  like  dry  stubble  full,"  or  possibly,  "  fully  dry." 
This  has  usually  been  interpreted  to  mean  that  even  though  the 
foes  of  Yahweh  be,  like  tangled  thorns,  difficult  and  dangerous  to 
approach  and  be  hard  to  destroy  even  as  drenched  thorns  are  hard 
to  bum,  yet  before  Yahweh's  might  they  will  be  made  to  fall  as 
easily  as  the  fire  consumes  the  stubble.§  Others  have  found  in  the 
second  clause  a  slightly  different  thought,  viz.  '  like  drunkards  who 
fall  into,  the  flames  as  though  desiring  so  to  do,  they  will  be  con- 
siuned,  etc'  **  But  no  translation  affording  any  connected  sense 
is  possible  within  the  limits  of  ordinary  grammatical  interpreta- 
tion. The  translation  here  given  rests  upon  a  te.xt  which  is  con- 
fessedly largely  conjectural  and,  as  with  all  guesses,  the  chances 
are  against  it.  Recent  interpreters  have  cut  the  Gordian  knot  by 
dropping  the  more  difficult  words  as  due  to  dittography  (y.  i.),  but 
this  leaves  the  line  with  only  five  beats  instead  of  the  six  that 
are  required.     The  poet's  imagination  pictures  the  enemies  of 

*  So  placed  also  by  Bick.,  Now.',  Or.  (?),  Am.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent;  while  Du. 
places  the  whole  of  v. '  here. 

t  So  e.  g.  Gunk.,  We.,  Now.',  Gray,  Hap.,  Dr.,  van  H.. 

t  So  e.  g.  We.,  Dav.,  G.\Sm.,  Dr.,  Kau.. 

§  So  e.  g.  Ew.,  Hi.,  Hd.,  Or..  **  So  e.  g.  Ki.,  Mau.. 


Yahweh  as  a  patch  of  thorns  laid  low  by  the  sickle  and  ready  for 
the  fire.  The  same  likening  of  Yahweh's  foes  to  thorns  and 
stubble  appears  in  Is.  33"-  ^';  cf.  also  2  S.  23^  Mi.  f  Is.  10"  27* 
Ez.  2"  Ec.  7". 

The  acrostic  structure  of  this  section  was  first  noticed    in  modern 
times  at  least,  by  Pastor  G.  Frohnmeyer  of  Lienzingen  in  Wiirtemberg. 
His  suggestion  was  called  to  the  attention  of  scholars  by  De.  in  his  com- 
mentary on  Ps.  9.     The  discovery  was  taken  up  by  Pick,  who  sought 
to  reconstruct  w.  J-'o  on  this  basis  in  ZDMG.  XXXIV  (1880),  559/.  and 
later  in  his  Carmina  V.  T.  metrice  (1882),  212  /..     Bick.'s  scheme  was 
peculiar  in  that  he  sought  the  whole  alphabet  in  the  successive  lines  of 
w.  '•  »»,  by  making  the  alphabetic  arrangement  apply  not  only  to  the 
initial  letters,  but  also  to  the  second  and  third  letters  of  the  lines.     In 
his  own  words,  "exquisito  artificio  alphabetico  struitur  hoc  carmen. 
Unicuique  disticho  litera  ex  ordine  alphabeti  usque  ad  mem  inclusive 
praemittitur,  sed  ea  lege,  ut  Aleph  iteretur,  et  prima  ultimaque  stropha. 
unicam  tantum  literam  initialem  recipiant.     Hoc  modo  in  initio  secundi 
distichi  literae  Nun  locus  reservatur.     Ceterae  literae  a  Samekh  usque  ad 
Tav  (e  quibus  Pa,  ut  saepius,  literae  'Ajin  praemittitur)  literas  initiales 
Bet,  Gimel,  Dalet,  He,  Vav  ita  sequuntur,  ut  alternatim  binae  et  singulae 
ponantur;  ergo  Samekh  et  Pa  post  Bet,  'Ajin  post  Gimel,  ^ade  et  Qoph 
post  Dalet,  Res  post  He,  Sin  et  Tav  post  Vav."     The  artificiality  of  this 
hypothesis,  which  is  wholly  without  analogy  in  Heb.,  and  the  violence  to 
the  text  which  is  necessary  to  give  it  any  shade  of  plausibility  kept  schol- 
ars from  adopting  it;  and  Pick,  (though  he  had  presented  the  last  str. 
in  revised  form  [i'-'"]  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Kathol.  Theologie  for  1886),  in 
his  last  publication  on  the  subject,  viz.  Beitrdge  2.  sem.  Metrik  (1894) 
abandoned  the  scheme  himself.     The  next  contribution  was  from  Gunk, 
in  ZA  W.  XIII  (1893),  223  /.  and  also  some  further  suggestions  in  Schop- 
fung  und  Chaos  (1895),  102/..     He,  observing  that  elsewhere  alphabetic 
poems  are  carried  through  the  whole  alphabet  and  that  ii'>-2<  was  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  length  as  i'-',  proceeded  to  reconstruct  12-2'  so  as 
to  make  it  yield  twenty-two  lines,  each  opening  in  turn  with  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  in  their  proper  order.     This  involved  radical  emenda- 
tions and  several  transpositions  of  lines  or  parts  of  lines,  especially  in 
110-2'.     The  first  full  statement  of  the  case  for  English  readers  was 
furnished  by  Gray,  Exp.  1898,  pp.  207-220,  who  did  not  attempt  to  fol- 
low Gunk,  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  latter  half  of  the  acrostic,  con- 
cerning which  he  rightly  says,  "any  particular  suggestion  can  be  re- 
garded as  little  more  than  a  possibility";  but  satisfied  himself  with  mar- 
shalling the  evidence  for  the  acrostic  character  of  the  piece  as  a  whole 
and  with  contributing  a  textual  suggestion  or  two  of  much  value.     Hap. 
(1900  and  1902)  regards  the  acrostic  form  as  original  rather  than  as  due 


296  NAHUM 

to  an  editor  as  some  have  suggested  and  carries  it  through  2',  but  con- 
siders the  poem  in  its  present  form  to  be  in  reality  a  composite  of  two 
poems  (viz.  i'-'"  and  i"-2'),  which  have  been  independently  wrought 
out  of  the  original  acrostic  which  he  undertakes  to  restore.  Am.  (1901) 
subjected  the  work  of  his  predecessors  to  a  keen  criticism  and  main- 
tained that  only  a  fragment  of  the  original  acrostic  had  been  incorpo- 
rated in  ch.  I  and  that  it  is  found  in  i^-'o.  In  the  restoration  of  this,  he 
proffers  some  new  textual  readings  and  transpositions.  Hpt.  (1907) 
likewise  makes  no  attempt  to  restore  the  acrostic  beyond  i'"  and  adds 
but  little  on  the  acrostic  form  to  the  work  of  his  predecessors.  Du. 
(1910)  begins  the  acrostic  with  i',  tr.  i"  to  foil.  !»»,  and  combines  i'' 
with  I'o  to  form  the  D  and  j?  lines  with  which  he  stops. 

The  acrostic  structure  of  i'-'"  is  too  clearly  apparent  to  be  a  subject 
of  reasonable  doubt.  Eight  of  the  lines  as  they  stand  in  m  offer  the 
desired  initial  letter,  while  four  or  five  more  are  easily  recovered  by  slight 
emendations  and  transpositions,  some  of  which  are  necessary  apart  from 
all  requirements  of  the  acrostic.  This  fact  is  recognised  and  a  reconstruc- 
tion substantially  identical  with  that  given  above  (pp.  287/.)  is  adopted 
by  nearly  all  recent  scholars;  e.  g.  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Stk.,  van  H., 
Kau.,  and  Kent.  The  only  doubters  are  Dav.  and  GASm..  The 
former  entertains  the  possibility  that  the  traces  of  an  acrostic  are  due 
solely  to  unconscious  and  accidental  causes;  but  the  recurrence  of  so 
many  successive  letters  at  regular  intervals  seems  to  reduce  the  possibil- 
ity of  chance  or  accident  to  the  vanishing-point.  The  latter  scholar 
wonders  how  a  poem  originally  clearly  indicated  as  acrostic  could  have 
failed  of  recognition  and  have  suffered  mutilation  to  such  an  e.xtent  as  to 
have  lost  the  semblance  of  an  acrostic.  But  the  fact  that  Ps.  9  and  10 
underwent  a  somewhat  similar  transformation  is  sufficient  answer  to 
such  an  objection. 

In  the  section  beginning  with  i",  not  only  are  there  no  sure  traces  of 
the  acrostic,  but  the  character  of  the  contents  undergoes  a  change.  The 
acrostic  concerns  itself  primarily  and  almost  exclusively  with  Yahweh  and 
his  doings;  w.  "  "•  are  clearly  addressed  to  a  party  of  the  second  part  who 
seems  to  have  been  guilty  of  a  great  crime  against  Yahweh  and  his  peo- 
ple.    Hence,  these  two  parts  of  ch.  i  must  be  treated  separately. 

It  is  Gunk.'s  merit  to  have  pointed  out  the  distinction  in  style  and  tone 
between  ch.  i  and  chs.  2,  3.  In  the  latter,  the  writer  is  dealing  with  a 
definite  and  concrete  political  situation;  but  in  the  former  we  have  only 
theological  abstractions.  The  language  and  ideas  here  are  not  those 
of  the  prophets,  but  those  of  the  post-prophetic,  eschatological  psalm- 
ists. The  artificial  acrosdc  form  is  also  out  of  keeping  with  the  vigor- 
ous and  vital  style  of  Nahum.  It  points  to  later  times,  when  such  usage 
was  common;  e.  g.  Pr.  3110-31  Ps.  g^  10,  25,  34,  37,  in,  112,  119,  145. 
La.  1-4.    This  section  is,  therefore,  now  generally  held  to  be  of  late 


V  297 

origin;  so  e.  g.  Bick.,  Gray,  We.,  Now.,  Hap.,  Lohr  {ThLZ.  1901,  p.  37), 
Arn.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Bu.G«ch.^  Cor.,  Hpt,  Kau.,  Du.,  Kent.  The  fact 
that  the  later  addition  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the  book  rather  than 
at  the  end,  as  is  more  customary,  is  not  altogether  without  parallel;  sim- 
ilar introductions  are  Gn.  i'-2<»,  Dt.  1-5;  and  some  would  place  Mi. 
i2-5  in  the  same  category. 

2.  NU|i]  Only  Jos.  24";  a  variation  from  the  more  usual  form  n^;i. — 
'1  Dpji]  Marti  om.  'ji;  so  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent.  Du.  om.  both  words. 
— mn>  D|ij]  Om.  with  C6  as  a  dittog.;  so  Gunk.,  Hap.,  Now.,  Du.. 
Marti  om.  only  '';  so  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Ka..  The  threefold  occurrence  of  'j 
greatly  exercised  the  older  exegetes;  Ra.,  e.  g.,  saw  in  it  a  reflection  of 
the  threefold  vengeance  of  '\  viz.  in  the  beginning  of  Israel's  history, 
in  the  prophet's  own  time,  and  in  the  days  to  come  when  Israel  is  to  be 
deported  to  Babylon.  Abar.  interpreted  it  as  occasioned  by  the  fact  that 
Assy,  had  invaded  and  devastated  Israel  three  times;  while  Tarnovius, 
Mich.,  Geb.  and  Pu.  referred  it  to  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity.  The 
om.  of  '•' ':  here  suggested  is  much  simpler  than  the  proposition  to  drop 
'i^  and  the  second  '%  even  though  it  does  bring  the  cassiura  after  the 
fourth  beat  instead  of  the  third;  such  variations  in  hexameter  are  not 
uncommon. — ncn  Sy^i]  (U  yuera  dvijav  om.  i;  so  &;  so  also  Gunk.,  Hap., 
Now..  On  this  usage  of  '2,  cf.  Pr.  2221  29"  and  Ges.  ^'^s  s.  u.  go  also 
Ar.  dhu  =  'possessor  of,'  'characterised  by.' — naui]  (§  Ka2  ^^a^^wv,  no- 
where else  used  to  render  'j,  but  =  Saj  in  Dn.  7^.  B  et  irascens.  For 
the  same  usage  of  'j,  with  the  object  ^n  understood,  v.  Je.  35-  12  Ps.  103' 
Lv.  19'^;  Am.  i'2,  in  its  original  form,  probably  presented  this  vb.  with 
IN  expressed  {v.  H.^",  32).  Hpt.  would  assign  'j  in  all  these  passages 
to  a  'j  II  =  *  be  embittered '  and  =  Assy,  natdru,  generally  read  naddru, 
and  connected  with  Ar.  mutirr  (-j/  nna)  =  'bursting  out  (of  wrath).' 
New.  traced  it  to  an  Ar.  vb.  =  'see'  and  rendered  it  'observeth  with  an 
angry  eye';  cf.  m'j)^  =  'mark,'  'target'  (i  S.  2020). — All  who  recognise 
the  acrostic  character  of  this  passage  concede  vv.  ^^-  '»  to  be  out  of  place 
here;  but  opinions  vary  as  to  the  best  disposition  of  them;  some  treating 
both  lines  as  glosses,  others  finding  only  sa  to  be  late  and  placing  "b  after 
the  D  line,  while  others  make  both  lines  original,  putting  '»•  ^^,  in  reverse 
order,  after  the  c  line  (Bick.),  or  ^=-^-  ^b  after  the  D  line  (Hpt.),  or  '»  after 
the  a  line  (v.  ')  and  ^b  after  d  (Am.).  Du.,  however,  begins  the  acrostic 
with  V.  ',  dropping  the  initial  '^  and  placing  v.  ^  after  v.  '».  Every  at- 
tempt to  use  3  a  as  a  part  of  the  acrostic  involves  serious  difficulty.  To 
make  it  supply  the  shortage  in  the  d  line,  demands  the  arbitrary  omission 
of  more  than  half  of  3*  in  order  to  bring  the  completed  line  within  the 
compass  of  a  hexameter.  To  place  it  after  the  a  line,  likewise  calls  for 
some  pruning  of  3«  which  is,  as  it  stands,  too  long  for  a  line,  and  it  also 
involves  the  omission  of  'x  ar3  from  v.  '  which  has  to  be  crowded  into  a 
single  line.     Du.'s  proposition  involves  an  irregular  order  of  words  for 


298  NAHUM 

'»,  after  the  initial  '<  has  been  dropped  for  the  purpose  of  the  acrostic;  the 
nominal  sentence  calls  for  its  subject  at  the  beginning  rather  than  at  the 
end. — 3.  no]  Rd.  npn,  with  Gunk  ;  so  Now.,  Kau. ;  cj.  Jo.  2"  Jon.  4*  Elx.  34' 
Ps.  I03«  145'. — npj^  kS  riiiji]  (6  koX  idfov  ovk  d^ywo-et.  H  et  mundans 
-non  faciei  innocentem.  The  phrase  is  found  also  in  Ex.  34'  Nu.  14";  cf. 
Ex.  20'  Je.  30".  Hpt.  supplies  an  obj.  p;;,  in  place  of  M's  mn>;  but  'i 
requires  a  personal  obj.,  not  an  abstraction. — nin^]  (6  treats  as  subj.  of 
>\pv.  Gunk.,  Hap.,  Marti,  and  Kau.  om.  as  a  gloss. — ncioa]  <&  iv  irvv- 
Te\elq.. — my;*ai]  Jb.  9".  A  dialectic  variation  from  ^^"O,  which  Gunk, 
would  substitute.  The  same  alliterative  conjunction  of  noiD  and  rn;-D 
occurs  in  Is.  29"  Ps.  83". — ]w]  05  U  pi.. — vSji  p2N]  Gunk.  rSjiV  pztf]; 
so  Bick.,  van  H.. — 4.  lyu]  Some  mss.  of  Kenn.  -\^;  so  We.,  Now.,  Hal.. 
The  prtc.  shows  that  the  reference  is  not  to  any  single  act,  but  to  the  reg- 
ular and  continuous  activity  of  '^  along  these  lines.  As  the  continuation 
of  the  prtc.  by  the  impf .  shows,  the  prtc.  here  describes  a  permanent  char- 
acteristic of '',  one  demonstrated  by  long-established  experience. — in::'^"] 
Gunk,  ira^i;  so  Stk..  We.  inc'oy^i;  so  Marti,  Now.^,  van  H.,  Kau.. 
But  this  was  probably  a  recognised  and  legitimate  contraction  of  the 
full  form,  the  weak  ^  being  elided  just  as  is  the  n  of  Niph.,  Hiph.  and 
Hoph.  impfs..  For  other  cases,  v.  La.  3'3-  ";  cf.  Ges.  'i  "  ". — '^^^n]  Rd. 
h^l,  with  Gray,  Dr.,  Du..  The  acrostic  calls  for  an  initial  n  here.  M 
has  'n  at  both  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  line;  but  the  Vrss. 
without  exception  seem  to  point  to  different  vbs.  in  the  two  places;  at 
least,  they  have  different  renderings.  (6  has  dXiydiOr)  .  .  .  4^^\iirev; 
HI  infirmatus  est  .  .  .  elanguU;  ul  i^S  .  .  .  n.-^j;  &  B^l  ....  \.a.£u. 
In  accordance  with  not  infrequent  usage  elsewhere,  this  might  be 
explained  as  due  to  a  desire  for  variation.  But  against  such  an  ex- 
planation here  is  (i)  the  fact  that  the  translators  here  were  not  zeal- 
ous for  variety,  for  in  i«  Dj?T  and  }nn  are  rendered  by  the  same  word 
by  both  (&  {ipyfj)  and  &;  (2)  the  variety  exists  in  all  the  Vrss.;  (3) 
the  acrostic  calls  for  1 ;  (4)  the  use  of  words  for  'n  by  (6  &  which  never 
occur  elsewhere  as  its  equivalents.  Among  the  many  Heb.  originals  of 
OS's  frequent  rendering  iKXeiireiv,  the  one  that  best  suits  this  situation  is 
SSt  which  is  represented  by  this  vb.  in  (8's  rendering  of  Is.  38'*  and  in 
the  Niph.  is  rendered  by  the  noun  «KXeH|i'ij  in  Is.  17*.  This,  however, 
gives  us  'i  at  the  end  of  the  line  instead  of  the  beginning  where  it  is 
needed.  When  the  oldest  Vrss.  ((6  &)  were  made,  it  is  quite  clear  that 
the  opening  word  of  the  line  was  S'?cn,  for  the  renderings  of  these  two 
bear  indisputable  testimony  to  that  fact.  But,  if  a  scribe  depended 
largely  upon  his  memory,  not  slavishly  eyeing  his  copy,  the  resemblance 
in  both  form  and  meaning  between  'n  and  'i  might  easily  have  occasioned 
their  interchange;  cf.  the  similar  transpositions  in  Mi.  i'  (6  and  Na.  i« 
&.  That  '^'^T  might  fittingly  be  applied  to  Bashan  and  Carmel,  fertile 
regions,  would  appear  from  Is.  19*  where  it  is  parallel  to  nin  and  is  used 


I' 


3-B  299 


of  streams,  Is.  17'  where  it  is  used  of  the  glory  of  1-°^' ^^^^^.f^/ 
Heb   where  it  denotes  the  thinning  out  of  vine-leaves      C/.  Gray  s  ex 
cellent  statement  of  these  facts.     Bick.'  P.>     Buhl,  Sa..     Gunk.  3.^; 
so  Bick.3,  We.,  Or.,  Hap.,  Now.,  Hpt.,  van  H..     CB.  S.rnn^  S,.  ^  Am. 
,«...     Kau.  ....-F:^]  ®  P^^'.  ^o  *•     ^B.  l?*?>-6.  D>-^n]  «  ra  6pT 
so  is-    hence  Marti,  Dnnn;  so  Now.^  Kent,  Du..     But  the  art.  is  not 
necessary  even  though  the  parallel  noun  has  it;  the  use  of  art.  with  one 
noun  when  a  co-ordinate  noun  is  anarthrous  is  not  uncommon;  cf.  Mi. 
I..  .  ,3  41.  .0      Further,  the  art.  occurs  only  once  in  an  acrostic  as  a 
member  of  the  alphabetic  series,  viz.  La.  4^-nip.ni]  Gunk,  '.n  S=i;  so 
Gray,  Kol..  Now..-s...n.]  Rd.  .rn.,  Niph.  V  -^^  (</•  ®  ^^-^^  ^^f 
furnishes  good  sense  and  occurs  in  a  similar  context  ^^  Is^^";  so  also 
Capellus,  Gunk.,  Gray,  Or.  (?),  Marti,  Now.k    Dr.,  ^W^f•■^  ^P^' 
Kau.;   c/.  Houb.  n.uo.  (so  New.).     (6  Kai  d.eardX^.     M- ^^P'^J    2. 
iK^v^ev.  yicontremuil;  so  &.   Bick.^  rri,   Bick.«  Nrr;.;  so  Now..   BDB. 
HC^nn     so    van   H..     Gr.    .'pn^.     Kau.   .r-].     Oort^-    ^r.      Hap 
^^      Du.  nu'ni  (c/.  Hb.  aO-     iH  calls  for  an  intransitive  rendering  of 
«;;■"  Passages  commonly  cited  in  support  of  this  are  Ho.  13'  Hb.  i 
Ps  24'  So--  but  Ho.  i3>  is  corrupt  {v.  H.a",  ad  loc),  Hb.  i'  probably  so, 
Ps  24»  should  be  corrected  after  24^  and  in  Ps.  Sq-  the  intransitive  sense 
is  not  necessary.     We  should  also  expect  ':,  if  intransitive   to  be  fol- 
lowed by  vnn.-.:=  rather  than  vjdd.     <6  S.  seem  to  have  read  the  Niph. 
impf.  of  s-^'/;'  Aq.,  »  B  perhaps  gave  a  free  rendering  of  the  same  form; 
but  01  connected  it  with  nsc^,  'be  waste.'-^.r^]  Om.  1  with  <S  &;  so 
We    Gunk.,  Gray,  Hap.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Hpt.,  Kau..     For  similar 
asyndetic  construction,  v.  Je.  34^  Ps.  24'  98^     «  ^  .^M-<ra.- r  ^:d  . 
,n, ',  >r1  Rd  'D  vjdS  '^  ^D  id^t;  so  Bick.,  Gunk.,  We.,  Gray,  Or.,  Hap., 
Now.,  Marti;  Dr.,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  van  H.,  Kent,  Du..     The  relation  between 
this  line  and  the  n  line  is  so  close  that  it  is  evident  that  this  line  stood  in 
immediate  proximity  to  the  latter.     The  key-word  in  the  acrostic  is   i; 
hence '-  must  be  transposed.    Arn.'s  objection  to  this  transposition  is  not 
well  taken,  viz.  that  r  jdS  ',  ,c  would  mean  "  who  can  stand  before  him  ?   , 
thus  leaving  't  unrelated,     't  is  grammatically  masc.  (Is.  lo^O ;  hence  the 
masc    sf.  refers  to  it  naturally.     In  any  case,  Arn.'s  substitution  of    >?; 
for  nor  is  too  violent  a  change.     But  Arn.'s  explanation  of  the  position 
of  ^jqS  in  m  as  due  to  the  fact  that  the  writer  was  quoting  from  memory 
here  is  probably  correct;  cf.  the  place  of  hd:)  in  Is.  2^  with  its  place  in  the 
duplicate.  Mi.  4'.-^=^]  The  detachment  of  1  to  complete  >:.^  leaves  >d 
as  a  proclitic  to  be  pronounced  with  Dip^  and  thus  improves  the  metre.- 
n3nj]<gT^m.   hc^.  cvvexo>ve<,e-n.    S  9  .Vra^e..   ^  fluere  facit.  We.,  with 
»    tr    'j  and  ixn:,  reading  them  nps:  and  i3rj;  so  Hal..     Kenn.  225 
reads  in:^:;  so  Mich.,  Gunk.,  Bick.,  Gray,  Now.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Kau., 
HWB  >«      But  We.'s  objection  that  hdhj  is  not  suitable  before  u-n^  is 
iU-founded,  in  view  of  Je.  7"  where  the  ideas  of  'pouring'  and  'burning 


300  NAHUM 

are  conjoined  in  reference  to  Yahweh's  wrath;  so  also  in  Je.  44'  2  Ch, 
34".  Nor  is  the  ditliculty  with  nri]  serious;  the  vb.  is  commonly  used 
of  the  breaking  down  of  walls,  doors,  cities,  towns,  etc.;  there  is  no  in- 
herent difficulty  in  applying  it  to  rocks;  it  is  surely  as  easy  to  think  of  the 
'breaking  down'  or  'pulling  down'  of  rocks  as  it  is  of  the  'burning'  of 
them;  indeed,  there  is  no  example  of  this  latter  idea  in  the  OT..  For  the 
idiom  }D  TDj,  cf.  Je.  4'^ — u-nd]  0»  apx^^'y  so  1C.  Hence  Gr.  b-ni. — 
USD]  &  =  njcs;  so  Gunk.,  Bick.,  Now.  (?).  The  reference  of  the  sf, 
is  ambiguous,  for  c*«  occurs  both  as  masc.  and  as  fem.. — 7.  nyc'^]  Rd. 
tij'D  vipS;  cf.  (8  ToTs  uirofj.ivov<7iv  avrbv;  B  et  confortans;  ®  to  Israel  that  they 
may  stay  themselves;  &  to  strengthen.  This  insertion  is  supported  by 
(i)  (6,  which  has  one  of  the  more  frequent  equivalents  of  rnp;  (2)  QI, 
which  probably  had  'pS  as  a  basis  for  its  'Israel'  and  'd  as  the  original 
of  its  'stay  themselves';  (3)  the  need  of  another  beat  in  the  line. 
This  reading  (or  'cS  vip^)  is  accepted  by  Bick.,  Gunk.,  We.,  Dav., 
GASm.,  Gray,  Or.,  Now.,  Hal.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent.  The 
phrase  'pS  '•>  aiB  occurs  also  in  La.  3";  cf.  Ps.  25'  37^  69'  86^  Is.  ^o'' 
49^3.  Oort^""-  substitutes  vip"^  for  rv^S.  Bick.  (1894)  iTiyca  •'v;^/,  cf. 
Hap.  iij?dS  >a  vyS ;  but  the  idiom  13  ny  does  not  occur  elsewhere.  Van  II. 
Nin  tij?D  I*?  O'ip.nS.  Du.  tipnS  ijp.';':'.  Hpt.  would  derive  n>2  from  "•; 
with  the  Massoretes,  rather  than  from  tij;  {cf.  Ges.  %  ss  k)  j  but  the  lat- 
ter root  suits  the  usage  of  the  noun  better.  This  is  the  only  example  of  a 
c  formation  from  an  i';*  root  which  retains  a  under  the  preformative 
when  inflectional  additions  are  made  and  also  doubles  the  last  radical, 
^-  g-  \!1!9-  The  doubled  radical,  of  course,  does  not  necessarily  presup- 
pose an  y'y  root,  since  it  may  be  only  an  equivalent  for  the  naturally  long 
vowel  (e.  g.  tjSs  and  u'ji?'?).  M.  vacillates  on  this  point;  cf.  "jiyr, 
2  S.  22";  m-ij;d,  Ps.  316  43^;  inyn,  Is.  17' Ps.  52';  ajij?»,  Ps.  37";  \rij?n, 
Dn.  II"-  •'.  The  ^  is  just  as  abnormal  in  the  one  case  as  the  other,  f  n 
furnishing  the  only  example  of  its  retention  in  the  case  of  an  j.'"]?  noun. 
Cf.  Brockelmann,  Vergl.  Gramm.  pp.  103,  375;  Earth,  NB.  §  158  b;  No. 
Syr.  Gram.  §  126  G. — mx  av2]  Arn.  om.  as  gloss.  Du.  '••  -ini  'x  '2. — ;'-im] 
Rd.  nin^  jn>,  with  Bick.,  Gunk.,  We.,  Hap.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk., 
van  H.,  Kau.,  Kent.  Gray,  Or.,  Dr.,  Du.,  om.  i,  but  do  not  add  '\ — 
•'Dn]  (6  Toi)^  ivKa^ovixivovs. — 8.  T3J?  n!3!i'3i]  (S  xal  iv  KaraKXvffnif  wopflas. 
^  apparently  tr.  'j?  and  the  foil,  ncy;  though  this  appearance  is  probably 
due  to  an  inner  Syr.  corruption.  Bick.  originally  (1880)  added  n^r;  but 
later  a->3U?'';  so  van  H..  Hap.  om.  '>.  Gunk,  adds  na^'S'  or  d';:''X>;  so 
We.,  Gray,  Now.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Kau.,  Kent.  Du.  changes  'v  to  aT?>'l- 
— nsv-:]  Rd.  vcpd;  so  Buhl  (Z^IIF.  V),  Gunk.,  Oort,  Or.,  Now.,  Hap., 
Marti,  Dr.,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  van  H.,  Kau.,  Kent.  Du..  The  sf.  of  M  lacks 
any  antecedent  here.  Parallels  for  a  second  ace.  after  nSa  ncy  are 
furnished  by  Je.  30"  Ne.  g'K  But  the  similarity  of  vcpj  to  ncipD  is  very 
close;  for  other  interchanges  of  a  and  c,  cf.  TtN-13  for  i-nc  in  2  K.  20'^; 


j7-10  301 

njcN  and  njax  in  Qr.  and  Kt.  of  2  K.  5'*  {cf.  (6  »  tU);  pcn  and  pr^ 
Is.  159  (cf.  W),  Jos  15"  Ne.  II";  and  the  local  pronunciation  of  Baalbek, 
which  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  Maalbek.     Such  confusion  is  also 
clearly  attested  by  <g,  e.  g.  Ho.  lo^  2->\  <S  'lapelfi;  13^  >a,  (S  »  =  -c;  Am. 
6'  ii-Nia,  (6  =  B^xnn;  Mi.   7"  'jdqd,  (6  =  'J?33.     C/.  also  Dl.  Assy. 
Gram.  §  44;  Ko.  II,  i,  p.  459-    For  n^a  nt- j;  with  3,  cf.  Je.  30"  =  46"      « 
Toi>s  ^7re7€i|0OM^«'oi's;  similarly  9.    Aq.  dird  dftcrraM^vw^.    E'.  a  consurgen- 
tibus  illi.    »  to  its  place.    ®  wpi  N'DDj;  Sd^     <S  Aq    9.  E'.  and  W  all 
treat  it  as  a  designation  of  persons  rather  than  place  or  things.     Gre. 
vDp\->D.    Houb.  VC1P3.    New.  vnmpa.     Dathe,  vD^pnS;  so  Bauer,  Br.. 
Jus.  VT2p^  (so  Hap.)  or  vnmpnn  (so  Gr.,  We.;  cf.  Hpt.).     Hal.  m_rJ3.— 
'n  n-'^'i  'Acc.  of  end  of  motion  as  in  i  S.  23^5.     We.i  'n  iir  or  ']'f\ 
Gunk,  'n  n^^V,  so  We.',  Gray,  Now.,  Marti,  Stk.,  van  H.,  Kau.,  Du.; 
cf.  Jb.  i8>8.     Hpt.  'n  Sn  tinn\— 9.  ina-nn]  Gunk,  adds  nj;n;  similarly 
Now.K.— Sx]  (g  ^^/;  so  §>  H;  hence  Gunk.  S?;  so  Hpt.,  Du..     But  S« 
has  the  force  of  ^y  in  Ho.  7'^  Je.  49'^"'  50''-—^^^  ^^^  ^^^1  ^d.  n^3  ^>i  >? 
n-i'y  Nin,  the  first  two  words  of  which  are  from  v.  ">  where  they  are  unin- 
telligible; so  Marti,  Or.  ( ?),  Now.^,  Hpt.,  Stk.  (all  of  whom  also  change  '3 
ton?:;  c/.  2  K.  13'^- "Ezr.g'^  2  Ch.  31' BS.  io'3),and  Du..   Theattempt 
of  Dav.  to  find  the  meaning  'even  though'  for  13?  and  so  make  n>'  ^3  in- 
telligible where  it  is  in  M  rests  upon  Nu.  8^  i  S.  2^  Hg.  2''  Jb.  25^,  all  of 
which  present  a  questionable  text  and  in  none  is  the  meaning  '  though' 
satisfactory  even  if  it  were  permissible.     The  change  to  nS:  is  quite  un- 
necessary, even  though  it  makes  excellent  sense.     Now.  substitutes  n-^-j?^ 
for  'y  Nin,  treating  Nin  as  due  to  dittog.  of  n  in  '3  and  corruption  of  \— 
Dipn]  Rd.  aip%  with  C6  iKdiK'^ffei;  so  Gunk.,  Gray,  Hap.,  Now.,  Marti, 
Dr.  (?),  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent.     Van  H.  Dip;.     S.  o^x  aveviroaT-ftffovTai. 
T^v  iTravdffTaffiv.—r^-y^  o^d>'d]  Rd.  vyi}  '0;  so  Gunk.,  Gray,  Now.,  Hap., 
Marti,  Dr.  (?),  van  H.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent.     Hpt.  vn|D.     After  the  final 
D  of  's,  the  om.  of  the  similarly  sounding  3  was  easy  (v.  on  v.  s).— 10.  '3 
nj?]    V.  on.  v.  9.     Gunk.  tr.  to  foil,  ni^y  in  9^;  so  Bick.,  but  reading 
nyiS3  (accepted  by  Gunk,  in  Schopfung  u.  Chaos,  102).     Arn.  om.  as 

gloss.— 3^N13D  DN3D31  0'33D  D^I'D]    Rd.    D^KCfl  D^PD?  On^D.      M   SeemS   tO 

be  due  to  corruption  and  conflation.  It  embodies  two  efforts  to  restore 
a  corrupt  text.  One  interpreting  Dn>D  as  'thorns'  restored  d>33D;  the 
other,  taking  it  as  'pots,'  restored  a>N3Di  dn3D31,  on  the  basis  of  Ho.  4'8. 
The  reference  later  in  the  context  to  stubble  and  burning  makes  the 
interpretation  'thorns'  much  the  more  probable.  Starting  with  this 
we  can  restore  a^nD3,  on  the  basis  of  (S,  the  remnants  of  il,  and  Is. 
3312;  so  Gunk.,  Marti,  Dr.(?),  Stk.  (though  Marti,  Stk.,  add  oS;). 
The  further  correction  o>nosi  presupposes  a  confusion  of  c  and  3  {v.  on 
V.  8)  and  of  s  and  o  (cf.  ?n::->  and  pnx^,  and  drops  dn3D3  as  due  either 
to  a  gloss  or  to  dittog.  (for  the  om.,  cf  Gunk.,  Gr.,  OortE"--,  Hap., 


302  NAHUM 

Marti,  Hpt.,  Kent),  nsx  is  applied  to  land  in  Is.  44'  and  to  foliage  in 
Dt.  29",  hence  may  be  used  appropriately  of  thorns.  (&  6€fji€Xiov{-wv, 
HP.  228)  avToO{-Qv,  (B^;  -^s,  (6^'-  »•  ••  *>•  &")  x^/'<'''^^'J'''*'''<*'('<'*''''*'> 
(6^  HP  22,  36,  51,  62,  86,  95,  97,  147,  153,  185)  Kal  us  <Tni\a^  irepiirXe- 
Konivt]  =  .  .  .  'oi  D^nDo  CiD.  2.  o/xoiws  oroi/S^  ffvixireirXey/x^vt}  otirws 
Kal  rb  <Tv/xir6(riov  avrCiv  avunivbvTuv  aW-ffKois.  B  sicut  spinae  se  invicem 
complectuntur  sic  convivium  eorum  pariter  potantium.  &  =  on^iD  on.ir 
'd  DN3D31;  similarly  JT.  Gr.  DN2Dai  d>ni3D  oniy.  Am.  om.  Dn''D  as 
a  gloss  and  reads  oisiao  pi  O'^??-  Oort^"-  ri^fe?  DoaD  Dn;D'_.  Hal. 
CNup  D'NjDDi  Di-i5;i;j2.  Hpt.  HDH '"s  D^NUD 'o.  Van  H.  0'^;p3  o^onD.  Du. 
iS  ^s  D''D3p  Dn>D,  using  the  foil,  iSon,  and  tr.  'd  'dji  to  the  end  of  verse 
where  it  is  to  be  read  nSd  d^n'jS  r^ap  in.  Hpt.  takes  oniD  as  =  'pots' 
here  and  treats  0'J3D  as  a  gloss  by  one  who  misinterpreted  it  as  'thorns' 
and  0X3D3  as  another  gloss  =  'even  if  they  drink,'  the  original  text  being 
D^NOD  an^D  =  'jars  filled  with  wine.'  This  is  treated  as  a  figurative 
characterisation  of  the  drunkards  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  his  nephew, 
Demetrius  I.  But  aside  from  the  improbability  of  a  Maccabaean  date  for 
this  material  and  the  inappropriateness  of  burning  as  a  method  of  de- 
stroying jars,  the  pi.  of  -fD  'pot'  is  elsewhere  nn^p. — iSsn]  Cf.  Ex.  15'. 
(gi  fip{j}6-fi(T€Tai{-ovTai,  HP.  22,  36,  51,  95,  97,  153,  185).  2.  drnXw^^cre- 
Tai.  Gunk.  ■'iSd\  Hap.'s  suggestion  that  the  original  text  thus  far  was 
•iSps  ""[ZD  tj?  ''3,  represented  by  <&  ws  (Tyu/Xaf  (c.t.X.,  and  that  .  .  .  on^o 
'3D  '3D3  are  variants  or  glosses,  is  beset  by  two  serious  difficulties;  viz. 
(i)  the  use  of  ijj  as  a  particle  denoting  comparison  is  without  any  paral- 
lel in  the  OT.,  i  Ch.  4^'  certainly  not  being  such  a  case;  (2)  it  seems 
rather  reckless  to  eliminate  the  D  line,  leaving  a  blank,  when  D'"\>d 
presents  itself  at  the  right  place  in  fH. — i'3'j  Comp.,  ^■t)pavO'f)ff€Tai. 
Hap.  lio^.  Marti,  tt'«3;  so  Hpt.,  Stk.. — nSs]  Rd.  w'^n  and  join  with 
V.  i»;  so  We.,  GASm.,  Am.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Now.»^,  Hpt.(?).  &  =  w^o. 
Gr,    SVd.     Gunk.    "iSij    {cf.    Ps.    37').    Hal.   as  an  abbreviation    of 

§  3.    WORDS    OF   COMFORT   TO   JUDAH   (i"-  "   2'-  ^). 

An  eight-line  str.  declaring  that  the  yoke  of  Israel's  oppressor 
is  broken  and  the  period  of  her  afBiction  is  complete.  Deliver- 
ance and  restoration  now  await  the  people  of  God.  This  section 
constitutes  a  later  addition  to  the  prophecy  of  Nahum, 

Thus  saith  Yahweh: — 

VTERILY,  the  days  of  my  contention  are  completed;  yea,  indeed,  they  are  over 
and  gone. 
I  have  afllicted  thee,  but  I  will  afflict  thee  no  more. 


I"  303 

And  now  I  will  break  his  rod  from  upon  thee,  and  thy  bonds  I  will  burst  asunder. 
Behold,  upon  the  mountains  the  feet  of  a  herald,  of  one  proclaiming  peace! 
Celebrate  thy  feasts,  O  Judah,  fulfil  thy  vows; 

For  not  again  will  the  destroyer  pass  through  thee;  he  will  be  destroyed,  cut  off. 
For  Yahweh  will  restore  the  vine  of  Jacob,  likewise  the  vine  of  Israel; 
Though  the  despoilers  have  despoiled  them,  and  their  branches  they  have 
destroyed. 

12.  Thus  saith  Yahweh]  This  phrase  is  extraneous  to  the  str. 
but  is  not  on  that  account  necessarily  a  later,  editorial  addition.* 
It  furnishes  the  necessary  antecedent  of  the  pronouns  in  the  first 
person  which  follow. — Verily,  the  days  of  my  contention  are  com- 
pleted ;  yea,  indeed,  they  are  over  and  gone]  For  text,  v.  i..  M  is 
very  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  RV.  renders,  "though  they  be  in 
full  strength,  and  likewise  many,  even  so  shall  they  be  cut  down, 
and  he  shall  pass  away."  The  manifest  defects  of  this  are,  (i) 
D"'D'?w  =  'whole,'  'perfect,'  'sound,'  etc.,  and  'in  full  strength'  is 
somewhat  forced;  (2)  pi  can  hardly  be  rendered  "and  likewise," 
which  would  be  better  expressed  by  DJll;  (3)  the  pronouns  'they' 
and  'he'  are  loosely  related  to  the  context,  the  former  in  particular 
finding  no  satisfactory  antecedent.  Most  of  the  older  interpreters 
found  here  an  allusion  to  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  e.  g.  "if 
they  (i.  e.  the  Assyrians)  were  once  intact  and  so  many  and  yet 
were  so  mown  down  and  he  (i.  e.  Sennacherib)  passed  away."f 
But  the  allusions  are  too  indefinite  and  the  transition  to  Sennacherib 
too  abrupt  to  render  this  plausible.  Renderings  involving  textual 
changes  are  numerous,  e.  g.  "may  the  great  waters  be  ever  so  full, 
they  will  yet  come  to  naught  and  pass  away,"  |  but  D^D  is  nowhere 
else  used  of  the  overflowing  of  waters;  "how  high  the  tide  was  so- 
ever, it  has  ebbed  and  subsided,"  §  but  the  OT.  knows  nothing  of 
'  tides '  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  tide  on  the  coast  of  Palestine  is 
insignificant;  "  they  will  be  divided  like  the  great  waters,"**  but  this 
involves  the  arbitrary  omission  of  several  words  and  the  violent 
transposition  of  others.  The  translation  given  here  rests  upon  a 
text  largely  conjectural,  but  its  departure  from  M  is  comparatively 
slight.  For  the  figure  of  Yahweh's  controversy  with  Israel,  cf. 
Ho.  4*  12^  Mi.  6^  Je.  25^^     The  thought  is  that  the  period  during 

*  Contra  Gunk.,  Hap.,  Now.,  Hpt.. 

t  Ew.;  similarly  Mau.,  Ke.,  Hi.,  Hd.,  Or.,  GASm.. 

%  We..  §  Hpt..  **  Hap.. 


304  NAHUM 

which  Yahweh  has  constantly  been  under  the  necessity  of  punish- 
ing Judah  for  its  sins  has  now  come  to  an  end;  a  new  dispensation 
may  now  be  expected  from  him.  An  alternative  rendering,  resting 
upon  a  slightly  different  text,  may  be  suggested,  viz.  "many  days 
have  been  completed,  they  are  come  to  an  end  and  have  passed 
away";  i.  e.  the  long-drawn-out  time  of  affliction,  which  seemed  as 
though  it  would  never  end,  is  now  finished. — /  have  afflicted  thee, 
but  I  will  afflict  thee  no  more]  This  is  a  plain  prose  statement  of  the 
meaning  of  the  preceding,  somewhat  figurative  words.  The  ad- 
dress is  to  Judah,*  if  this  translation  be  adopted.  But  as  the  text 
stands  in  HI,  the  more  natural  rendering  is,  "and  I  will  aflflict  thee 
so  that  I  need  not  afflict  thee  again";  in  which  case  the  address  is 
to  Nineveh  or  Assyriaf  and  the  meaning  is  that  Yahweh  is  about  to 
destroy  Nineveh  utterly,  once  for  all. — 13.  And  now  I  will  break 
his  rod  from  upon  thee,  and  thy  bonds  I  will  burst  asunder]  M,  has 
'yoke'  for  'rod,'  but  the  form  is  difficult.  The  figure  is  that  of  a 
taskmaster  standing  over  the  slave  with  uplifted  stick,  forcing  him 
to  work;  cf.  Is.  9^  lo^-  '^*  Ps.  2^  Rev.  2"  12^  19*''.  The  oppressor  re- 
ferred to  is  the  power  that  happened  to  be  in  dominion  over  Judah 
at  the  time  this  was  written;  perhaps  it  was  Persia.  If  the  reading 
'yoke'  be  correct,  the  'bonds'  will  be  the  thongs  holding  the  two 
sides  of  the  yoke  together;  cf.  Ps.  2^  Je.  30^  Ez.  30'^  34"  Is.  28"^ — 
2^  Behold,  upon  the  mountains  the  feet  of  a  herald,  one  proclaiming 
peace]  Cf.  Is.  40^  52'.  In  striking  fashion,  the  prophet  pictures 
deliverance  and  safety  as  at  the  very  doors.  The  reference  to  the 
mountains  probably  finds  its  significance  in  the  custom  of  signal- 
ling tidings  from  one  hill-top  to  another;  cf.  Is.  5^®  13^  ^-  49^^.  The 
word  rendered  'peace'  is  a  comprehensive  term,  including  that 
which  goes  with  peace,  viz.  prosperity  and  freedom  from  anxiety. 
— Celebrate  thy  feasts,  O  Judah,  fulfil  thy  vows]  These  are  the 
words  of  the  messenger.  The  joyous  festal  occasions  thus  far  in- 
termittently observed  because  of  the  inroads  of  the  invader,  may 
now  be  regularly  resumed.  The  many  vows  that  have  been  made 
in  the  effort  to  win  the  favour  of  God  for  the  afflicted  people  are 
now  due.     It  is  characteristic  that  the  religious  duties  of  the  nation 

♦  Soe.  g.  Ki.,  Mau.,  Ke.,  Hd.,  Or.,  Gunk.,  Marti,  Kent,  et  al.. 
t  So  e.  g.  Hi.,  We.,  GASra.,  Dr.. 


2'-  ^  305 

are  the  first  thought  in  the  writer's  mind.  The  deliverance  will  be 
wrought  by  God;  the  first  obligation  of  the  rescued  people  is  to  him. 
— For  not  again  will  the  destroyer  pass  through  thee]  C/.  Jo.  2^®-  ^'  ^• 
3^^  Zc.  9^.  The  abstract  "ruin"  is  used  in  the  text  for  the  con- 
crete "destroyer."  The  oppressive  tyrant  is  thus  represented  as 
ruin  incarnate.  On  the  rendering  "Belial,"  v.  i.. — He  will  be  de- 
stroyed, cut  off]  M  has  "he  will  be  wholly  cut  off."  In  either  case, 
a  complete  destruction  is  intended.  The  oppressor  is  now  him- 
self to  meet  the  fate  that  he  has  dealt  out  so  freely  to  others. — 3. 
For  Yahweh  will  restore  the  vine  of  Jacob,  likewise  the  vine  of  Israel] 
M  has  "pride"  in  both  instances  for  "vine";  but  the  following  line 
demands  the  mention  of  a  vine  here  as  the  antecedent  of  its  thought. 
The  words  'vine'  and  'pride'  in  Hebrew  vary  only  in  one  conso- 
nant; hence  confusion  in  copying  was  easy.  For  the  same  figure, 
cf.  Gn.  49"  Ho.  10^  Is.  5^"^  Je.  2'^  48^^  Ps.  8o^- ".  Some  would  treat 
the  references  to  Israel  as  a  variant  of  the  preceding  Jacob;  but  the 
hope  of  the  restoration  of  both  branches  of  the  people  was  vivid  in 
postexilic  Israel  {e.  g.  Is.  ii^^^-  Zc.  10"  ^-  Ob.  ^^^■)  and  may  well 
have  found  expression  here.  For  'Jacob'  =  'Judah,'  cf.  Is.  43* 
44^  46^  Ob.  *^.  The  verb  is  better  taken  as  a  prophetic  perfect  re- 
lating to  the  future  than  as  a  historical  perfect  stating  what  has  al- 
ready taken  place.*  If  the  reading  "pride"  be  retained,  it  will  be 
used  in  its  good  sense,  viz.  honour,  self-respect,  glory. — Though 
devastators  have  devastated  them  and  laid  waste  their  branches]  The 
pronouns  refer  to  Jacob  and  Israel.  The  force  of  the  opening  con- 
junction is  dubious;  it  may  be  concessive,  as  here  taken,  and  indi- 
cate that  the  present  desolate  condition  of  Israel  is  no  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  the  exercise  of  Yahweh's  favour;  or  it  may  be  causal  or 
explanatory,  giving  the  reason  for  the  necessity  of  the  promised 
restoration.  The  calamities  of  the  past  are  likened  to  the  ruth- 
less devastation  of  a  luxuriant  vine,  as  in  Is.  i6^-  ^.  Efforts  to  in- 
terpret the  figure  on  all-fours  have  not  been  wanting,  e.  g.  the 
branches  designate  the  fair  commimity;t  or  the  vineyard  is  the  land 
of  Canaan,  the  vines  are  the  famihes  of  Israel  and  the  branches  are 
the  individual  members  of  the  various  families.J 

*  Contra  GASm.  who  renders,  "has  turned  the  pride  of  Jacob  like  to  the  pride  of  Israel." 
t  Ew..  %  Hi.. 


3o6  NAIIUM 

The  relation  of  these  verses  to  their  context  has  been  thus  stated  by 
We.:  "In  the  verses  with  even  numbers,  Assy,  or  Nineveh  is  addressed; 
in  those  with  odd  numbers,  Judah  or  Zion.  This  change  in  the  address 
verse  by  verse  is  intolerable.  The  connection  which  is  represented  by 
iij.  u  2'-  *  B.  is  interrupted  by  i"  2'-  ';  these  verses  have  been  inserted." 
This  conclusion,  first  clearly  drawn  by  We.,  though  the  interchange  of 
the  parties  addressed  had  long  been  recognised,  has  been  accepted  by 
nearly  all  succeeding  interpreters;  so  e.  g.  Dav.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Rub., 
Arn.,  Marti,  Lohr  {ThLZ.  1901,  p.  37),  Hpt.,  van  H.,  Ka.,  Kent.  Some 
would  include  v.  ''  in  the  interpolation,  as  is  done  above;  a  decision  upon 
this  point  is  dependent  upon  the  text  adopted  for  the  verse  {v.  i.).  The 
incompatibility  of  this  material  with  its  context  has  been  recognised  also 
by  Gunk,  and  Gray;  while  Stk.  eliminates  i"  2',  Dr.  concedes  2'  as  at 
least  misplaced,  and  Hal.  seeks  to  secure  harmony  by  placing  i'*  before 
1"  and  2'  before  2'.  On  the  other  hand,  Du.  finds  the  real  beginning  of 
the  prophecy  of  Nahum  in  i"-  "■  "  (partly)  21-3. 

The  unity  of  this  group  of  verses  is  open  to  question.  They  all,  in- 
deed, reflect  the  same  general  tone  and  point  of  view.  They  are  full  of 
expectation  and  hope  for  Judah;  they  seem  to  presuppose  the  exile;  and 
they  concern  themselves  with  the  upbuilding  of  Zion,  while  Nahum's 
interest  is  in  the  fall  of  Nineveh.  But  though  occupying  this  common 
ground,  their  inner  connection  is  not  as  close  as  would  be  expected  in  a 
unified  poem.  The  connection  between  i"  and  2',  as  also  between  2» 
and  2',  is  loose.  The  possibility  that  this  is  a  group  of  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent glosses  added  by  one  or  more  editors  must  be  allowed. 

Gunk.,  Hap.,  el  al.  argue  for  the  inclusion  of  this  material  in  the  fore- 
going acrostic.  But  the  tone  of  the  verses  as  they  stand  is  in  sharp  con- 
trast to  that  of  the  acrostic.  Not  only  so,  but  all  attempts  to  incorpo- 
rate them  in  the  acrostic  have  involved  such  radical  emendations  and 
transpositions  of  text  that  doubt  and  discredit  are  thrown  upon  them  and 
that  Dav.'s  dictum  regarding  the  acrostic  as  a  whole,  viz.  "the  attempt 
to  restore  it  can  never  be  more  than  an  academic  exercise,"  has  certainly 
been  justified  for  i"-2'. 

The  time  when  i'^  "2'-  '  originated  can  be  only  vaguely  conjectured. 
They  look  back  upon  a  long  period  of  suffering  and  forward  to  the  dawn 
of  a  new  era.  They  anticipate  the  immediate  cessation  of  Judah's 
afflictions  with  the  concomitant  entrance  of  the  Messianic  era  of  peace 
and  power.  It  is  questionable  whether  any  portion  of  the  postexilic 
age  was  wholly  devoid  of  such  hopes.  Suffering  was  the  common  lot  of 
Israel  all  through  this  period.  As  the  vassal  of  one  or  another  of  the 
great  world-powers,  her  pride  was  continually  humbled  and  she  was  as 
continually  looking  and  longing  for  deliverance.  At  times,  the  Messianic 
hope  burned  brightly,  e.  g.  in  the  days  of  Zerubbabel.  These  verses 
probably  reflect  some  such  period  as  that  when  the  world-power  of  the 


J 12-13    ^1.  3  207 

day  seemed  to  be  tottering  to  its  fall  and  the  hopes  of  faithful  Israel  were 
kindled  to  fresh  vigour.  The  fall  of  Nineveh,  to  which  Nahum  con- 
fidently looked  forward,  can  hardly  have  occasioned  such  vivid  and  cer- 
tain confidence  of  immediate  relief  for  Israel  as  these  verses  reflect;  for 
at  that  time  Assy,  power  in  Syria  had  long  come  to  an  end  and  Judah 
was  under  the  heel  of  Egypt. 

112.  '•>  -\SN  no]  Van  H.  '^  dn:,  in  order  to  obtain  a  i  line. — d^dSc'-cx 
001  p-i]  Rd.  i3n  ■'D^,  -idW  r\H,  with  Gunk.  (=  idWO  as  modified  by 
Marti;  so  Now.^,  Kent.  For  a  similar  idiom,  cf.  Is.  6020.  With  a  slight 
variation,  we  might  remain  a  little  closer  to  M,  viz.  n*?!  D^r;  icSu'  nx.  In 
either  case  ]2^  is  to  be  om.  as  due  to  dittog.  from  the  foil,  pi;  so  (5  &  and 
Gr.,  Gunk.,  Rub.  (PSBA.  XX,  173/-),  Hap.,  Marti,  Hpt..  ill's  :x  is 
due  to  confusion  of  d  and  D  {v.  on  v.  »).  To  om.  cm  (so  Marti,  Now.'', 
Kent),  makes  it  difficult  to  explain  its  presence  in  the  text.  (^  testifies 
to  its  presence  in  some  form,  is'^'^:'  and  the  two  foil.  vbs.  are  in  the  pres- 
ent pf.;  cf.  Ges.  ^  ""«.  (&  Karapxf^v  vddruv  iroWuv,  which  Schleus.  would 
emend  to  /car'  dpx^v  k.t.X.;  cf.  ^  concerning  the  heads  {or  tops)  of  the 
waters.  Gr.  'ui  OJ.  We.  d'^t  d:5  '^  Oii.  Rub.  o^ai  a:?  Sb-dn,  which  he 
renders  "  I  shall  cause  many  waters  to  flow."  Hap.  D>n  Sire.  Van  H, 
onD  Sc'd,  as  an  attribute  of  '\  Hpt.  B'n^o  d^d  on.  Du.,  om.  everything 
between  '^'  and  'y;\  reads  -irjj?  D>  u^z'  Ds.— ('j)  pi]  Rd.  pt;,  the  as- 
severative  particle.  For  'n  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence,  cf.  Is.  40'  Je.  3"; 
and  for  the  succession  pK  .  .  .  is,  cf.  Is.  45"  •  ".  For  a  somewhat  an- 
alogous confusion  of  t3N  and  p,  cf.  i  K.  11''  <3S.  Rub.  jbj  =  'quick- 
ly,' a  word  made  to  order  on  the  basis  of  Ar.  wakana,  'run  quickly.' 
Gunk,  treats  p  as  a  noun  and  the  subj.  of  the  foil.  vb.. — injj]  Rd.  11J, 
M  being  due  to  dittog.  of  final  ?  in  pi;  so  Gr.,  Marti,  Now.",  Kent. 
Many  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.  it«.  (B  Sia<rTa\-n<TovTai.  &.  oj.^, 
'which  carry  off'  (taking  it  transitively  as  in  Nu.  ii")-  New.  Stj, 
Hap.  nuj.  Gunk.  {Schopfutig,  102)  iuj.  We.  my,  or  njr  (so  CB., 
Now.).  M's  'lis  dir.,  a  Niph.  of  ttj.  For  itj  =  'pass  away,'  cf. 
Ps.  go";  it  is  better  as  pf.  (prophetic  pf.,  if  necessary)  than  as  impf. 
(We.). — -«3yi]  Not  improbably  a  gloss  upon  the  rare  word  itJ.  (S  om.; 
so  Hap..  &  ®  pi.;  so  Buhl,  Gr.,  We.,  Rub.,  Dav.,  Oort^™  ,  Now., 
Or.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Hal.,  Hpt.,  van  H.,  Kau.,  Kent.,  Du..  If  retained, 
it  must  be  read  as  pi..  On  waw  conjunctive,  v.  Dr.  ^  i^i. — ah  -inyp 
Tiy  1J>'n]  Tr.  1  to  precede  nS.  ($  Kal  dKoi^ffov  o6k  ivaKovadr^aerai  en.  B 
om.  V,  so  Buhl,  Oort,  Or.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Gray,  Arn.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk.. 
Rub.  11?  ri)V-\  nh  ^\ny;^  =  'and  the  sound  of  thy  name  will  no  longer 
resound.'  Hap.  iij?  oy;n  nh  o-<y;.  Hal.  i::iJ>!  =  'thine  affliction  I  will 
bring  upon  thee  now.' — Arn.  seeks  the  c  Une  of  the  acrostic  in  this 
verse  and  secures  it  by  om.  on.  But  while  "Intact  and  ever  so  many" 
may  be  good  English,  it  is  poor  Heb.;  and  the  idea  of  indefinite  number 


3o8  NAHUM 

would  not  be  expressed  by  '"<  pi.  Hap.  secures  the  j  line  here,  but  only 
by  the  arbitrary  om.  of  vv.  "•  '2"  in  order  that  'jj  may  be  brought  to  the 
beginning  of  the  line. — 13.  -inab]  Rd.  inao,  with  (6  rrjv^d^Sov  airoO;  so  H 
virgam  ejus  and  some  mss.  of  Kenn.  and  de  R.;  so  also  Now.,  Or.,  Am., 
Hap.,  Hpt,  Kau.,  HWB.'K  M's  pointing  is  a  mixed  form,  combining 
lO^D  and  intDO.  aic,  in  the  sense  of  'yoke'  occurs  nowhere  else,  the 
regular  form  being  naiD,  which  with  the  sf.  gives  ma^D  in  sg.  and  vna  d  in 
pi.,  inan  suits  the  foil.  T''?;'C  just  as  well  as  aia  does,  is  an  appropriate 
object  of  n^tTN  (c/.  Zc.  ii'"  '  )  and  is  nearer  M  than  either  of  the  normal 
forms  of  ab  is.  nnoir,  which  is  frequently  connected  with  naic  to  desig- 
nate the  thongs  which  hold  the  two  bars  of  the  yoke  together,  is  not  al- 
ways so  used  (e.  g.  Jb.  I2''  Ps.  116");  hence  it  constitutes  no  convincing 
argument  for  the  presence  of  ab  or  naiD  here.  We.  laio.  Or.  inaic. 
Gunk,  iv-iiac.  Marti,  rnia^n;  so  Kau.  (?).  Van  H.  "laD.  Stk.  n^ab; 
so  Du.. — T^V^]  <S  iirb  ffov.  "B  de  iorso  tuo.  Reinke, 'HDp.  Hpt.  om.; 
so  van  H..  Stk.  "iVj;;  so  Du.. — T'mDin]  (JS  om.  sf..  Hap.  Dn>_, — 
This  verse,  with  om.  of  initial  \  is  taken  as  the  j?  line  of  the  acrostic 
by  Gunk.,  Hap.,  and  van  H.;  while  Hpt.  confidently  relegates  it  to  the 
margin. — 2'.  riin,]  Gunk.  tr.  to  precede  yoB'D;  so  Hap..  Oort^™-, 
7\:7j,  joining  with  i".  Van  H.  Djn,  and  tr.  'n-^y  um  to  foil.  diSs-. — 
ira::]  Hpt.  om.  as  "scribal  expansion,"  while  van  H.  om.  yocD. — 
'n'^tt']  Gunk,  adds  oSs'n^  as  subj.;  so  Hap..  (S^  om.  nmj  'of. — inv'?] 
&  =  ^3pS,  probably  an  inner-Syr.  error  (Seb.).  Gunk.  nayn.  Hap. 
iaj;\ — Sj?>Sa]  Has  here  almost  the  force  of  a  proper  name,  as  in  2  S. 
23'  Jb.  34' ^  &  by  dissimilation  gets  beli'ar;  so  also  in  2  Cor.  6'^  It  is 
used  as  a  proper  name  to  designate  Satan  in  Testimony  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  and  Jubilees;  and  in  Sybilline  Ora- 
cles, it  is  applied  to  Nero.  If  compounded  of  •'Sa  and  Syj,  it  is  the  only 
case  in  Heb.  of  a  compound  common  noun;  such  formations  are  frequent 
in  proper  names.  Other  explanations  are,  (a)  =  nVj;^  <S3  =  '(from 
which)  one  comes  not  up,'  i.  e.  the  underworld;  (b)  =  the  name  of 
Belili,  the  Babylonian  goddess  of  vegetation  and  of  the  underworld,  the 
name  having  been  given  a  popular  etymology  in  Heb..  In  favour  of  its 
connection  with  some  proper  name  is  the  later  tradition  which  so  re- 
garded it  and  the  difficulty  of  classifying  it  as  a  common  noun  in  any 
formation.  The  analogy  of  "\3t  nS  and  possibly  nniSa  will  not  permit 
us  to  throw  the  theory  of  composite  origin  summarily  out  of  court.  In 
any  case,  it  is  probably  a  loan-word  in  Heb.,  the  origin  of  which  is  no 
longer  discoverable.  (8's  rendering  here,  eis  iraXaiuxriv,  is  unique;  its 
ordinar)'  renderings  are  dv6fir]fjM,,  ivofila,  dtroffTacrla,  Xoi^6j,  irapdvofw^, 
afiapTw\6s;  it  treats  it  as  a  proper  name  in  Pr.  16"  Ju.  20'^  as  does  9 
in  Ju.  19".  Cf.  Che.  EB.  525/. ;  KA  T.\  464;  G.  F.  Moore  on  Ju.  19"  in 
ICC;  H.  P.  Smith  on  i  S.  !•*,  in  ICC;  Chzirles,  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  pp. 


2-  309 

Iv-lvii,  6-7. — hSd]  Rd.  n^r,  with  C5  ffvvrerfKiffTai;  so  We.,  Gunk.,  Hap., 
Now.,  Marti.  Hpt.  n'^7.  '^3  with  sf.  usually  foil,  its  vb.  rather  than  pre- 
cede it  as  here;  hence  the  preference  for  (5. — n-i3j]  (^  i^riprai. — Gunk, 
obtains  the  n,  a*  and  n  lines  of  the  acrostic  from  this  verse — the  i  line  by 
transposing  Tyyr\^  the  'if  line  by  tr.  the  two  halves  of  the  second  line  and  in- 
serting 'Jerusalem'  as  a  subject,  and  the  nline  by  ruthlessly  inserting 
ED  before  l^Dn  nS.  Hap.  approves  this,  with  the  substitution  of  nnn  for 
an.  Bick.,  with  greater  arbitrariness,  om.  all  of  2>  except '3J 'a 'S3 'n  •'jn, 
before  which  he  puts  m.  n  to  form  the  n  line.  Van  H.  tr.  'i  '2  hph2  to  the 
end  of  i^*,  begins  the  n  line  with  >h^-\,  tr.  njn  to  precede  'nn  S>%  and  om. 
yrrtyD,  By  proceedings  like  these,  any  poem  might  be  transformed  into 
an  acrostic. — 3.  '■' yc'](&d-ir^(XTpe\pev  Kiipios.  ^  I  ant  about  to  turn.  New., 
Gr.  3'»C'\  The  Qal  is  used  here  with  the  force  of  a  Hiph.  as  in  the  idiom 
T\-\yif  3ir,  aside  from  which  the  usage  is  found  only  in  Ps.  85'  Jb.  39'' 
Nu.  lo^*,  where  the  text  is  extremely  uncertain.  Hpt.  secures  the  usual 
intrans.  force  here  by  om.  pn  nin>  as  a  gloss  (so  Du.),  leaving  '>  f  ixj  as  the 
subj..  The  trans,  rendering  is  supported  by  CS  &  (F. — Jinj]  Rd.  jdj,  with 
Gunk.,  Now.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Kau.,  Kent.  CS  C/3/)ts. — pNJ3]  Rd.  jdj?;  so 
Marti,  Kau.,  Kent.  Hpt.,  Du.  ]CJ],  Van  H.  p>sji.  Gunk.  om.  '>  Oa 
as  a  variant  of  the  preceding  phrase;  so  Now.,  Dr.. — a>pr>3  oippa]  (S 
iKTivdcffovrei  i^erlva^av.  ^  theywill  trample  upon  the  tramplers.  Gunk, 
om.  Dippa  as  a  variant.  Du.  '3  nipi'ja. — Dn>-icn]  Gunk,  n^icr;  so 
Du.. — If  there  were  any  reason  to  suppose  that  the  acrostic  was  to  be 
found  in  these  verses,  the  proposal  of  Bick.  to  secure  the  ^  line  here 
by  om.  ^3  from  before  y<!f  would  be  attractive;  for  ^3  is  not  essential  to  the 
thought  and  it  opens  one  of  three  successive  lines  beginning  with  ^3; 
hence,  it  might  easily  be  accounted  for  as  due  to  dittog..  But  there  is  no 
warrant  for  the  insertion  by  Bick.  and  van  H.  of  nnn  before  'p3  13  to 
form  the  n  line.  Gunk.  om.  ''3  from  before  3C,  but  regards  the  resulting 
•i'  line  as  a  later  addition  to  the  acrostic,  since  he  has  already  found  a  c 
in  2'. 

§  4.    THE  FALL  OF  NINEVEH  (i"-  "  2^-  "-"). 

A  series  of  five  strs.  portraying  the  destruction  of  Assyria's  capi- 
tal. Str.  I  announces  Yahweh's  punitive  purpose  and  ironically 
urges  Nineveh  to  her  own  defence  (i"-  "  2^).  Str.  II  presents  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  attack  upon  Nineveh  (2^"^).  Str.  Ill  describes 
the  distress  within  the  city  (2^-'").  Str.  IV  sets  forth  the  helpless- 
ness of  Assyria  (2"-^^).  Str.  V  in  Yahweh's  own  words  declares 
that  the  destruction  will  be  thorough  and  complete  (2").  This  is 
the  first  of  the  genuine  oracles  of  Nahum. 


3IO  NAHUM 

J^ID  not  one  come  forth  from  thee  devising  evil  against  Yahweh,  counselling 

wickedness  ? 
Yahweh  has  commanded  concerning  thee,  "There  shall  be  sown  of  thy  name 

no  longer. 
From  the  house  of  thy  gods,  I  will  cut  off  the  graven  and  the  molten  image. 
I  will  make  thy  grave  a  dishonour." 

A  shattercr  has  come  up  against  thee:   keep  the  rampart; 
Watch  the  road;  brace  your  loins;    strengthen  your  might  to  the  utmost. 
"T^HE  shield  of  his  warriors  is  reddened;    the  mighty  men  are  clothed  in  scarlet. 
They  will  prepare  the  chariots  on  that  day;    the  chargers  will  tremble. 
In  the  fields,  the  chariots  rage  to  and  fro;    they  run  about  in  the  open  places. 
Their  appearance  resembles  torches;    they  dart  about  like  lightning. 
He  summons  his  nobles;  they  take  command  of  their  divisions  (?); 
They  hasten  to  the  wall  and  the  battering-ram  ( ?)  is  set  up. 
'THE  gates  of  the  rivers  are  opened  and  the  palace  melts  away. 
And  .  .  .,  and  her  maidens  are  moaning, 
Like  the  voice  of  doves,  beating  upon  their  breasts. 
And  Nineveh — like  a  pool  of  water  are  her  defenders,  and  as  they  flee, 
"Stand  fast,  stand  fast"  (one  cries),  but  no  one  turns  back. 
"Plunder  silver,  plunder  gold;    for  there  is  no  end  to  the  supplies." 
"THERE  is  emptiness  and  void  and  waste,  and  a  melting  heart  and  staggering  of 

knees. 
And  anguish  is  in  all  loins  and  the  faces  of  all  of  them  become  livid. 
Where  is  the  den  of  the  lions  and  the  cave  of  the  young  lions. 
Whither  the  lion  went  to  enter,  the  lion's  cub,  with  none  to  disturb; 
Where  the  lion  tore  prey  sufficient  for  his  cubs  and  rended  for  his  lionesses. 
And  filled  his  dens  with  prey  and  his  lair  with  booty? 
gEHOLD,  I  am  against  thee;    it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh  of  hosts; 

And  I  will  burn  up  chariots  with  smoke,  and  the  sword  will  devoUt  thy  young 

lions. 
And  I  will  cut  off  thy  booty  from  the  land,  and  the  voice  of  thy  messengers  will 

be  heard  no  more. 

Str.  I  is  addressed  to  Nineveh  directly,  announcing  to  her  that 
the  fate  she  once  purposed  for  Jerusalem  is  now  to  overtake  her 
herself. — 1".  Did  not  one  come  forth  from  thee  who  devised  evil 
against  Yahweh,  who  counselled  wickedness  ?]  With  a  slight  change 
of  form,  the  last  word  of  v.  ^^  is  placed  at  the  opening  of  v.  ".  This 
causes  no  essential  change  in  the  sense  here,  but  relieves  a  serious 
difTiculty  in  v.  ^°.  The  reference  is  probably  to  Sennacherib's 
having  gone  forth  from  Nineveh  to  attack  Jerusalem.  When  he 
fought  against  Israel,  he  was  in  reality  fighting  against  Yahweh, 
thought  Nahum.  Yet  Micah  certainly,  and  Isaiah  probably, 
thought  of  the  Assyrians  as  Yahweh 's  agents  or  tools  in  the  work 
of  punishing  sinful  Israel.     Some  interpreters  have  seen  here  an 


I      •  311 

allusion  rather  to  Sennacherib's  departure  from  Jerusalem;*  while 
others  apply  the  statement  to  the  whole  series  of  Assyrian  oppres- 
sors.! But  the  allusion  to  Sennacherib  is  more  telling,  since  it  in- 
evitably recalls  the  ill-starred  fate  of  his  expedition.  The  word 
'evil'  here  denotes  primarily  not  moral  evil,  but  positive  injury, 
damage. — 14.  Yahweh  has  commanded  regarding  thee :  there  shall 
be  sown  of  thy  name  no  more]  i.  e.  Yahweh  has  decreed  the  total  ex- 
tinction of  Assyria.  The  prophet  evidently  conceives  of  Yahweh 
as  God  of  gods  and  King  of  kings;  the  destiny  of  nations  is  in  his 
hands.  On  the  basis  of  the  masculine  suffix  of  iJI,  the  older  in- 
terpreters sought  to  identify  the  person  here  addressed  with  an  As- 
syrian king,  viz.  SennacheribJ  or  Ashurbanipal,§  whose  dynasty  is 
to  come  to  an  end.  But  the  passionate  exultation  of  Nahum  re- 
quires more  for  its  justification  than  the  mere  cessation  of  a  dy- 
nasty; nothing  less  than  the  fall  of  the  nation  suits  the  case.  The 
figure  of  '  sowing '  here  has  its  natural  sense,  referring  to  the  perpet- 
uation and  increase  of  the  Assyrian  people,  as  in  Is.  40^^  Je.  31^'' 
Ho.  2^^  For  similar  threats,  cf.  Is.  142^  Dt.  f  2^^"  i  S.  24'^  The 
commonly  accepted  change  from  'sow'  to  'remember'  (■:;.  i.)  is 
gratuitous ;  the  figure  as  in  HJ  is  much  more  suggestive  and  in  keep- 
ing with  the  poetic  feeling  of  Nahum,  while  the  grammatical  usage 
involved  in  the  phrase  is  not  uncommon  {v.  i.).  The  proposal  to 
make  this  verse  a  promise  addressed  to  Judah,  interpreting  'sow' 
as  meaning  'scatter'  as  in  Zc.  10^,  fails  to  take  account  of  the  fact 
that  the  latter  half  of  this  verse  is  evidently  a  threat  and  cannot  be 
harmonised  with  a  promise  in  the  first  half. — From  the  house  of 
thy  gods,  I  will  cut  off  graven  image  and  molten  image]  'House'  = 
'temple'  or  'sanctuary,'  as  in  phrases  like  'house  of  Yahweh,' 
'house  of  Rimmon'  (i  K.  f^  Ju.  9^  i  S.  5^  31^°  2  K.  5*^),  and  is 
used  collectively  here,  including  all  the  shrines  of  Assyria  or,  at 
least,  of  Nineveh.  The  destruction  or  deportation  of  images  and 
the  desecration  of  temples  was  the  customary  procedure  of  the 
Assyrians  and  Babylonians  toward  the  gods  of  conquered  peoples 
(2  K.  18^  *^-  25^;  cf.  Taylor  Cylinder  of  Sennacherib,  col.  V,  59; 
and  the  letter  from  the  Jews  of  Elephantine  to  Bagoas,  line  14, 

*  So  e.  g.  Struensee.  t  So  New.,  Rosenm.,  Hi.,  Kl.. 

X  So  Pu.,  Hd..  §  So  Ra.,  Mich.. 


312  NAHUM 

which  testifies  to  similar  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  Persians). 
This  was  the  most  convincing  evidence  of  the  powerlessness  of 
the  gods  thus  insulted.  Assyria  is  now  to  suffer  in  her  own  per- 
son the  humiliation  she  has  so  often  inflicted  upon  others.  For  an 
enumeration  and  description  of  the  gods  of  Assyria,  v.  Morris 
Jastrow's  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  pp.  188-234.* — / 
will  make  thy  grave  a  dishonour]  For  "dishonour,"  |H  reads  "thou 
art  worthless";  but  a  charge  of  lightness,  triviality  or  worthlessness 
seems  hardly  to  do  justice  to  the  once  mighty  Assyria.  Nor  is 
the  expression  "make  thy  grave"  used  elsewhere  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  "put  to  death"  or  "bury  thee"  {cf.  Je.  f  Ez.  32-'  39"-'"). 
As  emended,  the  text  marks  the  climax  of  misfortune  for  Assyria, 
in  that  instead  of  being  held  in  honour  after  she  has  ceased  to 
live,  the  memory  of  her  is  to  become  an  occasion  for  insult  and 
reproach  {cj.  Is.  14'^-  ^"jf . — 2^.  A  sJiatlerer  comes  up  against  thee; 
guard  the  rampart]  For  text,  v.  i..  iH  has  "a  scatterer";  a  slight 
change  in  the  vowels  yields  this  better  word;  cf.  Je.  51^°.  Nineveh 
is  evidently  addressed  herej  and  called  to  defend  herself  against 
one  who  approaches  to  break  down  her  mighty  towers  and  walls. 
The  prophet  has  some  foe  clearly  in  mind;  the  identification  of  him 
has  varied  with  different  interpreters. §  It  is  unnecessary  to  sup- 
pose that  he  had  any  individual  leader  specifically  in  mind;  his 
language  can  easily  be  referred  to  the  destroying  army  as  a  whole; 
nothing  certain  can  be  alleged  beyond  this  as  to  his  meaning.  The 
probability,  however,  is  that  he  spoke  upon  the  verge  of  the  final 
campaign  of  the  Medes  against  Nineveh,  if  indeed  it  had  not 
already  been  instituted;  v.  Introduction,  pp.  277/..  In  that  case, 
he  may  have  intended  to  characterise  Cyaxares  as  "the  hammer," 


♦  Or  better,  in  the  revised  and  enlarged  German  edition,  Vol.  I,  201-243. 

t  For  an  illustration  of  the  sort  of  thing  Nahum  has  in  mind,  cj.  Annals  oj  Ashurbanipal, 
VI,  70  /.:  "The  mausoleums  of  their  kings,  the  earlier  and  later  ones,  who  had  not  feared 
Ashur  and  Ishtar,  my  lords,  but  had  been  hostile  to  the  kings  my  fathers,  I  destroyed  and  laid 
waste  and  exposed  them  to  the  sun.  I  took  their  bones  to  Assy.;  1  gave  their  shades  no  repose 
and  deprived  them  of  their  food-  and  drink-offerings." 

t  Many  earlier  interpreters  make  Judah  the  addressee;  so  AE.,  Ki.,  Ra.,  Abar.,  Sanctius, 
Dathe,  Mich.,  Hd.. 

§  Nebuchadrezzar  is  the  choice  of  Jer.,  AE.,  Cal.,  New.,  Bauer,  KJ.,  Or.:  Cyril  prefers  Cyrus, 
Hd.  decides  upon  Sennacherib,  while  Arbaces  is  selected  by  Mich.,  Cyaxares  by  Ore.  and  Mau., 
Phraortes  by  Ew.,  and  others  are  satisfied  with  the  Medo-Chaldean  army,  e.  g.  Eich.,  Jus., 
Thriner,  Strucnsce,  Hi.,  and  Br.. 


or  "shatterer";  cf.  the  title  Judas  "Maccabaeus." — Walch  the 
road;  brace  the  loins;  strengthen  might  to  the  utmost]  Ironically,  the 
prophet  urges  Nineveh  to  take  every  precaution  and  make  the  most 
thorough  preparation  for  an  effective  resistance  in  the  approaching 
siege.  The  call  is  not  so  much  for  outer  preparations  as  for  a  key- 
ing up  of  the  spirits  of  the  besieged  to  the  highest  pitch;  they  must 
exhibit  both  "bodily  provi^ess  and  mental  intrepidity";*  cf.  Am. 
2"  Na.  2",  where  a  state  of  mind  exactly  the  opposite  of  this  is 
depicted. 

Str.  II  describes  the  foes'  impetuous  attack  upon  the  city. — 2\ 
The  shield  of  his  warriors  is  reddened]  The  pronoun  refers  to  the 
invading  foe  previously  personified  as  "the  shatterer,"  rather  than 
to  Yahwehf  or  the  Assyrian  king.J  The  language  of  the  verse  as  a 
whole  is  much  better  suited  to  the  actions  of  the  besiegers  than  to 
those  of  the  besieged.  The  redness  of  the  shields  has  been  vari- 
ously accounted  for;  e.  g.  as  due  to  the  fact  that  the  shields  were 
made  of  gold,§  a  fact  which  is  only  hypothesis,  however,  and  ex- 
tremely unlikely  at  that;  or  to  the  blood  that  dripped  from  them,** 
which  would  probably  be  described  with  more  precision  {cf.  Is.  9^ 
63^  Rev.  9^^) ;  or  to  the  anointing  or  dying  of  the  leather  facings  of 
the  shields  (Is.  21^  2  S.  i^^)  ;tt  or,  perhaps  better,  to  the  reflection  of 
the  sunshine  from  the  reddish  copper  surface  of  the  shields  (i  Mac. 
6^^;  Jos.  Ant. xiii,  12,  §  5).Jt — The  men  of  might  are  clothed  in  scarlet] 
This  seems  to  have  been  the  characteristic  colour  of  the  Babylonians 
(Ez.  23")  and  Medes;§§  that  of  the  Assyrians  was  blue  (Ez.  23* 
27^  ^■),  Purple  and  reddish  garments  were  very  costly;  hence  an 
objection  to  this  interpretation  of  the  word  arises  in  that  such  gar- 
ments would  scarcely  be  worn  by  an  entire  army.  Three  ways  of 
obviating  this  difficulty  may  be  considered.  The  possibility  of  va- 
rious cheaper  grades  of  goods  must  be  reckoned  with  ;***  the  view 
that  blood-stained  garments  are  meantftt  is  not  consistent  with  the 
interpretation  of  the  passage  as  describing  the  appearance  of  the  foe 

*  Dr..  t  Hi..  X  Contra  Cyril,  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  Hap.,  et  al.. 

§  Kl..  **  Grotius,  Abar.,  Jnn.,  Hal.,  Hpt..  tt  Hd.,  Dav..  tt  Hi.,  Or.. 

§§  Pollux,  Bk.  I,  13,  says:  Sapayi;?,  M^Jojv  tc  <f>6prifjLa,  n6p<t>vpoi,  fieo-oAevjco?  x''''"*'-  Cf. 
the  statement  (cited  by  Dr.)  from  Xenophon's  Cyropcedia,  VI,  iv,  i,  that  the  Persian  army  of 
the  younger  Cyrus  "flashed  with  bronze  and  gleamed  with  crimson  military  cloaks,"  which 
they  had  obtained  from  the  Medes. 

***  Van  H,.  ttt  Grotius,  Abar.,  Jrm.,  Hal.,  Hpt.. 


314  NAHUM 

before  the  battle;  while  there  is  no  warrant  for  supposing  the  term 
"men  of  might"  to  designate  only  the  leaders  of  the  army  as  being 
arrayed  in  costly  raiment* — the  terms  "warriors"  and  "mighty 
men"  seem  both  alike  to  be  general  in  scope  and  equivalent  to  "sol- 
diers" or  "fighters."  The  correctness  of  the  rendering  "clothed 
with  scarlet"  seems  established  by  the  parallelism  with  "red- 
dened," notwithstanding  the  difficulty  it  offers,  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
only  occurrence  of  this  verb  and  the  variant  reading  of  (jg  ^,  which, 
however,  hardly  furnishes  satisfactory  sense  here. — Like  the  flame 
of  torches]  These  words  are  apparently  a  gloss  upon  the  rare  and 
difficult  word  which  precedes,  viz.  "clothed  in  scarlet." f  This  is 
indicated  both  by  the  difficulty  of  connecting  them  naturally  with 
the  following  words  and  by  the  fact  that  when  they  are  removed, 
the  line  becomes  of  normal  length.  Of  the  various  attempts  to 
explain  them  in  conjunction  with  the  following  words,  none  can 
meet  with  general  approval.  They  are  equally  burdensome  when 
joined  with  the  preceding  words.  M,  is  practically  untranslata- 
ble.t  RV.  "flash  with  steel"  or  "are  with  fire  of  steel"  connects 
rnh^  with  an  Arabic  and  Syriac  word  =  'steel,'  from  a  similar  root. 
But  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  not  a  loan-word  in  Arabic  from  the  Per- 
sian ;§  and  if  of  Persian  origin,  its  currency  in  the  Hebrew  of  Na- 
hum's  time  is  unlikely.  If  the  reading  "  steel "  be  correct,  the  easiest 
rendering  is  "like  fire  is  the  steel  (of  the  chariot)."  This  is  not, 
however,  to  be  understood  as  implying  scythed  chariots,**  for  such 
are  not  represented  anywhere  on  Assyrian  monuments,  nor  cer- 
tainly known  till  the  time  of  Cyrus,  the  Younger.  Armoured  char- 
iots would  fit  the  description.  The  war-chariots  of  the  Assyrian 
king  and  his  nobles  were  covered  with  plates  of  highly  polished 
metal,f  t  the  flash  of  which  in  the  sunlight  might  well  be  likened 
to  fire.    The  chariots  of  the  attacking  Medes  are,  of  course,  referred 


*  Ke.,  et  al..  t  So  Hap.. 

J  It  is  given  up  as  hopeless  by  We.,  Dav.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Kau.. 

§  So  Stei.;  Lagardc,  Cesammelle  Abhandlungen,  75;  cj.  No.  ZDMG.  XXX,  760;  Now.. 

**  Contra  Hi..  Jrm.  (p.  167)  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  Xenophon  in  several  passages 
of  the  Cyropasdia  names  Cyrus  as  the  inventor  of  ap/iora  co7rAi<7-(xf>a,  but  that  the  first  ref- 
erence to  the  actual  use  of  scythe-bearing  chariots  is  in  connection  with  the  battle  of  Cunaxa 
(401  B.C.)  in  Anabasis,  I,  7,  and  I,  8. 

tt  V-  Kleinman's  Assyrian  Sculptures  in  the  British  Museum,  Plates  ci-cii,  where  a  relief  of 
Sennacherib  shows  a  war-chariot  with  an  embossed  metal  covering.     Cf.  Jrm.,  pp.  167  /.. 


to;  but  it  is  probable  that  they  closely  resembled  those  of  the  Assyr- 
ians.— They  zvill  make  ready  the  chariots  on  that  day]  fH  calls  for  the 
rendering,  "the  chariot  on  the  day  of  its  preparation,"  which  must 
in  some  way  be  connected  with  the  preceding  phrase.  But  what- 
ever may  be  said  of  the  relationship  of  the  two  preceding  words  to 
this  phrase  as  it  is  in  M,  certainly  "on  the  day  of  its  preparation" 
is  a  rather  lame  conclusion  for  a  sentence  that  starts  out  with  so 
much  vigour.  Moreover,  the  infinitive  construct  of  the  Hiph'il  stem 
of  |13  is  nowhere  else  given  the  intransitive  or  passive  force  involved 
in  the  rendering  "preparation,"  whether  the  suffix  'its'  refer  to  the 
word  '  chariot '  or  go  further  back  to  the  '  shatterer '  of  v. ^.  Not  only 
so,  but  if  this  infinitive  construct  be  pointed  as  a  pf.,  3d  pers.  pi.,  i' 
occupies  the  same  place  in  its  sentence  and  is  in  every  other  respect 
parallel  to  the  verb  of  the  co-ordinate  clause.  The  difficulty  in- 
volved in  rendering  UVZ  by  "in  that  day"  exists  also  in  Ju.  13^"; 
in  both  cases,  either  the  article  must  be  given  the  strong  demon- 
strative force  which  it  sometimes  has  or,  with  less  likelihood,  i<^n 
must  be  supposed  to  have  dropped  out  of  the  text  at  a  very  early 
date.* — Atid  the  chargers  will  tremble]  i.  e.  the  high-spirited  war- 
horses  will  quiver  with  excitement,  eager  for  the  fray.  This 
rendering  is  based  upon  (|.  Ul  has  "cypresses"  in  place  of 
"chargers";  this  is  usually  taken  in  a  figurative  sense  as  indicative 
of  lances  or  spears,  so  called  because  of  their  wooden  shafts,  pars 
pro  toto.'\  Against  this  are  the  lack  of  any  parallel  instance  of  such 
usage  in  Hebrew  and  the  unlikelihood  of  a  reference  to  spears  in 
the  midst  of  a  sentence  otherwise  wholly  concerned  with  chariots 
and  their  equipment.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  employed  this 
figure,J  but  it  is  imknown  to  Semitic  literature. — 5.  The  chariots 
will  rage  to  and  fro  in  the  fields,  they  will  rush  hither  and  thither  in 
the  spacious  places]  Cf.  Je.  46^.  The  words  here  rendered  "fields " 
and  "spacious  places"  are  frequently  applied  to  the  streets  and 
squares  within  the  walls  of  cities;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case 
{cj.  Jb.  5**"  18^^  Pr.  9^'^^'"^  24^^).  Regions  outside  of  the  city  seem 
required  here  by  the  context;  the  language  of  this  verse  itself  more 
naturally  characterises  the  conduct  of  those  who  are  on  the  outside 

*  Cj.  G.  F.  Moore  on  Ju.  13'°  in  ICC.  t  So  Cal.,  Hi.,  Stc,  Hd.,  el  al.. 

X  E.  g.  Iliad,  XIX,  387-390;  ^neid,  XI,  667;  Hesiod,  Scul.  Here.  188. 


3i6  NAHtJM 

of  the  walls,*  than  that  of  those  within. f  The  comparison  with 
torches  and  lightning  made  in  the  following  line  is  suggestive  of 
anything  rather  than  the  terror  of  the  defeated;  it  must  be  intended 
to  characterise  the  movements  of  the  conquering  army.  Hence, 
it  can  hardly  be  said  that  while  a  contest  before  the  walls  of  the  city 
is  here  represented,  yet  the  details  of  the  description  apply  to  the 
movements  of  the  vanquished,  J  rather  than  to  those  of  the  victors. 
Some  interpreters  would  place  the  struggle  in  one  of  the  suburbs 
of  Nineveh,  outside  of  the  fortifications  of  the  main  city;§  but  the 
"streets"  and  "squares"  of  a  suburb  are  little  better  adapted  to 
cavalry  manoeuvres  than  are  those  of  the  city  itself.** — Their  ap- 
pearance is  like  thai  of  torches;  they  dart  about  like  lightning]  The 
pronouns  refer  to  the  chariots  of  the  previous  verse,  not  to  the  fields 
and  open  places,!!  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  grammatical 
gender  of  the  suffix  in  M  brings  it  into  agreement  with  "open 
places";  v.  i..  The  armoured  chariots  dashing  hither  and  thither 
in  the  blazing  sunlight  are  suggestive  of  lightning  flashes  both  by 
their  speed  and  their  brilliance. — 6.  He  summons  his  nobles;  they 
take  command  of  their  companies  ( ?)]  The  course  of  thought  seems 
to  require  that  this  verse  be  interpreted  as  applying  to  the  invader 
and  the  forces  he  urges  forward  to  the  attack  upon  Nineveh. Jf 
Many  scholars,  however,  have  preferred  to  interpret  it  as  descrip- 
tive of  the  king  of  Assyria  and  his  army;§§  while  others  refer  the 
first  part  of  the  verse  to  the  Assyrians  and  the  second  to  the  in- 
vaders.*** The  cause  of  this  uncertainty  is  twofold;  (a)  the  lack  of 
any  subject  for  "i^T"*  in  the  immediate  context;  (b)  the  meaning  of 
'1^D'3'».  The  objection  to  the  Assyrian  king  as  the  subject  is  the 
fact  that  there  has  been  no  previous  allusion  to  him  here,  and  he 
could  scarcely  be  brought  upon  the  scene  without  being  definitely 
pointed  out  in  some  way.  On  the  other  hand,  the  suffix  of 
VTi'TX,  'his  nobles,'  naturally  goes  back  to  the  same  antecedent  as 
that  of  in''12II,  'his  warriors'  (v.  *),  viz.  the  "shatterer"  of  v.  ^ 

♦  So  e.  g.  Hi.,  Hd.,  Or.,  We.,  Jrm.,  Dav.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.. 

t  E.  g.  Ew.,  Urn.,  Kl..  t  So  Hap..  §  So  Struensce,  Dav.,  Jrm.. 

**  Cj.  Billerbeck's  description  of  the  approaches  to  Nineveh  in  BAS.  HI,  127-131. 

tt  Struensee.  Xt  So  e.  g.  Os.,  Sanrtius,  We.,  Hpt.,  Kent. 

§§  So  e.  g.  Jer.,  Cal.,  Mau.,  Um.,  Ke.,  Ew.,  Rosenm.,  Hd.,  Or.,  Dav.,  Jrm.,  Kau.. 

***  So  e.  g.  Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  van  H.. 


2"  317 

The  leader  of  the  attacking  army  thus  seems  to  be  the  subject  of  the 
action.  The  phrase  '3  ib'^^^,  however,  presents  difficulty.  Its 
ordinary  meaning,  "they  stumble  in  their  going,"  is  hardly  appli- 
cable to  the  movements  of  a  body  of  men  eagerly  advancing  to  the 
overthrow  of  a  city.  It  more  naturally  applies  to  the  defenders, 
overwhelmed  by  weariness  and  fear.  If  the  text  be  correct,  it  is 
probable  that  the  stumbling  must  be  accounted  for  by  the  haste  and 
eagerness  of  the  advancing  host.  But  a  slight  change  of  text  en- 
ables us  to  render  as  above.  The  commanding  officers  after  a 
coimcil  of  war  take  charge,  each  of  his  own  division  of  the  army, 
and  lead  on  the  attack  upon  Nineveh.  This  rendering  involves 
giving  to  Dn3"'^n  a  shade  of  meaning  not  elsewhere  found,  viz.  "com- 
pany of  soldiers  " ;  but  the  closely  allied  meaning  "caravan"  oc- 
curs in  Jb.  6^^  and  the  verb  "^hn  is  used  of  the  marching  of  soldiers 
in  Ju.  i'°  9^  I  K.  22®-  ^^. — T/iey  hasten  to  the  wall  and  the  protector{  ?) 
is  set  up]  The  preliminary  skirmishes  are  now  over;  the  outposts 
have  been  driven  in ;  the  attack  upon  the  walls  of  the  city  itself  now 
sets  in.  The  siege-machines  are  brought  up  and  set  to  work  to 
batter  down  the  walls.  The  precise  character  of  the  T{3b  cannot 
be  adequately  determined,  since  the  word  occurs  only  here.  The 
renderings  of  (i>  B  point  to  some  kind  of  a  shelter  employed  by  the 
besiegers  in  their  assaults  upon  the  walls.  The  corresponding 
verb  means  "intertwine,"  "weave,"  "protect,"  thus  suggesting 
some  sort  of  woven  protection  against  the  missiles  of  the  defenders. 
The  rendering  testudo  is  in  keeping  with  this  general  idea,  but  so 
far  as  we  know  such  a  military  formation  was  as  yet  unknown. 
Perhaps,  the  covered  rams  used  to  batter  down  walls  and  gates, 
representations  of  which  appear  on  the  reliefs  of  Ashumafirpal, 
Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  other  Assyrian  kings,*  are  here  meant. 
I'hose  who  see  in  this  verse  an  account  of  the  movements  of  the 
defenders  are  divided  in  opinion  regarding  the  T]3b,  some  consid- 
ering it  as  some  sort  of  device  to  protect  the  defenders  of  the  walls 
from  the  weapons  of  the  foe,  others  believing  it  to  have  been  some 
kind  of  destructive  engine  used  by  the  besiegers  which  the  defend- 
ers discover  already  placed  in  position,  when  they  rush  to  the  walls 

*  V.  the  reproductions  in  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Us  Remains  US49),  11.  274,  283;  Billerbeck 
und  Jrm.  BAS.  Ill,  179-184. 


3l8  NAHUM 

to  prepare  to  repel  the  foe  of  whose  approach  they  have  just  heard. 
But  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  so  abrupt  a  change  as  this  latter 
view  involves  would  lack  every  distinguishing  mark  of  its  exist- 
ence as  this  does,  (^'s  reading,  which  places  the  verb  "set  up" 
in  an  active  plural  form  having  the  same  subject  as  the  preceding 
"hasten,"  is  attractive  and  is  preferred  by  some. 

Str.  Ill  describes  the  fall  of  the  city,  the  rout  of  the  defenders 
and  the  looting  by  the  captors. — 7.  The  gates  of  the  rivers  are 
opened  and  the  palace  melts  away]  There  is  no  warrant  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  this  language  as  figurative,  e.  g.  the  rivers  represent 
the  streets  of  the  town  along  which  the  streams  of  people  flow,*  or 
the  rivers  are  the  streams  of  the  onrushing  enemy.f  But  even  so, 
the  precise  character  and  location  of  these  literal  gates  are  open  to 
question.  Are  they  gates  located  on  the  banks  of  the  streams,!  or 
the  fortified  bridges  across  the  streams  over  which  entrance  is  had 
to  the  city  ("gates"  being  figurative,  like  the  "doors"  of  Lebanon 
in  Zc.  iiO,§  or  "the  points  in  the  walls  where  the  rivers  or  canals 
enter  the  city,"**  or  the  dams  that  helped  to  control  the  flood- 
waters  of  the  turbulent  Khusur,t|  or  the  sluice-gates  of  the  moats 
that  protected  the  city,  or  the  breaches  opened  in  the  city  walls  by 
the  swollen  river-torrent  which  thus  flooded  the  city?tJ  In  this 
connection,  attention  has  been  called  to  the  part  played  by  the 
river  in  the  fall  of  Nineveh  according  to  Diodorus  §§  and  the  activity 
of  Zeus  according  to  Xenophon.***  This  last  view  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  'gates'  is  improbable;  for  when  Yahweh  co-operates 
with  his  people  against  the  enemy  in  storm  and  flood,  as  this  view 
would  involve,  instead  of  leaving  his  part  in  the  victory  to  be  in- 
ferred, as  would  be  the  case  if  this  interpretation  were  correct,  the 
prophets  always  emphasise  the  fact  of  Yahweh 's  aid  and  give  it  a 
large  place.    Then,  too,  the  verb  'are  opened'  is  hardly  the  one  to 

*  So  Jer.,  Hi..  t  Rosenm.,  Um.,  J  Ra.,  Ki.,  Ew.,  Ke.,  Stei.,  Now.. 

§  Hap..  **  Dav.,  Hpt..  tt  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  EB.  3421. 

U  So  Kl.,  Or.. 

§§  \I,   26,  27:    fiv  S'avTiu   \6yiov   napaSeSonevov  Ik  npoyovuiv  on  ttiv  Jiivov  oi/Seii  iKtl 

Kara  xparo^  iav  fk'-q  TTpoTtpov  o  noranot  Ti;  jroAei  yt n;Tai  iroAc^iot avvefir)  toc  Eii- 

<^paT7)i/    fjLfyav   yd'oixevov    <eaToicAii<rai    T6    ^lepot    T^s  TToAeios  (tot  KaTa^SaAcic  TO  rdxoi  CJri 

<7Ta5(OU9    c'i.KO<TlV. 

***  Anabasis,  HI,  IV,   12:  TavTijy  fie  rrfy  n6\iv  noXiopKuiv  6  Tlfpcoiv  /3a<riAcv(  ovK  iSvvaTO 
ouTC  xpovia  eAeii'  ovre  Piif.     Zeuf  fie  fipovTj)  icaTe')rAT)fe  Toi/t  efOiKoivrai  Kal  ovrios  cdAu. 


2'  319 

be  expected  if  the  act  in  question  was  the  undermining  and  break- 
ing down  of  the  city  walls  by  the  violence  of  the  waters.  Still 
further,  the  excavations  on  the  ancient  site  of  Nineveh  thus  far 
have  furnished  no  evidence  that  any  portion  of  the  walls  was 
washed  away  by  floods,  though  proof  of  the  destructive  activity  of 
fire  is  abundant.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  with  assurance  upon 
any  one  of  the  remaining  alternatives  because  the  nature  of  Nine- 
veh's location  and  defences*  affords  so  many  equally  plausible  ex- 
planations of  the  terms.  Nineveh  lay  on  the  east  of  the  Tigris, 
for  a  distance  of  about  two  and  a  half  miles,  covering  an  area  of 
about  1, 800  acres,  or  two-thirds  of  the  area  of  Rome  inside  of  the 
Aurelian  wall.  The  river  strikes  the  city  at  its  NW.  comer  and 
then  makes  a  great  curve  away  from  Nineveh,  so  that  the  wall  of 
the  city  forms  the  string  of  the  bow  made  by  the  river.  It  is  possi- 
ble, according  to  Commander  Jones,  that  the  original  course  of  the 
Tigris  closely  followed  the  line  of  the  city  wall.  The  Khusur, 
a  torrent  pouring  down  from  the  mountains  on  the  NE.,  cut 
through  the  city  at  right  angles  to  empty  into  the  Tigris. f  A  sys- 
tem of  moats  protected  the  city  on  the  north  and  east.  Water  for 
these  was  furnished  by  the  Khusur,  the  course  of  which  was  de- 
flected at  will  by  means  of  a  great  dam  at  its  entrance  into  the  city. 
Other  dams,  higher  up  on  its  course,  aided  in  storing  up  its  flood- 
waters  against  a  time  of  need.  The  Tigris  too  was  confined  to  its 
proper  course  by  a  series  of  dykes  or  dams.  In  addition  to  the 
great  inner  wall  of  the  city  with  its  moat  and  its  outworks  protect- 
ing its  gates,  there  were  also  two  outer  walls  on  the  east  side,  each 
about  fifty  feet  in  height,  between  which  was  a  moat  about  fifty-five 
yards  wide.  This  complex  of  rivers,  dams,  dykes,  moats,  sluices, 
bridges,  walls  and  gates  offers  a  large  field  for  conjecture  as  to  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  phrase  "gates  of  the  rivers."  The  most 
accessible  quarter  from  which  to  attack  the  city  was  in  the  NE., 
across  the  Khusur  at  low  water.     Here  special  precautions  were 

*F'.  F.Jones,  Topography  oj  Nineveh,  J  RAS.  1855,  pp.  297-3g7;  Billerbeck,  S^5.  Ill, 
118  /.;  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  EB.  3420  §.. 

t  Friederich  (Ninive's  Ende  u.s.w.,  p.  31)  seeks  to  prove  that  the  Khusur  in  the  days  of 
Sennacherib  flowed  around  the  city  and  not  through  it,  and  that  the  final  destruction  of  the  city 
was  hastened  by  the  fact  that  the  flood-waters  of  the  rivers  carried  away  large  sections  of  the 
city  walls  and  inundated  the  town. 


320  NAIIUM 

taken  for  the  city's  defence,  in  the  making  of  dams,  moats  and  ca- 
nals to  store  the  flood-waters  of  the  stream  upon  which  the  city  was 
dependent  not  only  for  its  defence,  but  also  for  its  drinking-water, 
that  of  the  Tigris  being  said  to  have  been  undrinkable. — And  the 
palace  melts  away\  It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  this  language 
is  used  literally  and  describes  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  rushing 
waters  upon  the  foundations  of  the  royal  palace.*  It  is  more  in 
keepmg  with  the  usage  of  the  word  'melt'  elsewhere  (r/.  Ex.  i^^^ 
Je.  49-^  Ez.  21-'*  ""^  "*^')  to  take  it  as  descriptive  of  the  dismay  and 
terror  that  befall  the  inmates  of  the  palace.  Whatever  or  wherever 
the  "gates  of  the  rivers"  may  have  been,  the  opening  of  them  be- 
tokens the  fall  of  the  city. — 8a.  Atid  .  .  .•jSlieis  .  .  .]  The  mean- 
ing of  this  line  is  hopelessly  obscured.  The  lirst  word  presents  an 
apparently  insoluble  problem.  Among  the  various  attempts  to 
derive  sense  from  the  text  as  it  stands,  only  the  following  may  be 
mentioned.  RV.  reads,  "And  it  is  decreed ;t  she  is  uncovered,  she 
is  carried  away."  This  leaves  the  real  subject  ambiguous,  forces 
on  the  first  verb  a  meaning  'decreed'  which  it  nowhere  else  has, 
and  also  creates  a  new  meaning  for  the  last  verb.  RVm. 
offers  the  alternative,  "Huzzab  is  uncovered,  etc.";  but  Huzzab  is 
an  entirely  unknown  person  and,  moreover,  her  name  is  not  of  a 
formation  elsewhere  found  in  feminine  proper  names.  Many 
have  made  the  first  word  some  sort  of  a  designation  of  the  Assyrian 
Queen,  J  who  is  either  carried  into  captivity  or  made  to  ascend  the 
funeral  pyre.  Others  regard  the  language  as  a  figurative  descrip- 
tion of  the  state  of  the  Assyrian  kingdom  or  of  Nineveh  herself,§ 
Huzzab,  perhaps,  being  a  symbolic  or  cryptic  name  for  the  city, 
like  Rahab  for  Egypt  and  Sheshach  for  Babylon.  Still  others  con- 
nect the  first  word  with  v.  ^,  rendering  either,  "the  palace  is  dis-. 
solved,  though  firmly  established,"**  or  "the  palace  is  dissolved  and 
made  to  flow  away."tt  Of  the  various  emendations  of  the  text 
{v.  i.),  the  following  are  especially  noteworthy;  "and  the  queen  is 
stripped  naked,  uncovered  and  made  to  ascend  (the  pyre)";t| 

♦  Kl..  Or.,  Hpt..  t  Similarly  Hi.,  Mau.,  Um.,  Ke.,  Pu.,  Strauss,  Kl..  Or.. 

t  E.  g.  Ki.,  Ra..  Kalinsky,  Ew.,  We.. 

§  Cal.,  Theodoret.  Cyril.  Jer..  Mich.   Bauer,  Pu.,  Kl.,  Or.,  Schegg,  Ke.. 

♦*  Hd..  tt  So  Ges.  (Thesaurus),  connecting  with  Ar. 

XX  Che.  JBL.  1896. 


2"  321 

"brought  out,  a  captive,  deported  is  the  king's  fair  consort";* 
"the  goddess  (Zib)  is  uncovered  and  brought  to  the  light, "f  Zib 
being  the  name  of  the  planet  Venus  with  which  Ishtar,  goddess  of 
Nineveh,  was  identified.  The  star  of  Ishtar,  however,  was  Dilbat, 
while  Zib  was  the  constellation  of  the  Fish.J  Closely  allied  to  this 
latter  rendering  in  sense,  though  resting  upon  a  quite  different 
text  (v.  i.),  is  the  last  reading  forthcoming,  viz.  "Belit  (/.  e.  the 
consort  of  the  god  Ashur)  is  driven  forth  into  captivity."  §  The 
probability  that  the  goddess  of  Nineveh  is  referred  to  here**  is  cer- 
tainly greater  than  that  it  is  the  queen.  The  latter  plays  no  con- 
spicuous part  in  Assyrian  history,  while  the  goddess  occupied  a 
very  large  place  in  the  minds  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs.f  f  If  such 
were  the  meaning  of  the  passage,  Nahum  was  announcing  once 
more  as  Nineveh's  o^vn  fate  that  which  she  had  inflicted  time  and 
again  upon  vanquished  peoples,  whose  gods  she  had  delighted  in 
carrying  away;  cf.  also  Is.  46^  ^•. — And  her  maidens  are  moaning, 
like  the  sound  of  doves,  beating  upon  their  breasts]  If  the  goddess  of 
Nineveh  is  spoken  of  in  the  previous  clause,  the  "maidens"  are 
probably  the  female  devotees  of  Ishtar,  the  women  who  gave  them- 
selves up  wholly  to  her  temple  service  and  were  given  the  name 
Kadishtu  {i.  e.  'holy  women')  or  Ishtaritum  (i.  e.  'dedicated  to 
Ishtar').  J  J  If  the  reference  be  to  the  queen,  the  'maidens'  are,  of 
course,  her  personal  attendants  and  'ladies  in  waiting.'  Those  in- 
terpreting the  reference  as  to  Nineveh  herself  make  the  'maidens' 
to  be  either  the  outlying  towns  and  villages  dependent  upon  Nin- 
eveh (cf.  Ez.  i6^^),§§  or  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital.***  But 
there  is  no  parallel  for  the  representation  of  citizens  as  'maidens'  of 
a  city;  the  common  usage  as  to  such  figures  of  speech  is  the  desig- 
nation 'sons'  or  'daughters'  (cf.  Ju.  21-'  Ct.  2^  Is.  3'®  51*^  Je.  49^ 
La.  4^).  The  women  beat  their  breasts  as  timbrels  or  cymbals  (Ps. 
68^^),  thereby  giving  physical  outlet  to  their  overwhelming  grief; 
cf.  Lk.  18'^  23*®.    The  cooing  plaint  of  the  dove  is  used  to  suggest 

*  Hpt..  t  Van  H.. 

t  Kiigler,  Sternkunde,  I,  30.  §  Gry,  RB.  VII. 

**  Abar.  and  Geb.  endeavoured  to  secure  this  sense  on  the  basis  of  M. 

ttC/.  Jastrow,  Religion  oj  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  202-206. 

tt  Cj.  ibid.,  660. 

§§  So  Jer.,  Pu.,  Kl.,  Or.,  el  at..  ***  Ke.. 


322  NAHUM 

the  grief  of  mourning  also  in  Is.  33"  59"  Ez.  7'".* — 9.  And  Nine- 
veh— like  a  pool  of  water  are  her  defenders]  M^  is  here  untranslata- 
ble. RV.  renders,  "But  Nineveh  hath  been  from  of  old  {cf.  ©) 
like  a  pool  of  water,"  oflfering  as  a  marginal  variant,  "But Nine- 
veh hath  been,  from  the  days  that  she  hath  been,  like  a  pool  of 
water."f  But  neither  "from  of  old"  nor  "from  the  days  that  she 
hath  been"  could  have  been  expressed  by  such  Hebrev^^  as  fK 
ofifers.  Another  rendering,  which  follows  (^  H,  is  "Nineveh  is 
like  a  pool  of  water,  her  waters,  etc."; J  but  this  requires  a  change 
of  text  and  robs  the  comparison  of  all  force.  On  the  basis  of  these 
and  similar  renderings,  the  point  of  the  figure  has  been  for  the  most 
part  found  in  the  fact  that  Nineveh  was  overflowing  with  popula- 
tion even  as  a  pool  is  filled  with  waters. §  Calvin,  however,  saw  a 
reference  here  to  Nineveh's  state  of  quietness,  imbroken  for  gen- 
erations even  as  the  calm  surface  of  a  pool ;  while  others  have  de- 
clared it  to  be  an  announcement  of  the  inundation  of  Nineveh 
caused  by  the  rising  river  and  consequent  bursting  of  the  dams.** 
Another  method  of  treatment  for  the  difficult  words  of  iK  is  to 
omit  them  as  a  corrupt  repetition  of  the  context  ;tt  but  this  leaves  the 
line  too  short  and  deprives  the  following  "they"  of  any  antecedent, 
thus  necessitating  the  hypothesis  that  a  part  of  the  original  line  has 
been  lost  at  this  point. Jf  The  emendation  here  proposed  obviates 
these  difficulties  and  furnishes  a  good  sense  for  the  line  as  a  whole. 
For  the  use  of  the  word  "peoples"  as  equivalent  to  "defenders," 
cf.  3'^^-  *^  Is.  36"  Nu.  20^"  21^.  The  point  of  the  comparison,  with 
this  text,  is  found  in  the  rapidity  with  which  the  defenders  of  Nin- 
eveh disappear  just  at  the  time  of  greatest  need.  Just  as  the  arti- 
ficial ponds  and  moats,  having  so  much  to  do  with  Nineveh's  de- 
fences, dry  up  when  the  dams  are  broken  through  and  leave  the 
city  open  to  the  invader,  so  the  defenders  on  the  inside  fly  at  the  ap- 
proach of  danger. — And  as  they  flee,  (one  cries)  "  Stand  fast,  stand 
fast/"  but  none  turns  back]  No  efforts  to  rally  the  fugitives  are  suc- 
cessful; they  are  panic-stricken  and  heed  not  the  commands  of 
their  oflScers  (Je.  46'^  48'°). — 10.  Make  spoil  of  silver;  make  spoil  of 

*  Hpt.  calls  attention  to  the  use  of  the  same  figure  in  both  Assy,  and  Ar.. 
t  So  Dav..  X  So  Hap.  el  al.. 

§  So  e.  g.  Tarnovius,  Hesselberg,  Ew.,  Hd.,  Ke.,  Or..  **  So  e.  g.  Kl.. 

tt  So  We.  et  al..  tt  .So  We.,  Now.. 


2"-"  323 

gold]  The  prophet  now  rhetorically  addresses  the  pursuing  foe, 
who  are  hard  on  the  heels  of  the  fleeing  Ninevites,  and  urges  them 
on  to  their  rich  plunder. — For  there  is  no  end  to  the  stores]  Literally, 
"to  that  which  is  prepared."  The  wealth  of  Nineveh  is  unlimited. 
She  has  heaped  up  ill-gotten  gains,  the  product  of  the  plunder  of 
her  victims  (cf.  3^) ;  now  she  herself  must  endure  plunder.  The 
allusions  to  the  wealth  of  Nineveh  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  are 
numerous.  The  rich  booty  acquired  in  the  many  campaigns,  to- 
gether with  the  enormous  tribute  levied  upon  the  subject  peoples 
which  was  constantly  pouring  into  the  treasury  of  the  king,  must 
have  filled  the  capital  city  with  riches  to  overflowing.* — An  abun- 
dance of  all  sorts  of  precious  articles]  This  is  apparently  a  gloss 
explaining  the  preceding  word  HjIDn,  'preparation.'  The  phrase 
is  wholly  unrelated  grammatically  to  its  context  and  superfluous 
also  in  the  strophic  form.  Some  attempt  to  create  a  connection 
by  supplying  some  words,  such  as  "and  take  ye"  or  "and  spoil 
ye,"  at  the  beginning  of  the  phrase. f  For  the  word  "abundance" 
or  "riches"  cf.  Is.  22^^  61^  66^^  Ps.  49^^  The  rendering  "articles" 
is  better  here  than  "vessels."  It  is  a  general  term  covering  a 
wide  range,  like  the  English  "things"  (cf.  Je.  46^®  Lv.  15*  Dt.  22^). 
The  same  phrase  occurs  in  Ho.  13^^. 

Str.  IV  emphasises  the  panic  that  befalls  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city  that  once  preyed  upon  the  entire  world. — 11.  There  is  empti- 
ness and  void  and  waste]  Cf.  Is.  24'.  The  Hebrew  yields  an  as- 
sonance here  that  cannot  be  carried  over  into  English. J  For  a 
similar  use  of  paronomasia,  cf.  Zp.  i^^  Is.  22^  29^.  Some  would 
make  the  fact  that  each  of  the  second  and  third  Hebrew  nouns 
increases  a  syllable  in  length  over  its  predecessor  signify  a  corre- 


*  E.  g.  Tiglath-pileser  I  after  a  campaign  in  Asia  Minor  says,  "Herds  of  fine  chargers,  swift 
mules  and  the  cattle  of  their  pastures,  I  brought  home  in  countless  numbers.  ...  I  imposed 
on  them  as  a  tribute  1,200  horses  and  2,000  head  of  cattle."  Shalmaneser  II  says  of  the  king 
of  Patina,  "3  talents  of  gold,  100  talents  of  silver,  300' talents  of  copper,  300  talents  of  iron, 
1,000  vessels  of  copper,  1,000  pieces  of  variegated  cloth,  linen,  his  daughter  with  her  large  dowry, 
20  talents  of  purple  cloth,  500  oxen,  5,000  sheep,  I  received  from  him.  One  talent  of  silver, 
two  talents  of  purple  cloth,  .  .  .  hundred  beams  of  cedar  as  tribute,  I  laid  on  him.  Yearly  in 
my  city  Asshur  I  received  it."  Ashurbanipal,  in  particular,  gives  long  lists  of  the  almost  count- 
less spoil  of  Thebes  and  Susa,  with  which  he  filled  Nineveh  (v.  his  Annals). 

t  So  Marti,  Now.^,  Hpt.. 

t  It  is  fairly  well  represented  by  the  German,  Leerung  und  Entleerung  und  Verheerung 
(Or.). 


324  NAHUM 

spending  increase  in  the  intensity  of  the  thought.*  But  this  is 
somewhat  fanciful.  For  a  similar  multiplication  of  synonyms,  cj. 
Je.  48^  Jo.  2-  Jb.  10*^.  Ruin  and  desolation  have  befallen  the 
once  proud  mistress  of  the  world. — And  a  melting  heart  and  trem- 
bling knees]  CJ.  Jos.  f  Is.  13^  35^  Jb.  4^  The  description  passes 
now  from  the  general  desolation  throughout  the  city  to  the  state  of 
mind  of  the  citizens  themselves.  A  similar  picture  of  the  conster- 
nation of  Belshazzar  occurs  in  Dn.  5". — And  anguish  in  all  loins] 
The  figure  is  derived  from  the  agonies  of  women  in  child-birth; 
cf.  Is.  21^.  The  loins  are  regarded  as  pre-eminently  the  seat  of 
strength  (Jb.  40^"  Pr.  31'^),  but  the  very  citadel  of  strength  is  now 
assaulted  by  weakness  and  pain;  cf.  Ps.  69^  Dn.  5". — And  the  faces 
of  all  of  them  become  livid]  Cf.  Jo.  2"  Je.  30".  The  literal  meaning 
of  the  last  two  words  is  probably  "gather  redness."  This  has 
been  taken  as  meaning  "  become  flushed  "  f  and,  in  view  of  Is.  13^, 
this  may  be  the  right  view.  But  fear  usually  produces  the  con- 
trary effect.  Hence  others,  with  more  likelihood,  conceive  of  the 
blood  as  all  withdrawn  from  the  face,  thus  leaving  it  of  an  ashy 
paleness;  cf  Jo.  2^"  3^^. J  The  Versions,  with  a  slightly  different 
reading,  think  of  the  blackening  of  the  face.  There  is  not  the 
slightest  ground  for  eliminating  this  clause  as  a  misplaced  gloss  on 
"clothed  in  scarlet"  in  2^;§  it  is  needed  here  to  complete  the  bal- 
ance of  thought  and  give  the  finishing  touch  to  the  picture  of  de- 
spair.— 12.  Where  is  the  den  of  the  lions  and  the  cave  of  the  young 
liojis]  By  this  rhetorical  question,  the  prophet  makes  it  clear  that 
he  anticipates  a  destruction  of  Nineveh  so  complete  that  not  even 
a  vestige  will  remain  to  mark  its  site.  To  represent  Nineveh  as  a 
lion's  den  does  not  imply  that  the  prophet  regarded  her  rulers  as 
having  degenerated  to  the  level  of  ferocious  wild  beasts,**  but  rather 
suggests  the  supreme  place  of  power  to  which  Assyria  had  arisen  in 
the  oriental  world.  The  lion  was  the  favourite  animal  for  artistic 
and  decorative  purposes  in  Assyria;  henre  the  figure  is  peculiarly 
fitting.  Billerbeckft  sees  here  an  allusion  to  zoological  gardens  con- 
nected with  the  royal  palace.     But,  even  if  the  royal  parks  were 


♦  So  Tamovius,  Hd..  t  So  Hap.,  Marti,  Kau.,  Kent. 

t  So  e.  g.  AE.,  Cal.,  ROsenm.,  Dav.,  Hal.,  Dr..  §  Contra  Hpt.. 

**  Cal..  1t  B/15.  III. 


2"-"  325 

zoological  gardens,  which  is  very  doubtful,  this  view  yields  a  far 
less  forceful  sense.  A  figurative  use  of  the  terms  is,  in  any  case, 
much  the  more  likely,  because  of  the  frequency  with  which  enemies 
of  Israel  are  represented  as  lions  in  the  OT.;  cf.  Je.  4^  49'^  50*' 
Ez.  19^  Zp.  3^  Ps.  35*^.  M.  offers  a  different  text  for  the  second 
half  of  the  question,  viz.  "and  a  feeding-place  is  it  for  the  young 
lions";  but  the  word  "feeding-place"  everywhere  else  means  a 
"grazing-ground"  and  is  thus  wholly  inappropriate  as  a  name  for 
a  lion's  feeding-place.  This  fact,  together  with  the  requirements 
of  the  parallelism,  makes  it  advisable  to  transpose  one  letter,  thus 
securing  the  word  "cave";  v.  i.. — Whither  the  lion  went  to  enter, 
the  lion's  cub,  with  none  to  terrify]  M  reads,  "Whither  the  lion,  the 
lioness  went,  the  cub  of  the  lion,  with,  etc.."  The  rough,  asyndetic 
structure  of  this  sentence,  coupled  with  the  doubt  whether  X''^^  = 
'lioness'  or  is  only  a  variant  of  iT'^lN  =  'lion,'  leads  most  interpre- 
ters to  follow  ($,  as  here.  This  is  certainly  an  improvement  upon 
M;  but  yet,  the  suspicion  arises  that  J^''^^  may  be  only  a  margi- 
nal note  that  has  crept  into  the  text.  The  expression  "went  to 
enter"  is  rather  weak  and  the  first  half  of  the  line  is  too  long  by  one 
beat  as  compared  with  the  second  half  and  with  the  other  hues  of 
the  context.  Dropping  ^''3^  the  line  reads  smoothly,  "Whither 
went  the  lion,  the  lion's  cub,  with,  etc.."  Another  proposed  reading 
(v.  i.),  viz.  "  whither  the  lion  went  to  bring  in,  the  lion's  cub,  with, 
etc.,"  yields  an  awkward  arrangement  and  an  unsatisfactory  sense. 
— 13.  Where  the  lion  tore  prey  sufficient  for  his  cubs  and  rendedfor 
his  lionesses]  The  booty  of  war  was  brought  back  to  Nineveh  and 
apportioned  among  the  palaces  and  the  temples.  The  lion  here 
represents  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  the  cubs  his  nobles. — And 
filled  his  lairs  with  prey  and  his  dens  with  booty]  The  enormous 
spoils  of  many  campaigns  must  have  rendered  Nineveh  one  of  the 
wealthiest  cities  in  the  world.  Under  this  figure,  the  prophet  has 
presented  in  vivid  and  effective  fashion  a  picture  of  the  ferocity 
and  rapacity  which  characterised  the  Assyrian  conqueror  in  his 
treatment  of  defeated  peoples.  The  royal  inscriptions  abound 
with  facts  warranting  the  impression  here  produced. 

Str.  V  announces  the  fact  that  Yahweh  has  decreed  the  down- 
fall of  Nineveh  and  the  complete  destruction  of  all  her  wealth  and 


326  NAIIUM 

her  munitions  of  war. — 14.  Behold,  I  am  against  thee,  it  is  the 
oracle  oj  Yaliweh  of  hosts]  A  common  way  in  Jeremiah  and  Eze- 
kiel  of  announcing  a  punishment  from  Yahweh ;  e.  g.  Je.  21"  23^"  ^• 
^q3i  ^j25  £2.  5^  13^-  20  21^  28".  The  hosts  of  Assyria  are  powerless 
when  confronted  by  the  hosts  of  Yahweh.  Certain  and  total  ruin 
awaits  her. — And  I  shall  burn  up  thy  lair  in  smoke  and  the  sword 
will  devour  thy  young  lions]  Cf.  Ps.  37'".  Fire  and  sword  are  the 
agents  chosen  to  execute  Yahweh's  will.  HI  has  "her  chariot" 
for  "thy  lair";  but  this  does  not  suit  the  figure  of  the  lion  which 
continues  here,  as  is  clear  from  the  latter  part  of  the  line;  while 
(S  ^  reflect  a  different  text  from  m  and  open  the  door  for  emen- 
dations.— And  I  shall  cut  off  thy  prey  from  the  land]  The  prey 
referred  to  must  be  the  booty  already  in  Assyria's  possession;  a 
threat  to  destroy  the  weak  and  defenceless  nations  that  have  hith- 
erto been  her  prey  would  be  wholly  out  of  keeping  with  the  spirit 
of  the  passage. — And  the  voice  of  thy  messengers  will  he  heard  no 
more]  The  'messengers'  are  the  emissaries  sent  forth  from  Nine- 
veh to  exact  tribute  or  compel  submission.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  memory  of  the- insulting  demand  of  the  Rabshakeh  in  Heze- 
kiah's  time  lies  behind  these  words;  cf.  2  K.  i8'^-  '^  i(f-  ^  Is.  2,?>^^. 

The  metre  of  this  section  is  rough  and  irregular.  Hexameters  are 
more  frequent  than  any  other  measure;  tetrameters  are  also  common; 
while  a  few  pentameters  appear.  Uniformity  of  metre  in  the  successive 
lines  can  be  attained  only  by  taking  unwarranted  liberties  with  the  text. 
The  lines  are  easily  grouped  into  five  logical  units,  constituting  strs.  of 
six  lines  each,  except  in  the  case  of  the  closing  str.,  which  is  reduced  to 
three  lines. 

This  section  forms  the  first  part  of  the  genuine  prophecy  of  Nahum  as 
it  has  been  transmitted.  It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  this  consti- 
tuted the  original  beginning  of  the  prophecy  {contra  Am.).  V.  "  is  too 
abrupt  to  have  been  the  opening  of  Nahum's  discourse;  some  direct  men- 
tion of  Assyria  or  Nineveh  must  have  preceded  it  and  furnished  the  ante- 
cedent of  the  pronoun  "thee."  The  preceding  acrostic  has  probably 
displaced  the  original  beginning;  so  Bu.  EB.  3261;  Dr.;  Kau.;  contra 
Or..  The  first  str.  as  organised  above  may  contain  fragments  of  this  lost 
section  of  the  prophecy;  it  seems  hardly  probable  that  these  six  lines 
originally  belonged  so  closely  together  as  to  have  fallen  within  the  limits 
of  a  single  str.. 

The  section  has  received  no  important  additions  aside  from  the  pre- 
fixed acrostic  already  considered  and  the  verses  treated  in  §  3.     A  few 


-,11.    14     _2  „^^ 

I  2  327 

slight  glosses  are  discoverable,  but  these  do  not  affect  the  close  unity  of 
the  passage  and  the  clear  and  logical  progress  of  the  thought.  The  style 
is  elevated  and  vigorous.  The  imaginative  and  pictorial  qualities  of 
the  description  serve  to  bring  the  scene  actually  before  our  eyes.  The 
participants  in  the  struggle  rush  to  and  fro  in  our  presence  and  we  see 
the  anguish  written  upon  the  faces  of  the  vanquished. 

Of  the  various  attempts  made  to  incorporate  i"-  '■'  2 2  in  the  acrostic 
which  forms  the  first  part  of  ch.  i,  none  can  command  assent.     Gunk. 
(1893)  obtained  his  fl,  s  and  p  lines  from  i",  viz. 
nnjK  t^hSn  noa  tick's  riDDDi  Sdd 

*nj;  nDB'3  -iDT-i  ah  '1  yh};  ms 

[iND  mnc]  Sp     ['•«  ar]  2^^^p 

He  also  secured  the  D  line  in  part  from  v.  '•  by  emendation  and 
transposition,  viz. 

D^nSa'D  hy  (12a)  S^r^Sa  isyn  (iib)  nj,n  '1  •?>•  jncnn  nn  (9a). 

Bick  accepted  the  s  line,  but  proposed  the  following  p  line,  made 
up  from  i''"'-  <*  by  emendation,  transposition  and  omission;  viz. 

Hap.  agreed  essentially  with  Bick.,  viz. 
^1J7  DCtt'3  13T''  nS  '>  n>Sy  nix 
nD3ci  Sdd  nnDN  p'^pD  diis'n  a>-<2p 
Van  H.  uses  v.  "  for  the  a  line,  which  others  find  in  v.  ',  offers  v.  "«•  a 
in  a  new  arrangement  for  the  a  line,  and  creates  the  p  line  out  of  a  com- 
bination of  i'4 «  and  2';  viz. 

SyiSa  ''i?J!,  TO''"''',  yi  3"yn  ns^  idd     ii 

niDj  iVo  '7yS3  iiS"^'!?  wti^a  ^i^ap  140-  2"- 
Now.,  who  in  his  first  ed.  sought  to  complete  the  acrostic,  in  the  2d.  ed. 
(1903)  abandoned  the  attempt  to  go  further  than  the  3  line  in  v.  «  and 
rightly  said  of  v.  "  that  it  offered  insuperable  difScuIties  to  the  suppo- 
sition of  an  acrostic  structure.  The  arbitrary  character  of  the  many 
changes  involved  in  each  of  the  efforts  to  use  these  verses  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  acrostic  makes  it  necessary  to  agree  with  the  opinion  of  the 
majority  of  scholars  that  while  these  attempts  do  credit  to  the  ingenuity 
of  their  authors,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  demonstrating  the  presence 
of  an  acrostic  structure  in  these  verses;  so  e.  g.  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Hpt., 
Stk.,  Kau.,  Du.. 

1".  IDC]  Du.  nap.  Gunk.  (Schopfung,  102),  ija  =  'thy  appointed 
time.' — s-i^]  ^"B  =  Nxy,  so  Gr.. — ac'n]  Q5  Xo7i(r/x6s. — 'i'i"]  B  mente  per- 
tractans. — ^T^2]  Gunk,  adds  D"'c';'rn  hy_,  based  upon  '^  on  of  i'2.  No 
certain  derivation  for  '3  is  yet  known;  v.  on  2'. — 14.  Rd.  all  sf.  in  verse 
as  fem.  with  &;  so  Gr.,  Marti,  Now.^    Stk.,  et  al.. — nisi]  Om.  conj. 


328  NAHUM 

with  We.,  Gunk.,  Hap.,  Now.,  Dr.,  Du.. — I^Sj:]  Hap.  nn-'Sp. — y-\?> 
"I^a'c]  'c  is  the  grammatical  subj.  of  'f,  the  prep,  being  used  in  the 
partitive  sense.  Gr.  logo  n->p(?).  Hap.  ocifa  -\di\  Now.  oac  n3;\ 
Marti,  l^f  13!^;  so  Now.^,  Kau.,  Stk.,  Kent.  Du.  'd  vn3\  Hpt. 
1'dSb'  n")r.. — I'hSn  n^'ac]  &  joins  with  preceding  vb.  and  seems  to  read 
D  as  3.  Marti,  'n  ^nan.  Now.  and  Hap.  om.  as  gloss.  Du.  T'3n  '3?:  (?). 
— S'^'n]  &  =  ijs>B'Ni.  Gr.  -^'Ds.  Gunk,  and  Hap.  n^ca-N.  Oort^™- 
N-j'N. — •\-^2p]  Gr.  :i3-ji?D;  c/.  Oort,  ria-ipn.  Hap.  map, — mSp  "o]  Rd. 
p'?i'^  and  om.  '•3  as  due  to  dittog.  of  preceding  3,  with  We.;  so  Marti, 
Dr.,  Now.K  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.;  cf.  Hap.  rS|-;3.  This  gives  3 ^S'n  two  ace, 
a  common  usage  with  this  vb.  being  thus  exchanged  for  the  difficult 
idiom  of  M.  (S  Sn  raxeis;  similarly  g*  SI.  Gr.  nc^3J.  Bick.  m%">'P, 
an  Aram,  word  = 'dungheaps';  so  Gunk.  (Schopfung,  103).  Rub. 
n'-'V  ^3,  to  be  tr.  to  beginning  of  2«.  Arn.  ni^iiip  =  crepitus  ventris. 
Now.(?)  and  van  H.  ]'hp^''?.. — Some  would  place  'ui  D''B'n  immediately 
after  v.  >^»  (e.  ^.  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk.)  mtr.  cs.  and  Sy>S3  \-;v  of  v.  '"> 
after  nx'  in  v.  »'».  But  transpositions  of  this  sort  in  a  context  as 
broken  as  i"-  •*  2'  seem  hardly  worth  while.  Certainly,  the  sense 
is  not  improved  by  either  change. — 2=.  Y^s-.l  Rd.  V??,  with  Mich.  {Or. 
Bibl.XX,  189);  so  We.,  Jrm.,  Dav.,  Now.,  Rub.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Dr., 
Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kent,  Kau.,  Du..  (^  iyi<pmCiv.  &  jjj^j^,  corrected  by 
Seb.  to   |j?,.aio.     Hap.    r^-i^r^  =  '  the  rescuer.' — '?]?]   Gr.    ^yr:. — yid] 

Ew.  q\js;  so  Hi.,  Buhl,  Dav.,  Now.,  Du..  Perles,  rwi^.  Rub.  q^^.s. 
05'^,  HP.  22,  51,  95,  185,  vjfi. — misD  msj]  Inf.  abs.  as  imv.  Ges.  5'"  '■''. 
(&  i^aipov/jievoi  {^^  +  <re)  iK  dXifeus  =  nnxs  ix'j;  so  Hap..  (S  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  the  lack  of  t  in  the  original  of  misc,  for  it  also  took 
no  account  of  ^  in  iisj,  which  there  is  no  reason  to  change.  B  qui 
custodial  obsidionem.  Some  Heb.  mss.  nmx:  'j;  others,  miXD  'i.  Gr. 
'SD  nxi.  Oort^""-  n-\ixp  'j.  We.  n-vxa  nxj;  so  Now.,  GASm..  Rub. 
n";xp  -nxj;  so  Marti,  Now.^^,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Du..  Hpt.  nysrp  'j.  But 
iM's  'nis  a  well-established  word  and  there  is  nothing  inherently  in- 
consistent in  the  idiom  'd  -(x:;  words  of  similar  sound  but  of  different 
roots  are  not  infrequently  associated  in  Heb.  for  the  sake  of  the  asso- 
nance.— 4.  pa]  A  smaller  shield  than  the  nyi  which  protected  the 
whole  body  {cf.  i  K.  io'«-  ").  Both  types  may  be  seen  in  BAS.  Ill,  169, 
174-6,  185;  cf.  Benzinger,  Heb.  Archdologie,^  $00.  CS  pi..  Rub.  ijj!?, 
'they  mocked.' — ^in>-\i3J]  Normally  v-^;^r,  cf.  Ges.^"'.  (&  Swaarelas 
avTuv.     B  fortium  ejus,     ft  =  onnoj;   so  Gr.,  Hap..     Stk.  S'T3?- — 

bins]  With  for  __,  as  in  ^"p^,  3';  (8  ^f  ivdpwrrwv  =  d-jnc;  so  Rub., 

Hap.  (?).  "B  ignitus.  Hap.  did. — D^pSns]  Hit.;  a  denominative  from 
V^'n,  'scarlet.'  (6  ^/nira/foi^as  =  O'SSgn?  {cf.  Ex.  10=  Nu.  22"  Jd.  19" 
iK.  6«  3i«  I  Ch.  io«  Is.  3*  66* ;  v.  Marg.  JAOS.  XXX,  306);  so  »,  Rub.. 
<&    has    been  derived  less  well  from  n;S  (so  Vol.,  We.,  Now.,  et  al.) 


2*-^  329 

and  ayV  (Hpt.).  Hap.  cx'v'??  °^  '?>'Jj(?). — -x^]  Rd.,  with  some  Heb. 
mss.,  vt<j;  so  Houb.,  Mich.,  Gr.,  We.,  Jrm.,  Or.,  Oort,  Now.,  GASm., 
Hap.,  Marti,  Gressmann  {Esch.  177),  Hpt.,  Kau.(?),  Kent,  Du..  Rub. 
ifnsa. — nnSs]  Being  in  the  abs.,  the  only  possible  treatments  of  M  are 
(i)  the  connection  of  'd  trsa  with  a';?Snn  as  a  modifier,  which  makes  too 
long  a  line;  (2)  the  disposal  of  it  as  the  predicate  of  the  foil,  group  of 
words,  in  which  case  the  3  is  handled  with  great  difficulty.  The  best 
solution  is  to  read  nn-sS,  with  &;  so  Ra.,  Dru.,  Cal.,  New.,  Hap.,  Hal., 
Nestle  {ZAW.  XXIX,  154),  Gressmann  (/.  c),  Kau..  Against  this  may  be 
urged  the  fact  that  elsewhere  '"•  makes  its  pi.  in  o>__;  but  examples  of  nouns 
making  the  pi.  in  both  ways  are  not  wanting;  e.  g.  nnx::,  but  ''T.ind  (Ez. 
328);  o^w  and  mju';  O'pS"*  and  hidSn;  a^pnv  and  moiN;  Ges.  ^  s^J.  05  al 
ijvlai,  'the  reins';  cf.  B  habenae,  joining  it  with  foil.  3D-in.  Gre.  noSij, 
'axles.'  Rub.  nix-\D,  'terror.'  Che.  {EB.  2174),  ns*?!!,  ' metal  plates ' 
{cf.  Assy,  halluptu,  'covering').  Hpt.  n^Q'S,  a  word  not  elsewhere  found. 
Du.  mnns. — o^''3]  Rd.  ai>?;  for  demonstrative  force  of  art.,  cf.  Ges. 
U26a. — ijonj  Rd.  iJ''?n.  Gr.  Dj''Dn. — D''-i'i3ni]  Rd.  o^B'-ioni  =  05  koL  ol 
Imrets;  so  &  and  Mich.,  Gre.,  New.,  Gr.,  We.,  Dav.  (?),  Jrm.,  Rub., 
GASm.,  Now.,  Hap.,  Hal.,  Marti.,  Hpt.,  Dr.,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Kau., 
Kent,  Du..  U  et  agitatores. — iSjJin]  dir..  Nouns  formed  from  this  \/ 
are  found  in  Is.  3"  51"-  "  Zc.  12^  Ps.  60^;  all  exhibit  some  form  of  the 
idea  'quiver,'  'tremble.'  Hpt.  renders,  "they  are  frenzied,  i.  e.  they  run 
amuck,  run  like  mad,"  connecting  it  with  Ar.  rd'ila,  'to  be  stupid,' 
'doltish';  but  stupidity  is  scarcely  a  suitable  predicate  of  horses  rushing 
to  the  charge,  and  horses  'running  amuck'  are  more  characteristic  of  a 
panic-stricken  retreat.  Furthermore,  the  noun-formations  are  more 
easily  connected  with  the  root-idea  of  'trembling.'  Van  H.  notes  that 
in  Ar.  ralat  and  rail  =  "a  troop  of  horses";  but  the  usage  of  these 
words  suggests  nothing  of  trembling  or  prancing,  since  they  indicate  a 
group  of  horses  (or,  indeed,  cows!)  going  in  single  file,  or  the  leader  of 
such  a  line,  the  root-idea  seeming  to  be  '  project '  or  '  thrust.'  This  latter 
sense  would  accord  well  with  ill,  if  the  interpretation  of  '2  as  'spears' 
could  be  rendered  probable.  05  dopv^rjdT^a-ovrai.  H  consopiti  sunt.  & 
pnSann.     Rub.  iS^t.     Gr.,  Du.  loiy.^n. 

Billerbeck  and  Jrm.  insert  3"-"  here;  but  the  introduction  of  the  2d 
pers.  here  is  abrupt,  while  it  is  wholly  in  place  after  3";  and  the  interrup- 
tion of  the  vivid  description  of  the  attack  is  unwelcome.  Kl.  also  would 
make  a  sharp  distinction  between  2*  and  2',  by  treating  the  latter  as 
bringing  the  conduct  of  the  besieged  into  sharp  contrast  with  that  of  the 
besiegers  described  in  v.  <.  But  the  language  of  v. '  seems  to  require  its 
application  to  the  attacking  party  {v.  s.)  rather  than  to  the  attacked. 

6.  iSSinn^]  (&  Kal  ffvyx^^Movrai.  &  they  glory  =  •i'^!?^'nv>  so  some  Heb. 
mss.. — ppS'pnB'i]  05  xal  ffwirXaK-rjaovrai.  &  and  they  boast. — ni3m3]  & 
includes  this  in  the  rendering  of  mxina.     Struensee,  Dav.  and  Jrm.  in- 


33°  NAHUM 

terpret  '-\  as  =  iv  mam  (Gn.  lo"),  which  in  turn  is  to  be  identified  with 
the  Assy,  ribit  Nina.  But  neither  of  these  propositions  is  proven  and 
the  term  'i  alone  seems  altogether  too  indefinite  as  a  designation  of  the 
ribil  Nind.  This  latter  phrase  is  used  by  Esarhaddon  (I  53,  54)  and 
Sargon  (Cylinder,  44)  with  the  general  signification  "  precincts  of  Nine- 
veh" and  does  not  indicate  a  special  outpost  or  fort.  It  is  a  general 
term  and  used  also  of  other  cities  than  Nineveh;  e.  g.  Dur-i!u.  Hence 
any  attempt  to  locate  it,  either  NE.  (Dl.  Paradies,  260/.;  Jrm.)  or  W. 
(Billerbeck)  of  Nineveh,  or  to  identify  it  with  any  specific  suburb  of 
Nineveh,  whether  Mosul  (Billerbeck)  or  Khorsabad  (Johns,  EB.  4029), 
seems  fruitless. — iniN-\';]  Rd.  ddinio,  with  Houb.,  Gre.,  Kre.,  New., 
We.,  Now.,  BDB.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Du.;  the  antecedent  23T 
is  masc.  everywhere  else. — ixxit']  &v.  in  Polel.  Hpt.  rightly  rejects  the 
usual  rendering  'run  hither  and  thither'  in  favour  of  'run  fast,'  which  is 
a  better  interpretation  of  the  intensive  form.  Gr.  ixi-\>.  Hal.  isxij'. — 
6.  ijr'']  The  meaning  'summon,'  'call  for'  is  found  for  this  vb.  only 
here  and  probably  in  Jb.  14'';  but  some  such  sense  seems  demanded  by 
this  context.  The  lack  of  any  indication  as  to  the  identity  of  the  subj. 
adds  to  the  difficulty  and  awakens  a  suspicion  that  the  text  is  in  error. 
To  om.  't'  with  Marti  as  an  insertion,  or  with  Hpt.  as  a  misplaced  gloss 
on  j?ir^  (i'^),  leaves  the  line  too  short.  None  of  the  emendations  offered 
can  be  considered  satisfactory.  (8  (cai  fivrjcrOriffovTai.  &  are  seized.  Gr. 
nap..  Oort^™-  ^-\r[^s\  Rub.  q?n  =  'and  thy  infantry*  {cf.  Assy. 
zu-ku).  Van  H.  n3f\  Hap.  cpcra  -\dv.  Du.  nq-i'.,  as  in  32. — r-ins] 
(S  ®  =  3  pi.  sf.;  so  Rub.,  Hap..  IS  fortium  suorum  =  vios.  Van 
H.  nnnx. — anoi'^nj  ^^VD^']  Rd.  'a  ■hz'-2\  For  interchange  of  d  and  3, 
V.  note  on  Mi.  i^.  The  Kt.  amD^'^n  goes  better  with  'n  than  the  sg.  of 
Qr..  For  the  interpretation  of  this  reading,  v.  s..  (S  kaI  (pev^ovrai. 
7]fx4pas  Kal  dffdevqaovo'iv  iv  ry  iroplq.  avrQv.  &"  places  Kal  <p'  r[  under  obe- 
lus, but  in  marg.  declares  "this  obelus  was  not  present  in  the  Hexapla." 
The  plus  of  <S  is  probably  due  to  a  reader  who  sought  to  make  it  clear 
that  the  verse  applied  to  the  actions  of  the  besieged.  There  is  no  reason 
for  regarding  it  as  representing  an  original  element  in  the  text;  the  line 
is  complete  without  it.  Reinke  treats  it  as  a  variant  rendering  of  nnn' 
nnnin,  Gr.  foil.  (5,  inserts  av3  idji;  Rub.  ara  yo^v;  and  van  H.  nmjp 
DDv.  Hap.  'n  Di>a  '3\  Kent,  'na  ^>zt\.  Du.  'na  -itj-nv — nr^in]  Rd. 
nnnm,  with  some  Heb.  mss.  fb  21  and  Now.,  Hap.,  Du..  The  lack  of 
any  specific  antecedent  for  the  sf.  makes  the  n  directive  much  more 
suitable.  (S  tiTl  to.  reixv  o-'iTTJi. — pm]  C6  ^aJ  eroifjidffova'iv;  so&^;t.e. 
ij>3ny,  so  Rub.,  Hap.;  cf.  Kent  irpn.  Hal.  i;ri]. — IDDn]  (&  rets  irpotpv- 
Xafcds  avrCov.  "&  umbraculum.  Rub.  B'2pn;  cf.  Assy,  sukke,  used  oi  the 
bed  of  a  canal. — 7.  nnnjn  >-\yz']  Sennacherib's  Bavian  Ins.,  1.  30,  says, 
bdb  ndri  .  .  .  u  narpasu  ana  ramaniSu  ippitima  =  "the river-gate  .  .  . 
and  the  narpasti  opened  of  itself."     This  bdb  ndri  is  generally  taken  as  a 


2'-''  331 

sluice-gate  through  which  the  river  waters  were  let  into  a  canal ;  v.  Meiss- 
ner  unci  Rost,  Baiclnschriften  Sanherihs  (1893),  ^45  Muss-Arnolt,  Assy. 
Dictionary;  BAS.  Ill,  126.  Possibly,  as  Hpt.  suggests,  the  pi.  nnnj 
is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  preceding  pi.  nyt:',  and  the  only  river 
in  the  speaker's  mind  was  the  Khusur.  (g  for  'j  has  rQv  vdXewv,  prob- 
ably due  to  error;  cf.  (B^*  tCov  irorafjiu)!'.  §  has  of  Judah;  but  jjoauk? 
is  probably  an  inner  Syr.  corruption  of  jSoiJj  (so  Seb.). — 'r'D^n]  Ordi- 
narily =  'temple';  but  here  and  in  such  contexts  as  i  K.  21'  Ps.  45'  '^ 
evidently  the  exact  equivalent  of  its  Assy,  prototype  ekallu,  the  usual  mean- 
ing of  which  is  'palace.' — Jisj]  (B  di^ireaep.  "B  ad  solum  dirutum.  S> 
is  shaken. — 8.  3xn  ]  As  Hoph.  from  3i"J,  this  would  naturally  mean, 
"is  placed  in  position,"  "established";  cf.  Gn.  28'2.  A  somewhat  sim- 
ilar sense  would  attach  to  it  if  derived  from  2X\  The  only  other  vb. 
from  which  it  might  come,  viz.  a^x,  is  not  known  in  Heb.,  nor  does  the 
Ar.  v,>^,  'cleave  to  the  ground,'  or  the  Heb.  noun  as,  'lizard,'  sug- 
gest any  suitable  sense.  <8  Kal  rj  i)ir6(TTa<ris.  §  and  she  raised  up.  13 
et  miles.  ®  and  the  queen  who  sat  furthering  the  captivities  went  forth, 
which  represents  the  first  three  words  of  M.  Hi.  axn,  'the  lizard.' 
New.  3X21,  'and  the  fortress,'  to  be  joined  to  v.  '.  Gr.  ^'3^ni.  Vol. 
3jn,  or  nj^n,  'foundation';  so  Hap..  GASm.  i2xn,  'the  beauty.' 
Rub.  {PSBA.  XX,  174/.)  makes  ax  a  name  parallel  to  Sa^n  (v.  ')  and 
joins  with  v.  ^  Che.  {JBL.  1896,  p.  198)  nshv  "SuTii,  'and  the  queen 
is  stripped  naked.'  Bu.  (EB.  3262)  adds  Sjtr,  'queen.'  Marti  substi- 
tutes Vju'hi  for  asm.  Hpt.  ^i^'i^i;  so  Du.;  cf.  Gry  {RB.  VII,  398-403) 
nxsin. — n.nSj]  &  her  horsejnen.  H  captivus.  Rub.  derives  from  Assy. 
galatu  and  renders  'is  frightened.'  Hpt.  nnSjn.  Gry  (/.  c.)  niSja. 
Du.  nnSj. — nnS>'n]  (g  Kal  avrr)  aviBaivev.  Tl  abductus  est.  §  and  she 
went  up.  Hap.  nnSj-ni.  Gr.  r^^^^•;  {<>n,  Hpt.  ^n'^ij'^-  Gry  (/.  c), 
n';'jj3n.  Rub.  {The  Academy,  March,  1896;  PSBA.  XX,  175),  nSnym 
(so  Du.);  cf.  Assy,  etellu  (fem.  etellitu),  'great,'  'exalted'  and  the  Heb. 
queen  Athaliah  (n^'^nv).  This  is  attractive  as  furnishing  a  suitable 
epithet  for  the  goddess  or  queen  presumably  indicated  by  the  first  word 
of  the  verse. — nunjc]  (S  riyovro;  hence  Gr.  nian:c;  so  CB.,  Hal.. 
Hap.  niuna  unj.  Marti  adds,  r^iTy;  so  Now.'^(?),  Gry  (/.  c).  'jn  is 
Hit.,  but  well  known  in  Syr.  and  Ar.;  emendations  seem  gratuitous. 
— niSDPc]  &7r.  in  Po'el;  Qal  act.  prtc.  in  Ps.  68=6  and  impf.  in  i  S.  21'-'  (S. 
Probably  a  denominative  from  ^h,  'cymbal.'  (&  (pde-y^bfievai.,  perhaps  = 
mijxpxp;  so  Sta.,  Now.,  Hap..  Du.  moijp,  d  being  due  to  dittog.. — 
fnaaS]  After  the  analogy  of  a.3a3'7,  we  should  expect  l^'aa';'  (so  Hi.,  Sta. 
§363a^  Hap.,  Marti,  Now.*^,  Du.);  yet  this  is  the  normal  pi.  form  (de- 
fectively written)  before  the  grave  sf .  and  the  pi.  is  called  for  here  by  the 
pi.  subj.  (so  Ko.  II,  78;  Hpt.).  The  solitary  occurrence  of  the  pi.  form 
maaS  in  i  Ch.  28^  is  insuflicient  to  require  a  change  in  the  form  here. 


332  NAHUM 

Gr.  in'3':';  so  Gry  (/.  c);  but  cf.  tna":,  Ez.  13".— 9.  nij^ji]  De  R.  545, 
naxji,  which  Rub.  believes  to  be  a  misplaced  variant  of  3xni  (v.  «) ;  cf. 
Ps.  45"'.  Rub.  also  adds  n.-rn,  foil,  (g^  ^v. — N^n  •■cd]  Rd.  H'-dj;,  'her  de- 
fenders' (v.  5.).  iSI  offers  an  unparalleled  construction;  one  common 
rendering  of  it,  "from  of  old,"  is  regularly  represented  by  a^^vc;  another 
"from  the  day  that  she  was,"  would  naturally  be  i^'^?;;?;  while  "her 
waters"  would  be  ■i'"'?''::;  cf.  (6  to.  IjSara  avrTJs.  (^^  Telxv  liSara  airr^s  = 
n>D''D  nnin.  &  and  among  waters  is  she.  "B  aquae  ejus.  ©  is  from  days 
of  old.  Houb.  nicH'"  nice;  so  Hpt.  who  includes  nnm  of  m  in  the  basis 
of  this  reading.  Gr.  om.  '•CD  as  dittog.;  so  We.,  Now.,  Dr.,  van  H., 
Kau..  Hal.  ^^yy...  Bu.  (EB.  3262)  om.  both  words  as  a  gloss.  Or. 
N^n  Dip.  Rub.  n^'Dim,  'and  her  defenders,'  of  which  M  '""sni  {<in  icD  and 
(gA  =  p)2in  are  variants;  'n  is  connected  with  Ar.  hmy  =  'to  defend.' 
Hap.  n'n''C,  as  subj.  of  D''Dj,  nnni  being  a  corrupt  variant;  so  Marti, 
Now."^,  Stk.,  Kent,  Du..  But  this  last  proposal  ignores  the  fact  that  the 
foil.  ']}  could  scarcely  be  addressed  to  waters;  it  must  be  a  cry  to  the  flee- 
ing soldiers  and  so  bold  a  figure  as  the  identification  of  the  soldiers  with 
'waters'  is  improbable.  Friedrich  {Ninive's  Ende  u.  s.  w.  p.  34),  'D''D 
»<>n  njn,  'since  the  days  of  disaster.'  Kl.  {SK.  1910,  p.  521),  -\N».n  >d^c, 
'the  waters  of  the  river'  {i.  e.  the  Tigris). — a^D:  nnni]  Probably  a  de- 
scriptive circumstantial  clause  preceding  the  main  clause;  Ges.  ^'^'«. — 
noy  nay]  On  nby.,  Ges.  ^ "«.  (S  ovk  tar-rjffav,  om.  one  word.  &  If  S  = 
m.  Bu.  {EB.  3262)  adds  ncvs^;  so  Marti,  Du..  Hpt.  adds  ipn\ — 
10.  V3  .  -  va]  (S^  5ff}pira.<Tav  .  .  .  diripira^ov;  so  &  and  Gr..  Hpt. 
V31  ...  '3.  Du.  in. — njisn'^]  For  meaning  'storage,'  cf.  ciaSo  pD>, 
Jb.  27*'.  (S  rod  K6fffMv  avrrji;  so  &.  Some  Heb.  mss.  n:i3nS.  Gr. 
njionS.  Du.  urn  n*?. — -i3d]  Rd.  lir,  with  We.,  Now..  (&  ^e^Apwrai. 
B  aggravata  est.  ®  consume  ye.  &  =  omao;  so  Hap.,  who  om.  it 
as  a  gloss.  Marti  and  Now.'^(?)  insert  djS  inp  before  '2.  Hpt.  reads 
naj  and  inserts  before  it,  ^"^v  iSt'i.  Du.  labn. — Sdd]  Rd.  Sd,  with 
We.,  Now..  The  sense  must  be,  "a  glory  (or  abundance)  consisting  in 
(or  of)  all,  etc.,"  not  "an  abundance  out  of";  hence  c  is  dittog.  of  the 
foil.  3.  On  force  of  '?3,  v.  Ges.  ^  '"b,  (gB  ^^j  ndvTa;  so  HP.  48,  86,  233. 
(gSAQY  {,^^p  ,r.;  HP.  22,  nepl  X..  Hap.  VaS;  c/.  Migne's  note  on  Je- 
rome, "Reginae  ms.  cum  Palatinis :  pro  omnibus  vasis."  Du.  S33. — ^Sa] 
<S  &  B  01  =  pi.. — nncn]  QJ  rd  i-rndv  1x7^x0.  avrrfs  =  nirrn  or  nni^n  (so 
&);  but  six  cursives  om.  aur^s. — 11.  n|ii3Di  npia]  Two  synonyms  no- 
where else  occurring;  but  evidently  related  to  pp2,  'pour  out,'  'empty.' 
<g  iKTivayfJubs  kuI  ivarivaynds.  &  dishta  washifta.  Hpt.  n|->|-)i3mn,-ii,->3. — 
np'^3::]  Only  here  and  Is.  24';  but  Assy,  balaku,  'destroy,'  gives  clear 
indication  of  the  meaning.  The  fem.  prtc.  has  here  the  force  of  an  ab- 
stract noun;  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  pointing  is  influenced  by  a  desire 
for  assonance  with  the  two  preceding  nouns. — Dc:]  <&  dpavaiJ-bs.  & 
broken.     Hpt.  and  HWB.^^  would  connect  ddd  with  noo  and  render 


2"-"  333 

here,  "his  heart  becomes  watery,"  i.  e.  his  courage  fails;  cf.  At.  masHs, 
'water'  (either  pure  or  impure) ;  and  note  zh  pn  vddh,  Jos.  14'. — p''c] 
d-T.;  but  vb.  is  used  of  the  tottering  of  an  idol  (Je.  io<)  and  the  staggering 
of  a  drunkard  (Is.  28'). — iniXo  «ap]  'd  =  inND,  Barth,  NBJ"^;  cf. 
.Tjnj;u'  ,  D1DIDNJ  ,  ^vi^y,  perhaps  iE's  pointing,  like  the  readings  of  (S 
&  B  ®,  was  due  to  confusion  with  mo,  'pot';  so  HWB>^.  05  ws 
vpbuKa.\j\M.  x^Tpas.  &  I  blacken  like  the  soot  of  the  pot.  S  is  covered  with 
black  like  a  pot.  H  sicut  nigredo  ollae.  Hap.  'd  ixap  "^yiz,  supposing 
M,  to  have  lost  ij733  which  (&  retained  though  losing  iX3p,  the  two 
words  being  similar  in  their  initial  syllables. — 12.  njjnci]  Rd.  n-j^^n, 
with  We.;  so  Or.,  Rub.,  Now.,  Hal.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Hpt.,  van  H.,  Stk., 
Kau.,  Kent;  cf.  Du.  rii>;D. — xin]  Standing  where  it  does  in  M,  'n  con- 
verts the  whole  series  of  succeeding  clauses  into  prosaic  statements  of 
fact.  It  is  much  better  either  to  place  it  after  n>s  (with  Hpt.;  cf.  Nin  t) 
or  to  om.  it  (with  Marti,  Kau.,  Du.). — onsjS]  Du.  om.  S,  but  such  rigid 
conformity  to  'nx  pyn  is  not  necessary. — 'n  iSn  ns'N]  Du.  om.  as  variant 
of  foil,  clause  'n  nu  as'[N]. — no'^]  Rd.  no";,  with  (&  toD  iicreXdeti';  so  &  H 
and  We.,  Or.,  Rub.,  Now.,  GASm.,  Marti,  Dr.(?),  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau., 
Kent,  Du..  Gr.  N'jnS,  Hal.  NuSi.  Arn.  noS  =  'to  bring'  {cf.W); 
so  <S^  and  Hap.,  van  H.. — 13.  '»ia]  Hpt.  173. — vmj]  Du.  rnu. — pjno] 
In  2  S.  17^  =  'strangle';  so  possibly  the  noun  in  Jb.  7'^;  Assy,  hanaku 
has  the  same  sense;  but  is  strangling  the  method  of  slaughter  character- 
istic of  lions  ? — DDia  .  .  .  TTJ]  Different  forms  either  for  the  sake  of 
variety  or  rhythm;  hardly  in  order  to  indicate  different  kinds  of  prey  (Hd), 
— inn]  05  voaa-iav  avroO. — 14.  Many  scholars  would  place  all  the  sfs.  of 
this  verse  in  the  2d  pers.  masc.  sg.;  so  e.  g.  Buhl,  We.,  Dav.,  Now.,  Hap., 
Du. ;  but  the  thought  of  the  city  underlies  the  whole  verse  and  comes  to 
clear  expression  in  the  last  word;  hence  the  fem.  sf.  is  suitable  throughout. 
— imyjni]  Hal.  '•niavni.  Du.  ^?•'':>:p^ — ?^>'3]  Some  Heb.  mss.  js'j.'a. 
CB.  trsa;  so  Marti (?),  Now.'^(?). — naoi]  Rd.  "ixp-i,  with  Gr.;  so 
Dav.(?),  Hal.,  Marti,  Now.k(?),  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent.  (S  irXijOdi 
aov  =  "]3"ior  n33T;  so  &  and  Buhl,  Am.,  Hap..  IS  quadrigas  tuas; 
so  ul.  Houb.  'n23"in;  so  Dathe.  Gr.  {Psalmen  I,  136)  ^133-;.  Sm. 
n333D;  so  We.  (?),  Now..  Oort  "is-i.  Rub.  n33nN,  'thy  den.'  Bu. 
{EB.  3262),  i-)'3.  Du.  'n3D. — in^csi]  New.  qno?,  'thy  villages.'  Du. 
Dn;p3n. — Ssxn]  Du.  l^ssn. — lono]  Arn,  ^s^o.  Hal.  T'Olb. — n33N'?n] 
Om.  n  as  dittog.  from  iin  in  3'  and  point  sf.  as  fem.  sg.,  ^"issSd:  so 
Gr.,  Marti,  Ges.  ^"',  Stk.  et  al..  Some  Heb.  mss.  hmnSd;  so  We.  e/ 
al..  05  Ttt  ipya  crov  =  ivhonSs;  so  &.  H  nunciorum  tuorum.  Mich. 
n33  H^,r:;  so  Jus..  Dathe  ^'rib^Sc;  so  New..  Van  H.  ^13x^0.  Hap. 
:in3N':p;  cf.  <S  &.  Du.  ri\nN3SD. — Marti  and  Now.'^  would  om.  "=  as 
a  gloss;  but  the  itj  of  the  foil,  phrase  shows  that  the  figure  of  the  lion  is 
still  in  mind  there  and  the  clause  fits  well  into  the  structure  of  the  str.. 


334  NAHUM 


§  5.    THE  IMMINENT  AND   INEVITABLE  END   (3^-'"). 

In  six  strophes  addressed  to  Nineveh,  Nahum  once  more  exults 
over  her  approaching  ruin.  Str.  I  characterises  the  city,  gives  a 
glimpse  of  the  coming  attack  upon  her  and  states  the  reason  for 
her  fall;  vv.  *"''.  Str.  II  represents  the  fallen  city  as  exposed  to  the 
taunts  of  the  nations;  vv.  ^^'''.  Str.  Ill  reminds  Nineveh  of  the 
fate  of  her  ancient  rival — Thebes,  the  queen  of  the  Nile;  vv.  **■'". 
Str.  IV  declares  that  a  similar  fate  awaits  Nineveh,  notwithstand- 
ing her  strength ;  w.  "-'^  Str.  V  ironically  urges  the  city  to  put 
forth  every  effort  on  her  own  behalf,  assuring  her,  however,  that 
her  forces  will  fail  her  in  her  time  of  need ;  w.  ""^^.  Str.  VI,  in 
dirge  measure,  states  the  hopelessness  of  Nineveh's  case  and  the 
imiversal  joy  that  will  greet  the  tidings  of  her  fall ;  vv.  ^^'^^. 

(~)H  city,  bloody  throughout,  full  of  lies  and  booty! 

Prey  ceases  not  .  .  . 

The  crack  of  the  whip  and  the  noise  of  the  rumbling  wheel  and  the  galloping 
horse, 

And  the  Jolting  chariot  and  the  rearing  horseman; 

And  the  flash  of  the  sword  and  the  glitter  of  the  spear,  and  a  multitude  of  slain; 

And  a  mass  of  bodies,  and  no  end  to  the  carcasses; 

Because  of  the  many  harlotries  of  a  harlot  of  goodly  favour  and  possessing 
charms, 

Who  sells  nations  by  her  harlotry  and  clans  by  her  charms. 
DEHOLD,  I  am  against  thee,  it  is  the  oracle  of  Yahweh  of  hosts,  and  I  will  un- 
cover th}'  skirts  upon  thy  face. 

And  I  will  let  nations  see  thy  nakedness  and  kingdoms  thy  shame. 

And  I  will  hurl  loathsome  things  upon  thee  and  treat  thee  with  contempt  and 
make  thee  a  gazing-stock, 

So  that  every  one  who  sees  thee  will  flee  from  thee  and  say, 

"Nineveh  is  destroyed;    who  will  mourn  for  her? 

Whence  can  I  seek  comforters  for  her?" 
^RT  thou  better  than  No-Amon,  that  sat  by  the  great  Nile, 

Whose  rampart  was  the  sea,  whose  wall  was  water? 

Ethiopia  was  her  strength;    Put  and  the  Libyans  were  her  help. 

Yet  even  she  was  for  e.xile  and  went  into  captivity. 

Even  her  children  were  dashed  in  pieces  at  the  head  of  every  street; 

And  up>on  her  honoured  ones  did  they  cast  lots,  and  all  her  great  ones  were 
bound  in  fetters. 
'Y'HOU  too  shalt  be  drunken,  thou  shalt  be  faint; 

Thou  shalt  seek  refuge  from  the  enemy. 

All  thy  forts  are  fig  trees;    thy  defenders  are  first-ripe  figs; 


S'-'"  335 

If  they  be  shaken,  then  they  fall  into  the  mouth  of  the  eater. 

Behold,  women  are  in  the  midst  of  thee;    fire  has  devoured  thy  bars; 

To  thine  enemies  the  gates  of  thy  land  are  opened  wide. 
F)RAVV  thee  waters  for  the  siege;  strengthen  thy  forts. 

Enter  into  the  mire  and  trample  the  day;    lay  hold  of  the  brick-mould. 

There  fire  will  devour  thee;    the  sword  will  cut  thee  off. 

Multiply  thyself  like  the  locust;    multiply  thyself  like  the  locust-swarm. 

Increase  thy  merchants  more  than  the  stars  of  heaven; 

Thy  sacred  officials  ( ?)  like  the  locust-swarm,  and  thy  scribes  ( ?)  like  the  locusts, 

That  encamp  in  the  walls  in  the  cool  of  the  day; 

The  sun  arises  and  they  flee;   their  place  is  not  known. 
UOW  thy  shepherds  slumber,  thy  nobles  sleep! 

Thy  people  are  scattered  upon  the  mountains  with  none  to  gather  them. 

There  is  no  healing  for  thy  wound;    thy  hurt  is  incurable. 

Every  one  who  hears  the  report  of  thee  claps  his  hands. 

Str.  I  first  describes  Nineveh  as  she  has  been,  then  visualises 
the  attack  to  be  made  upon  her  and  closes  with  the  reason  for  her 
cruel  fate. — 1.  Oh  city,  wholly  bloody,  filled  with  lies  and  booty] 
This  chapter  marks  the  opening  of  a  new  section  of  the  prophecy, 
as  appears  from  the  direct  address  with  which  it  begins,  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  main  it  repeats  the  thought  of  ch.  2,  and  from  the 
difference  in  poetical  form  which  it  exhibits.  There  can  be  no 
question  but  that  Nineveh  is  addressed  here  and  throughout  the 
chapter.  Similar  charges  are  made  against  her  in  2^"-  ^^-  ^^.  The 
'lies'  are  doubtless  promises  freely  made  to  the  weaker  nations 
which  were  as  .freely  broken  when  national  aggrandisement  so  re- 
quired. The  charge  of  excessive  cruelty  implied  in  the  use  of  the 
term  '  bloody '  is  undoubtedly  justifiable  from  the  modem  point  of 
view;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  cruelty  of  Nineveh  exceeded 
that  of  other  oriental  peoples  who  had  like  power  and  opportunity. 
It  is  hardly  fair  to  charge  the  Assyrians  with  having  been  "the  most 
ruthless  people  of  antiquity."*  The  Hebrews  themselves  were 
none  too  merciful;  cf.  Ju.  8^"^  9^=^-  '"^  18"  i  S.  15^-"  2  S.  8l  In- 
deed, the  prophets  use  almost  identical  language  regarding  Judah 
and  Jerusalem;  cf.  Ez.  22^-  "^^  2/^  45^  Je.  €'  Ho.  11*^.  The  kind  of 
procedure  which  furnished  the  basis  for  such  charges  against  As- 
syria, may  be  discovered  in  abundance  by  reference  to  her  own 

*  Dav..  But  Hdt.  (Ill,  159)  reports,  e.  g.,  that  when  Darius  took  Babylon,  he  impaled  3,000 
prisoners  and  that  the  Scythians  (IV,  64)  scalped  and  flayed  their  prisoners  and  used  the  skins 
for  horse-trappings. 


33^  NAHUAI 

records* — Prey  ceases  not]  Cf.  Je.  17^.  This  statement  was  almost 
literally  true;  the  whole  of  the  later  history  of  Assyria  is  a  story  of 
practically  continuous  warfare  and  rapine.  Conformity  to  the  po- 
etical measure  here  requires  the  addition  of  a  phrase  in  parallelism 
with  this  clause.  Marti  suggests, "  and  there  is  no  end  to  the  booty." 
Unless  something  be  supplied,  it  seems  necessary  to  treat  this 
clause  as  a  gloss. | — 2.  The  crack  of  the  whip  and  the  noise  of  the 
rumbling  wheel  and  the  rushing  steed]  The  prophet  suddenly  trans- 
ports himself  in  imagination  to  the  scene  of  the  final  attack  upon 
Nineveh,  which  he  awaits  with  so  much  eagerness  and  confidence. 
As  an  imaginary  spectator,  he  calls  attention  to  the  outstanding 
features  of  the  scene  one  by  one.  His  method  of  description  pro- 
duces a  lively  eflfect,  bringing  the  dash  and  clash  of  the  situation 
vividly  before  us. J — And  the  jolting  chariot  (3)  and  the  rearing 
horseman]  The  meaning  of  the  last  two  words  is  somewhat  un- 
certain. Other  renderings  of  them  are:  "the  horseman  making 
his  horse  to  ascend,  i.  e.  urging  him  on";§  "the  horse  is  brought 
up  "  ;**  "  a  horseman  carrying  himself  erect "  iff  "  a  horseman  going 
up";tf  "assaulting  horsemen ";§§  "a  horseman  bringing  to  the 
flame,  etc."***;  "he  shall  bring  up  cavalry "; fff  "horses  which 
foam,"  literally  "bringing  up  (saliva)." J JJ  But  some  of  these 
yield  too  tame  an  element  for  so  stirring  a  picture;  others  are  with- 
out any  support  in  the  use  of  these  words  or  in  the  context;  and 
those  employing  the  idiom  "bring  up"  of  the  movements  of  cav- 


*  E.  g.  Shalmaneser  Monolith,  I,  i6  ff.:  "A  pyramid  of  heads  in  front  of  his  city  I  erected. 
Their  young  men  and  women  I  burned  in  a  bonllre  " ;  and  II,  53  /.,  "  Pyramids  of  heads  in  front 
of  his  city  gate  I  erected.  Some  in  the  midst  of  the  pyramids  I  enclosed;  others  round  about 
the  pyramids  I  impaled  on  stakes."  Or,  the  Taylor  Cylinder  of  Sennacherib,  I,  70-77,  "I 
besieged  and  captured  their  large  walled  cities.  I  brought  forth  from  the  midst  of  them  people, 
horses,  mules,  asses,  cattle  and  sheep,  and  reckoned  them  as  spoil;  and  their  smaller  cities, 
which  were  without  number,  I  destroyed,  devastated  and  reduced  to  plough-land.  The 
tents,  their  dwelling-places,  I  burned  with  fire,  and  let  them  go  up  in  flames."  C/.  also  Taylor 
Cylinder,  III,  11-41;  Annals  of  Ashurbanipal  (Ras.sam  Cylinder),  V,  ijo-VI,  26.  See  Rogers, 
History  oj  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  II,  2O8.  The  method  of  impalement  is  shown  on  a  bas-relief 
from  the  central  palace  at  Nimroud;  v.  La  yard,  Nineveh  and  I  Is  Remains  (New  York,  1849),  p. 
283;  Guthe,  Kurzes  Bibelworterbtuh,  p.  79. 

t  Cj.  Hpt.,  Du.. 

t  Jer.  says  of  this  passage:  "Tarn  pulchra  juxta  Hebraicum  et  pictura  similis  ad  proelium 
se  praeparantisexercitusdescriptioest,  utomnismcus  sermo  sit  vilior."  Hd.  says,  "The  pas- 
sage is  unrivalled  by  any  other,  either  in  sacred  or  profane  literature." 

§  Cat.,  Br..  **  Kre..  tt  Mau..  XI  Hi.. 

§§  Ew..  *♦*  Ki..  ttt  Os..  Jtt  Hal.. 


3'"'  337 

airy  are  carrying  over  into  Hebrew  a  modem  phrase;  in  Hebrew 
"bring  up"  always  retains  a  large  measure  of  its  original  sense. 
This  same  verb  is  used  in  Je.  46®  to  describe  the  rearing  of  horses, 
and  probably  also  in  Je.  51"  and  2  K.  9^.* — And  the  flash  of  the 
sword  and  the  glitter  of  the  spear  and  a  multitude  of  slain]  The  strug- 
gle is  hardly  begun  until  it  is  all  over;  the  defenders  of  Nineveh  fall 
before  the  blows  of  the  invading  army  like  grain  before  the  sickle. 
— And  a  mass  of  bodies,  with  no  end  to  the  carcasses]  A  fearful 
carnage  is  thus  plainly  foretold;  evidently,  the  wish  was  father  to 
the  thought.  No  account  of  the  actual  fall  of  Nineveh  has  as  yet 
been  discovered.  Hence,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  or  not 
Nahum's  anticipations  were  realised.  But,  judging  from  the 
character  of  the  enemy's  dealings  throughout  the  country  as  a 
whole,  it  is  probable  that  the  capital  city  received  the  full  measure 
of  its  deserts. f — They  stumble  over  the  carcasses]  It  is  probable  that 
these  words  are  a  marginal  note  which  has  found  its  way  into  the 
text;  they  may  have  been  intended  as  a  cross-reference  to  2^,  or 
they  may  be  only  a  variant  of  the  preceding  clause. f  That  they 
do  not  belong  here  appears  not  only  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
superfluous  in  the  poetic  form,  but  also  from  the  additional  fact 
that  they  introduce  a  verb  for  the  first  and  only  time  into  a  series 
of  phrases  thrown  off  in  ejaculatory  fashion  one  after  the  other, 
like  a  series  of  stereopticon  views. — 4.  Because  of  the  many  har- 
lotries of  a  harlot  of  goodly  grace  and  mistress  of  enchantments]  This 
is  the  reason  for  the  terrible  catastrophe  that  has  just  been  de- 
scribed. Just  as  the  harlot  entices  men  to  ruin,  so  Assyria  has 
lured  many  nations  to  destruction.  Using  all  of  her  manifold  and 
multiform  attractions,  she  has  succeeded  in  bringing  nations  into 
subjection,  only  to  use  them  for  the  furtherance  of  her  own  selfish 
ends.  It  is  not  necessary  to  interpret  this  figure  'on  all  fours,' 
seeking  to  make  'harlotries'  and  'charms'  specific  references  to 
Assyria's  lying  and  treachery.     The  words  simply  fill  out  the  pic- 

*  In  2  K.  <^  'DH  7NM  should  probably  be  changed  to  7J?M  'Dn. 

t  The  Stele  of  Nabuna'id,  says  of  the  downfall  of  Assyria:  "Above  and  below,  right  and  left, 
like  a  cyclone  he  laid  waste;  he  avenged  Babylon;  he  multiplied  vengeance.  The  king  of  the 
Ummanmanda,  the  fearless  one,  ruined  all  the  temples  of  the  gods  of  Assyria;  and  he  ruined  the 
cities  on  the  border  of  Akkad,  which  were  hostile  to  the  king  of  Akkad  and  had  not  come  to  his 
help;  and  he  did  not  leave  one  of  their  sanctuaries.  He  laid  waste  their  cities  above  measure, 
like  a  cyclone."  t  So  Stk.. 


338  NAHUM 

ture  of  a  harlot  and  her  equipment.  'Enchantments'  as  part  of  a 
harlot's  wiles  must  have  been  something  after  the  fashion  of  love- 
charms,  love-filters,  spells,  and  the  like,  which  were  believed  to  be 
very  eflfective  upon  the  hearts  of  men;  cj.  2  K.  9^". — She  that  be- 
trays natimis  by  her  harlotries  and  clans  by  her  enchantments]  The 
figure  of  the  harlot  is  now  expressly  applied  to  Assyria,  whose  al- 
most unlimited  resources  led  the  smaller  nations  to  rely  upon  her 
as  Ahaz  had  caused  Judah  to  do  in  the  time  of  the  Syro-Ephraimite 
invasion.  While  'harlotries'  and  'enchantments'  are  commonly 
designations  of  idolatrous  practices,  there  is  evidently  nothing  of 
that  kind  in  Nahum's  use  of  the  terms  here.  Assyria,  so  far  as  is 
known,  made  no  attempt  to  force  her  religion  upon  subject  peo- 
ples. The  word  'clans'  is  used,  as  in  Am.  3'  Mi.  2^  Je.  i'^,  in  the 
sense  of  'peoples'  and  is  equivalent  therefore  to  'nations.'  The 
word  'betray'  elsewhere  always  means  'sell'  and  it  has  usually  been 
so  rendered  here.  But  it  is  difficult  to  interpret  'sell'  with  refer- 
ence to  Assyria's  relations  to  the  weaker  nations.  Assyria's  actions 
were  more  like  buying  than  selling,  for  the  result  was  the  getting 
of  the  nations  into  her  own  power,  rather  than  the  delivery  of  them 
into  the  power  of  a  third  nation.  The  explanations  of  'sell'  as 
equivalent  to  'rob  them  of  their  freedom,'  *  or  'sell  into  bondage, 
i.  e.  deliver  over  to  destruction,'!  do  not  obviate  this  difficulty. 
Nor  does  the  view  that  the  peoples  were  sold  to  idols,  i.  e.  the  gods 
of  Assyria,!  commend  itself;  for  the  prophet  is  not  concerned, 
apparently,  about  this  phase  of  Assyrian  influence.  In  any  case, 
the  nations  as  a  whole  were  already  idolatrous  from  Israel's  point 
of  view,  before  coming  under  the  influence  of  Assyria.  It  is  better 
to  give  the  word  here  the  meaning  'deceive,'  'cheat,'  which  it 
carries  in  Arabic. §  Selling  and  cheating  were  somewhat  closely 
related  and  may  easily  have  been  denoted  by  the  same  root. 

Str.  II  introduces  Yahweh  as  addressing  Nineveh  and  passing 
sentence  upon  her. — 5.  Behold,  I  am  against  thee,  it  is  the  oracle 
0/  Yahweh  of  hosts]  Cf.  i". — And  I  will  uncover  thy  skirts  upon 
thy  face]  This  seems  to  ha\e  been  a  part  of  the  punishment  for 
fornication  and  adultery;  cf.  Je.  13-2. 20  f.  ^^  1530  f-  Ho.  2^- 1    Ac- 

*  Or..  t  Dav.,  Dr.. 

i  Hap..  §  So  Hi.,  We..  Now.,  Hpt.,  van  H.,  HWB.^\  Du.. 


3''"  339 

cording  to  Billerbeck  and  Jeremias,  it  was  also  an  Assyrian  method 
of  treating  female  captives;  since  the  scenes  depicted  upon  the 
bronze  gates  of  Balawat,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  show  women 
captives  after  the  battle  of  Karkar  as  holding  their  skirts  high 
above  their  knees,  while  their  male  companions  are  without  any 
clothing  (but  v.  i.)*;  cf.  Is.  20^"*  47"-  ^.  This  literal  interpretation 
seems  preferable  to  the  commonly  accepted  rendering  of  the  last 
phrase,  viz.  "in  thy  sight,"t  a  statement  which  seems  superfluous 
when  applied  to  such  an  action  as  is  being  described.  The  same 
difficulty  inheres  in  "to  thy  face,"  i.  e.  as  an  insult,  as  in  Jb.  i" 
Is.  65^. J — And  I  will  let  nations  see  thy  nakedness  and  kingdoms 
thy  shame]  Those  who  have  been  betrayed  by  Assyria  will  thus  be 
compensated  and  avenged  by  seeing  her  imdergo  the  humiliation 
she  has  so  ruthlessly  inflicted  upon  others. — 6.  And  I  will  throw 
loathsome  things  at  thee  and  treat  thee  with  contempt  and  make  thee  a 
sight]  The  figure  of  the  harlot  is  still  maintained. §  This  is  prob- 
ably the  way  in  which  such  unfortunate  women  were  treated  by 
the  bystanders.  Yahweh  speaks  as  though  he  himself  were  in- 
tending to  participate  in  heaping  insult  and  disgrace  upon  the  of- 
fender. This  is  but  the  prophet's  vivid  way  of  representing  Yah- 
weh as  the  one  responsible  for  the  bringing  of  this  retribution  upon 
Nineveh.  The  view  that  'loathsome  things'  means  'idols'  and 
that  the  sense  is, "  I  will  bury  thee  under  thy  idols,"  **  seems  forced. 
The  word  is,  indeed,  frequently  used  to  indicate  idols,  but  were 
this  the  usage  here  we  should  at  least  expect  to  find  the  suffix  'thy' 
attached  to  the  word.  As  it  stands,  the  primary  sense  is  much 
more  fitting.  Nineveh  is  a  captive  woman  exposed  to  shame, 
pelted  with  filth  and  made  a  spectacle  for  all  beholders.     For  this 

*  V.  Birch  and  Pinches,  The  Bronze  Ornaments  oj  the  Palace  Gates  from  Balawat,  C  2  and  3, 
J  6.  Billerbeck  und  Delitzsch,  Die  Palasttore  Salmanassars  II  von  Balawat  [BAS.  VI,  i;  Scenes 
D  6,  I,  3].  The  action  of  these  women,  however,  is  more  likely  to  have  been  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  their  own  movements  in  walking,  for  the  elevation  of  the  clothing  is  not  extreme  and 
unseemly  as  Nahum's  words  would  imply.  It  is  characteristic  of  only  a  few  of  the  women  cap- 
tives and  a  similar  conventional  exposure  of  the  limbs  is  seen  on  many  seals  in  the  case  of  men 
who  are  certainly  not  captives,  when  represented  as  stepping  over  some  obstacle.  V.  the  many 
reproductions  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  seals  in  W.  H.  Ward's  Seal  Cylinders  oj  Western  Asia 
(1910)  and  note  the  representation  of  nude  male  captives  in  the  seal  reproduced  on  pp.  58  and 
IS7  of  that  work. 

t  So  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Dr.,  Kau.,  Du..  X  Hpi.. 

§  Contra  Now..  **  So  Kl.,  cj.  Hap.. 


340  NAHUM 

latter  thought,  cf.  Ez.  28'^  Ob.  *^^-  and  especially  line  12  of  the  in- 
scription of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  where  he  says  of  an  Israelite 
town,  "  I  fought  against  the  town  and  took  it  and  slew  all  the  town, 
as  a  spectacle  for  Chemosh  and  for  Moab." — 7.  So  thai  every  one 
that  sees  thee  will  flee  from  thee  and  say]  The  sight  of  fallen  Nine- 
veh will  be  so  ghastly  that  passers-by  will  hasten  away  in  fright, 
deeming  the  spot  accursed. — Nineveh  is  destroyed.  Who  will 
mourn  for  her?]  A  rhetorical  question  implying  that  there  are  none 
left  who  would  regret  the  ruin  of  the  oppressive  city;  she  is  abso- 
lutely friendless. — Whence  can  I  seek  comforters  for  her?]  Cf.  Je. 
15^  Is.  51'".  Wildeboer*  objects  to  this  translation  on  the  ground 
that  comforters  could  not  be  of  any  service  to  the  dead.  In  its 
place  he  proposes,  "Whence  can  I  seek  those  who  will  provide  the 
funeral-oflferings  for  her?"  But  the  word  'comforter'  is  used  in 
connection  with  living  persons  in  Jb.  2"  Is.  66",  etc.,  where  the 
idea  of  a  funeral  sacrifice  is  out  of  the  question.  The  existence  of 
such  a  practice  in  Israel  is  not  at  all  improbable,  but  neither  this 
passage  nor  Je.  16'  is  sufficient  to  establish  it  as  one  of  the  meanings 
of  Dm  The  prophet  is  here  reverting  to  the  scenes  attending  the 
last  days  of  Nineveh  and  pictures  her  as  passing  through  the  final 
struggle  without  any  attendant  sympathisers  and  supporters.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  term  applied  to  Nineveh's  overthrow  (miw') 
does  not  necessarily  imply  death ;  but  only  ruin  and  desolation  (cf. 
Mi.  2'). 

Str.  Ill  reminds  the  reader  that  even  so  great  a  city  and  fortress 
as  Thebes,  the  rival  of  Nineveh,  had  been  unable  to  defy  destruc- 
tion and  that  Nineveh  is  no  stronger  than  Thebes. — 8.  Art  thou 
better  than  No-Amon,  that  sitteth  by  the  great  Nile?]  No-Amon  has 
at  various  times  been  identified  with  Alexandria,!  with  some  city  of 
the  Delta,J  and  with  Thebes.§  Even  greater  uncertainty  has  pre- 
vailed regarding  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the  city,  some  holding  it  to 
have  been  under  Sargon  ;**  others  under  Sennacheribjff  or  Esar- 

*  ZAW.  XXII,  318  ;.;  cj.  Schw.  ZAW.  XI,  253  #•• 

t  So  B  (E,  Ra.,  Cal.,  Hap.  el  al.. 

X  So  Kalinsky,  Kre.,  Brugsch  (Did.  Geogr.  291),  Spiegelberg  (jEgypt.  Randglossen  zum  A. 

T.  31  n.). 

§  So  Bochart  {Geogr.  sacra,  1681,  vol.  I,  i,  6  fj.),  Dathe,  Mich.,  Eich.,  Rosenm.,  Mau.,  Hi, 
Ew.,  Or.,  and  practically  all  recent  interpreters. 
**  Hi,  Urn.,  Pu.,  Ke.  el  al..  tt  Gre..  Kre., 


3'"'  341 

haddon,*  or  Ashurbanipal,t  or  Nebuchadrezzar,!  or  in  the  time  of 
the  Scythian  invasion. §  Some  of  the  earliest  commentators  in- 
terpret the  allusion  to  the  fall  of  Thebes  as  a  prediction  of  that 
event,**  rather  than  a  record  of  its  actual  occurrence.  The  ob- 
jection that  is  made  to  the  identification  with  Thebes  of  Upper 
Egypt  lies  in  the  content  of  the  following  description,  Whose  ram- 
par  i  was  a  sea,  whose  wall  was  water]  This  is  further  explained  by 
the  gloss, ft  Waters  were  around  her]  Spiegelberg  (/.  c.)  says,  "One 
can  scarcely  imagine  a  more  perverted  picture  of  ancient  Thebes 
than  is  here  presented.  Whoever  familiarises  himself  with  the  to- 
pography of  Thebes  as  represented  by  the  Karnak  and  Luxor  of 
our  own  day  must  acknowledge  that  Nahum's  description  is  in 
no  way  fitting.  The  famous  capital  lay  on  the  Nile,  like  all  great 
Egyptian  towns,  but  it  is  simply  unthinkable  that  it  could  have  been 
strategically  protected  either  by  the  river  or  by  canals.  Spiegel- 
berg, therefore,  appHes  Nahum's  description  to  a  Thebes  in  the 
Delta.  In  reply  to  this,  it  must  be  said  that  Nahum  would  scarcely 
have  compared  Nineveh  with  any  but  the  most  powerful  city  of 
Egypt  and  that  the  Thebes  of  lower  Egypt  was  by  no  means  such 
a  city.  It  played  no  conspicuous  part  in  the  long  history  of  Egypt. 
Nor  is  the  application  to  Thebes  proper  so  unthinkable  as  is 
maintained.  When  the  Nile  rises,  it  overflows  the  site  of  Thebes, 
the  waters  ascending  several  feet  on  the  walls  of  the  Temple  at 
Karnak.  At  such  times,  the  city  might  well  have  been  described 
as  protected  by  a  sea,  or  surrounded  by  waters.  An  illustration  of 
such  a  situation  is  furnished  in  the  capture  of  Memphis  by  Piankhi 
(c.  721  B.C.).  Though  Memphis  lay  more  than  a  mile  from  the 
river,  the  inundation  had  raised  the  level  of  the  river  until  it  was 
almost  to  the  top  of  the  eastern  wall  of  the  city.  Trusting  to  the 
water  for  protection  on  that  side,  the  defenders  had  neglected  to 
strengthen  their  fortifications  there.  Piankhi,  taking  advantage  of 
that  fact,  brought  his  fleet  right  up  to  the  city  wall  and  landed  his 
soldiers  upon  the  top  of  it,  thus  mastering  the  town.JJ  Then,  too, 

*  Kalinsky,  Br..  t  Or.. 

t  Bochart.  $  Ges.. 

**  Jer.,  Theodoret,  Cyril. 

tt  So  also  Bu.  (EB.  3262),  Marti,  Hpt.,  Now.k,  Kau.. 

H  V-  Breasted,  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt,  IV  411  /.,  434/.,  and  History  of  Egypt  (1905),  543. 


342  NAHUM 

there  may  have  been  great  moats  about  the  city  which  were  filled 
by  the  flood-waters  and  remained  as  a  permanent  defence  when 
the  river  subsided.*  If  so,  the  defences  of  Thebes  must  have  been 
remarkably  similar  to  those  of  Nineveh  herself  and  the  prophet's 
comparison  of  the  two  would  be  very  forceful.  The  existence  of 
moats  at  Thebes  is  rendered  more  than  probable  by  the  fact  that 
as  early  as  the  nineteenth  century  B.C.  the  Egyptians  were  employ- 
ing this  means  of  defence.  The  city  fortress  of  Semneh  in  lower 
Nubia,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  about  forty  miles 
above  Halfeh,  was  so  protected.f  Furthermore,  allowance  must 
be  made  for  the  fact  that  Nahum  had  almost  certainly  never  seen 
Thebes  and  consequently  was  dependent  for  his  information  upon 
the  reports  of  merchants  and  travellers.  Under  such  conditions, 
a  certain  degree  of  exaggeration  in  the  description  is  excusable  and 
to  be  expected,  finding  a  parallel  in  the  exaggeration  of  Nineveh's 
o^vn  size  as  given  in  Jon.  3^.  For  other  instances  of  the  word  'sea' 
as  applied  to  a  river,  cj.  Is.  19^  i8-(?)  Jb.  14",  in  which  the  Nile 
is  so  designated,  and  Je.  51^^  where  it  denotes  the  Euphrates.| 
The  fame  of  Thebes  was  spread  throughout  the  ancient  world.§ 
It  was  the  first  great  city  of  the  orient  and  even  to-day  the  remnants 
of  its  greatness  are  described  as  "the  mightiest  ruins  of  ancient 
civilisation  to  be  found  anywhere  in  the  world."**  It  came  into 
prominence  about  2100  B.C.  and  from  that  time  to  its  fall  held  a 
leading  place  in  Egypt,  though  with  varying  fortunes,  attaining 
its  greatest  glory  imder  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties 
(1580-1205  B.C.)  and  entering  upon  its  decline  with  the  twenty- 
first  dynasty  (1090-945  B.C.)  whose  rulers  removed  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment to  the  Delta.  Its  location  was  about  440  miles  south  of 
Memphis  and  140  miles  north  of  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile, 
where  the  river  comes  closest  to  the  Red  Sea  and  its  narrow  val- 


*  C/.  W.  M.  Miiller,  EB.  3427. 

t  A  vast  moat,  constructed  of  stone,  appears  distinctly  upon  photograph  1024  of  this  site 
taken  by  the  Egyptian  Expedition  of  the  University  of  Chicago  (1905-1907)  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Professor  J.  H.  Breasted,  who  kindly  called  my  attention  to  this  fact. 

X  The.\r.  6a/ir  is  used  in  the  same  way;  while,  conversely,  in  Assy,  the  term 'river' is  applied 
to  the  sea;  e.  g.  n&ru  marralu  =  'the  bitter  river,'  viz.  the  Persian  Gulf. 

§  Cj.  (KaTotknvkoi.  ©ij^ai  {Iliad,  IX,  381-383). 

**  Breasted,  A  History  oj  Egypt  (1905),  149,  where  a  full  story  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  Thebes 
may  be  found. 


3"  343 

ley  opens  out  into  a  wide  and  fertile  plain.  Here  the  river  is  about 
a  half-mile  wide,  but  is  divided  into  smaller  streams  by  three  islands 
which  lie  opposite  the  city.  Thebes  proper  lay  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Nile,  the  west  bank  being  given  over  almost  wholly  to  the  ne- 
cropolis and  the  mortuary  temples.  The  old  Egyptian  names  of 
Thebes  were  "the  city,"  "the  southern  city,"  and  "the  city  of 
Amon"  as  here.  Amon  was  the  patron  god  of  the  city  and  the 
temple  of  Karnak  was  erected  for  his  worship.  For  the  date  of  the 
overthrow  of  Thebes  and  its  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  date 
of  Nahum's  prophecy,  v.  Introduction,  pp.  274/.. — 9.  Ethiopia  was 
her  strength;  Put  and  the  Libyans  were  her  help]  At  the  time  when 
Thebes  fell,  the  land  of  Egypt  was  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ethi- 
opian, or  twenty-fifth  dynasty  (712-663  B.C.).  All  the  resources 
of  Nubia,  therefore,  were  joined  to  those  of  Egypt  proper.  Added 
to  these  helpers  from  the  south  were  the  Libyans,  neighbours  of 
Egypt  on  the  west.  The  precise  location  of  Put  is  uncertain.  It 
seems  here  to  be  thought  of  as  closely  associated  with  Libya.  In 
Ez.  27^°,  it  is  mentioned  with  Lud  and  Persia  as  among  the  allies  of 
Tyre;  in  30^  and  Je.  46^°,  it  is  coupled  with  Ethiopia  and  Lud  as  an 
ally  of  Egypt;  in  Ez.  38^,  it  is  among  the  forces  of  Gog;  while  in  Is. 
66^",  where  Pul  is  probably  an  error  for  Put  (cf.  (g),  it  is  again  as- 
sociated with  Lud  and  also  Tarshish  as  one  of  the  lands  far  re- 
moved from  Israel.  It  is  commonly  identified  with  the  Punt  of  the 
Egyptian  inscriptions,  which  is  the  present  Somali  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea.  This  may  be  correct;  but,  as  Dillmann  pointed  out  with  ref- 
erence to  Gn.  lo^  there  is  no  evidence  that  Egypt  ever  made  use  of 
mercenaries  or  allies  from  Punt.  It  was  known  to  Egypt  chiefly  as 
a  source  of  trade  in  rare  products.  It  may  be  of  significance,  in 
this  connection,  that  the  abstract  'help'  is  used  here  by  Nahum 
rather  than  the  concrete  'helper';  the  former  might,  of  course,  in- 
clude all  kinds  of  resources.  But  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
Punt  as  likely  to  have  aided  Thebes,  it  is  almost  inconceivable  that 
Tyre  should  have  drawn  aid  from  so  distant  a  point  (Ez.  27'"). 
d  sometimes  renders  Put  as  Libya  or  Libyans,*  but  the  fact  that 
the  Lydians  are  listed  here  with  Put  seems  to  preclude  that  identi- 
fication.   Winckler  would  equate  Put  with  the  Assyrian  Putu- 

*  So  also  Josephus. 


344  NAHUM 

Yamen,*  the  name  of  the  isle  of  Samos  or  some  part  of  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  such  as  Caria  near  Samos.f  It  seems  unnecessary 
to  look  so  far  away  as  either  Asia  Minor  or  the  Somali  coast  for 
Put,  for  the  other  allies  named  are  immediate  neighbours  of  Egypt; 
but  its  exact  localisation  must  await  further  discoveries.  Unfor- 
tunately Ashurbanipal's  account  of  the  campaigns  against  Egypt 
and  of  the  capture  of  Thebes  does  not  enumerate  the  foreign 
auxiharies  in  the  army  of  Taharka,  king  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt. 
M  reads  here,  "Ethiopia  was  her  strength  and  Egypt,  and  there 
was  no  end;  Put,  etc."  But  the  inclusion  of  Egypt  among  the  re- 
sources of  Thebes,  the  capital  of  Egypt,  seems  gratuitous  and  the 
list  seems  designed  to  give  the  external  helpers  who  co-operated 
with  Egypt.  In  any  case,  if  'Egypt'  were  originally  in  the  text, 
we  should  have  expected  some  word  parallel  to  'strength'  as  its 
predicate. J  It  seems  safe  to  omit  "and  Egypt "§  as  well  as  "and 
there  was  no  end"**  as  due  to  a  glossator. — 10.  Yet  she  was  for 
exile;  she  went  into  captivity]  In  Ashurbanipal's  account  of  the 
capture  of  Thebes,  he  says,  "that  entire  city,  under  the  protection 
of  Ashur  and  Ishtar,  my  hands  captured — silver,  gold,  precious 
stones,  the  contents  of  his  palace,  all  that  there  was:  parti-coloured 
raiment,  cloth,  horses,  and  people,  male  and  female.  Two  tall 
obelisks  ...  I  removed  from  their  place  and  took  to  Assyria. 
Heavy  spoils  without  number  I  carried  off  from  Thebes."  This 
does  not  imply  a  general  deportation  of  the  populace  of  Thebes; 
but  it  furnishes  sufficient  basis  for  Nahum's  statement,  especially 
if  made  after  the  lapse  of  approximately  half  a  century,  when  the 
recollection  of  the  precise  course  of  events  had  become  hazy  and 
imagination  had  done  its  work. — Even  her  infants  were  dashed  in 
pieces  at  the  head  of  every  street]  Such  barbaric  cruelty  seems  to 
have  been  commonly  practised  in  Semitic  warfare;  c/".  2  K.  8'^  Is. 
j^i6.  18  jjq  jqM  j^i  israeUtes  themselves  were  capable  of  such 
atrocities  (2  K.  15**),  though  there  were  not  wanting  those  who 
protested  against  such  doings  (Am.  i"). — And  upon  her  honoured 
ones,  they  cast  lots  and  all  her  great  ones  were  bound  in  fetters]  In 

*  AOF.  I,  siz  f..  t  So  Che.  EB.  art.  Put. 

t  So  Rub.  JQR.  XI,  459.  §  So  Marti,  Hpt.. 

**  So  Hpt.,  Stk.. 


3^°-"  345 

the  record  of  the  activities  immediately  preceding  Ashurbanipal's 
second  campaign,  of  which  the  capture  of  Thebes  was  the  crown- 
ing triumph,  it  is  stated  that  the  petty  kings  who  had  conspired 
with  Tirhaka  to  resist  the  Assyrian  advance  were  taken  captive 
to  Nineveh,  where  mercy  was  shown  to  none  but  Necho,  king  of 
Sais,  the  fate  of  the  rest  being  left  to  be  inferred.  Details  are  not 
furnished  by  this  narrative  of  the  conqueror,  but  the  custom  of 
putting  noble  prisoners  in  bonds  is  well  attested  elsewhere  in  As- 
syrian inscriptions  and  reliefs  (r/.  Je.  40'-  *  2  K.  25^  Ju.  i6-^  Ps. 
149*)  and  the  distribution  of  prominent  captives  by  lot  among  the 
princes  and  captains  of  Assyria  is  likely  to  have  been  a  not  unusual 
proceeding  (cf.  Jo.  3^  Ob.  ").* 

Str.  IV  declares  that  Nineveh  will  in  turn  suffer  the  fate  which 
she  herself  executed  upon  Thebes. — 11.  Thou,  loo,  wilt  be  drunken; 
thou  wilt  become  faint]  The  figure  of  drunkenness  as  representative 
of  the  helplessness  of  those  who  have  drunk  of  the  cup  of  Yahweh's 
wrath  is  a  common  one  in  the  Old  Testament;  cf.  Hb.  2'^  Je.  25*^"^' 
Ob.  ^®  Ez.  23^  ^-  Is.  51*^"^  Ps.  60^  La.  4^^  The  precise  meaning  of 
the  second  verb  here  is  somewhat  imcertain.  The  root  regularly 
means  'cover,'  conceal.'  The  meaning  'faint,'  'be  powerless'  for 
this  passagef  rests  upon  two  facts;  (i)  Arabic  has  exactly  the  same 
idiom,  using  'be  covered'  as  =  'be  powerless';  (2)  the  verb  C]7J?,  with 
a  similar  primary  meaning,!  is  used  in  this  same  way  in  Is.  51^**  Jon. 
4^  Am.  8^^  Ez.  3I'^§  The  blackness  before  the  eyes  that  accom- 
panies fainting  may  have  furnished  the  connecting  link  between 
'covering'  and  'fainting.'    Another  interpretation  of  the  word  is, 

*  For  representations  of  prisoners,  v.  the  reliefs  from  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsabad  in  Botta  et 
Flandin,  Monuments  de  Ninive  (1849),  vol.  II,  plates  100,  119;  cf.  Layard,  Ntneveh  and  Its 
Remains,  II,  261;  and  Assyrian  Sculptures  in  the  British  Museum  (published  by  Kleinman 
&  Co.,  London),  plate  93.  Ashurbanipal,  in  his  Annals,  speaking  of  his  fifth  campaign,  says, 
"Dunanu  and  Samgunu  (allies  of  Elam),  who  had  obstructed  the  exercise  of  my  sovereignty, 
I  bound  hand  and  foot  in  bonds,  iron  fetters  and  iron  manacles."  So  also  in  his  ninth  cam- 
paign, against  Arabian  princes,  of  whom  he  says,  "On  their  hands  and  feet  I  put  iron  chains 
and  along  with  the  spoil  of  their  land,  I  took  them  to  Assyria."  Similarly  Sennacherib,  in 
the  Taylor  Prism,  after  his  sixth  campaign.  Tiglath-pileser  III  also,  in  the  Ntmrud  Ins.  says, 
"  I  captured  him  (a  hostile  king)  together  with  his  great  men,  put  iron  chains  on  them  and  took 
them  to  Assyria." 

t  So  «.  g.  Stei.,  We.,  Or.,  Dav.,  Now.,  Hpt.. 

J  n^jj  =  'to  cover'  and  ry^y  =  'be  weak'  are  also  probably  one  and  the  same. 

§  In  Ez.  31'*  nri'^5?  should  be  read. 


346  NAHUM 

'wilt  hide  thyself  from  fear, '  *  which  anticipates  the  thought  of  the 
following  line.  In  any  case,  as  Nowack  reminds  us,  drunkards  as 
a  rule  do  not  hide  themselves.  The  Versions  offer  'will  be  de- 
spised,' which  is  supported  by  some  scholarsf  on  the  basis  of 
Jb.  42^;  but  there  the  ordinary  meaning  'covers,'  i.  e.  obscures 
counsel,  satisfies  the  context  and  renders  unnecessary  so  unsup- 
ported an  interpretation. — Thou,  too,  wilt  seek  refuge  from  the  foe] 
The  pursuer  will  become  the  pursued, — an  unaccustomed  role  for 
Assyrian  armies. — 12.  All  thy  fortresses  are  fig  trees;  thy  defenders 
are  first-ripe  figs\  M.  reads,  "are  fig  trees  with  first-ripe  figs." 
Against  this  is  the  fact  that  it  is  lacking  in  parallelism  and  that  it 
yields  too  short  a  line.  The  corrected  text  presupposes  an  error 
in  m  which  is  of  common  occurrence  in  the  copying  of  texts.  The 
fortresses  referred  to  are  probably  those  strengthening  and  pro- 
tecting the  walls  of  Nineveh  itself,  J  as  is  evidently  the  case  in  v.  "; 
but,  in  view  of  v.  '^,  it  is  also  possible  that  forts  on  the  frontier  and 
others  intended  to  block  progress  toward  the  capital  are  meant. § 
For  the  use  of  the  word  'people'  as  the  equivalent  of  'defenders,' 
cf.  note  on  2^. — //  they  he  shaken,  they  fall  into  the  mouth  of  the 
eater]  To  urge  that  first-ripe  figs  do  not  fall  more  easily  than 
later  figs  and  that,  therefore,  the  point  of  the  comparison  is  in  the 
speed  and  eagerness  with  which  first-ripe  figs  are  plucked,**  rather 
than  in  the  ease  and  certainty  of  the  capture  of  Nineveh,  is  to  lay 
too  much  stress  upon  the  use  of  this  particular  word.  Both  ideas 
are  probably  present  in  the  figure;  Nineveh  is  as  eagerly  pounced 
upon  and  falls  with  as  little  resistance  as  does  the  first-ripe  fig;  cf. 
Mi.  f  Is.  28*  Je.  24^  Haupt  would  transfer  vv.  ^"-  "  to  follow 
v.  ^^"^'j  while  Staerk  places  v.  *^  after  v.  "^.  But  nothing  is  gained 
by  either  of  these  changes. — 13a.  Behold,  women  are  in  the  midst 
of  thee!]  Such  terror  will  lay  hold  upon  the  defenders  of  Nineveh 
that  they  will  be  unable  to  act  the  part  of  men.  Courage  will  ut- 
terly fail  them;  cf.  Is.  19'^  Je.  49^'  50"  51^". ft  As  a  matter  of  fact, 

*  Hal..  t  Hap.,  van  H.. 

%  So  e.  g.  We.,  Now.,  Hap.,  Marti,  Kau.. 

§  So  e.  g.  Dav.,  van  H..  **  Hap.. 

tt  Similar  language  is  used  by  Ashur-nirari,  king  of  Assyria,  in  a  wish  he  utters  with  refer- 
ence to  a  certain  Mali'ilu  of  Harran,  viz.  "may  he  become  a  hierodule;  may  his  warriors  be- 
come women,  etc.";  v.  E.  T.  Harper,  BAS.  11,  434. 


3"-"  347 

the  defence  of  Nineveh  was  prolonged  and  heroic.  Thus  it  would 
seem  clear  that  Nahum  prophesied  before  the  siege  had  actually 
begun.  This  is  no  vaticinium  post  eventum.  M,  reads,  "Behold, 
thy  defenders  are  women  in  the  midst  of  thee."  The  sense  is  the 
same  in  both  readings;  but  the  order  of  words  is  easier  in  the 
emended  text  and  the  phrase  "in  the  midst  of  thee"  in  iJ|  is  some- 
what superfluous. — 13c.  Fire  has  devoured  tJiy  bars]  The  bars  are 
either  the  forts  which  obstruct  the  advance  of  an  invader  into  the 
country,  or  the  literal  bars  which  fasten  the  gates  of  such  fortresses; 
cf.  Am.  i^.  They  can  hardly  be  the  fastenings  of  the  gates  of  Nin- 
eveh itself,  for  this  would  leave  the  city  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy 
and  the  following  instructions  to  prepare  for  a  siege  would  be  ab- 
surd. The  use  of  fire  in  attacks  upon  fortresses  seems  implied 
here.*  In  any  case,  one  of  the  constantly  recurring  statements  in 
the  accounts  of  the  capture  of  cities  by  Assyrian  kings  is,  "I  de- 
stroyed, I  devastated,  I  burned  with  fire,"t  This  clause  more  fit- 
tingly follows  v.  ^^'^  than  v.  ^^^  as  in  HJ.  It  would  be  unnecessary  to 
bum  the  bars  after  the  gates  were  opened.  Moreover,  the  metre  is 
much  improved  by  this  arrangement. — 13b.  The  gates  of  thy  land 
are  opened  wide  to  thine  enemies]  i.  e.  the  forts  protecting  the  passes 
and  defiles  affording  entrance  into  the  country  are  surrendered 
without  a  struggle  by  their  cowardly  garrisons.  Driver  aptly  calls 
attention  to  the  parallel  usage  of  the  word  'gates'  in  such  titles 
as  the  "Caucasian  Gates,"  the  "Caspian  Gates,"  the  "Cilician 
Gates,"  etc..  It  may  be  that  Nahum  was  writing  at  a  time  when 
these  strongholds  had  already  fallen,  so  that  it  only  remained  to 
conquer  Nineveh. J  But  it  is  just  as  probable  that  with  prophetic 
certainty  he  represents  as  already  accomplished  that  which  he  sees 
to  be  inevitable.  § 

Str.  V  ironically  urges  Nineveh  to  put  forth  her  most  strenuous 
efforts  in  self-defence,  assuring  her  in  one  and  the  same  breath 
that  complete  destruction  awaits  her. — 14.  Waters  for  the  siege 
draw  for  thyself]  This  ironical  advice  may  refer  either  to  the  fiUing 
of  Nineveh's  moats  for  the  purpose  of  better  defence,**  or  to  the 

*  Cf.  Billerbeck,  BAS.  Ill,   i6i.  t  Soe.  5.  in  Ashurbanipal's /Iwwa/i. 

%  So  e.  g.  We.,  Now.,  Kau.,  et  al..  §  So  e.  g.  Hap.,  van  H.. 

**  Hpt.'s  categorical  rejection  of  tliis  interpretation  proves  nothing. 


348  NAHUM 

procuring  of  a  water  supply  for  its  inhabitants  before  the  presence 
of  the  enemy  renders  it  impossible.*  CJ.  the  steps  taken  by  Ahaz 
to  secure  the  water  supply  of  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  Syro- 
Ephraimite  invasion  (Is.  7^).  A  copious  water  supply  had  been 
provided  for  Nineveh  by  Sennacherib.  In  the  Bavian  Inscrip- 
tion,! he  relates  how  he  had  conveyed  the  water  of  eighteen  moun- 
tain torrents  into  the  city  by  an  aqueduct,  thus  furnishing  it  with 
an  abundant  supply.  Not  only  so,  but  he  also  constructed  a  sys- 
tem of  water-works  by  which  the  storage  and  distribution  could  be 
controlled  and  a  plentiful  supply  guaranteed  in  time  of  siege. 
Nahum  probably  refers  to  the  perfecting  and  protecting  of  this 
system.  Apart  from  it,  according  to  Sennacherib,  the  city  was 
dependent  solely  upon  the  rainfall. J — Strengthen  thy  fortresses] 
Reference  is  made  probably  to  the  defences  of  Nineveh  proper, 
the  towers  and  turrets  upon  her  walls  and  the  outlying  bulwarks 
designed  to  protect  her  gates.  The  same  verb  is  used  in  2  K.  12®'^^ 
of  the  repairing  of  the  breaches  in  the  walls  of  the  temple.  Con- 
stant repairs  upon  the  walls  of  the  city  and  its  forts  would  be  needed 
during  the  progress  of  the  siege,  because  of  the  damage  wrought  by 
the  rams  of  the  besiegers;  lacking  such  repairs,  the  walls  must 
soon  fall.§ — Enter  into  the  mire  and  trample  the  clay]  i.  e.  so  as  to 
prepare  the  clay  for  the  moulding  of  the  bricks.  An  enormous 
supply  of  bricks  would  be  requisite  to  keep  up  repairs  upon  the 
huge  walls  of  Nineveh  during  a  siege.**  Their  height  was  estimated 
at  one  hundred  feet  by  Diodorus  and  their  width,  as  revealed  by  the 

*  A  bas-relief  from  the  NW.  palace  at  Nimroud  shows  a  warrior  outside  the  walls  of  a 
city  cutting  a  bucket  from  a  rope  passed  through  a  pulley,  which  was  apparently  used  by  the  be- 
sieged to  obtain  water  from  a  well  outside  the  walls  of  the  fort;  v.  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Its  Re- 
mains, II,  31  /..  Billerbeck  suggests  that  Nahum  refers  to  boiling  water  which  is  to  be  poured 
upon  the  besiegers. 

t  Bezold's  translation  in  KB.  II,  117. 

t  Testimony  varies  regarding  the  waters  of  the  Khusur  and  Tigris.  Layard  (Nine'^eh  and 
lis  Remains,  II,  96)  states  that  the  water  of  the  Khusur  was  considered  heavy  and  undrinka- 
ble,  while  that  of  the  Tigris  was  constantly  used.  Commander  Jones  (JRAS,  1855,  p.  310) 
evidently  considered  the  waters  of  both  streams  usable;  while  Fritdrich  (.Ninive's  Ende),  af>- 
parendy  without  having  been  on  the  spot,  declares  the  water  of  the  Khusur  to  be  good  and  that 
of  the  Tigris  undrinkable;  so  Billerbeck,  BAS.  Ill,  120.  Sennacherib  also  seems  to  have  con- 
sidered the  Khusur  available  for  a  water  supply,  for  he  used  it  as  a  part  of  his  system  of  water- 
works (Bavian  Ins.,  I.  11). 

§  Cj.  Billerbeck,  5.45.  Ill,  161,  where  an  excellent  account  of  the  defences  of  Nineveh  may 
be  found;  v.  also  idem,  Der  Festungsbau  im  Alien  Orienl  (2d  ed.  1903). 

**  Xcnophon,  Anabasis,  III,  4,  11,  mentions  the  -nKiveivov  tcixo?  of  Nineveh. 


3''  349 

excavations,  was  about  fifty  feet,  except  alongside  of  the  gates  where 
it  was  over  one  hundred  feet.  Sennacherib  himself  says*  that  he 
made  the  wall  and  the  rampart  of  Nineveh  "mountain  high." 
But  limestone  also  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the  walls  and 
earth  in  the  erection  of  ramparts. — Lay  hold  of  the  brick-mould] 
Sun-dried  and  burnt  brick  was  the  chief  building  material  of  As- 
syria and  Babylonia.  This  picture  shows  the  population  of  Nine- 
veh engaged  in  the  most  wearisome  drudgery  and  all  in  vain. — 
15.  There  fire  will  devour  thee;  the  sword  will  cut  thee  off]  "There" 
probably  indicates  in  a  general  way  the  scenes  of  labour  just  men- 
tioned. Even  in  the  midst  of  their  toil,  destruction  will  come  upon 
them.  Fire  and  sword  are  commonly  combined  in  the  destruction 
of  towns;  cf.  Dt.  28^^  ju.  ^s.  25  ^qSv-^s  ^  g  ^^i.  14  ^  g.  g''  Is.  i^  Je. 
34^  Am.  i^  ^-  Ho.  8".  According  to  one  form  of  the  Babylonian 
tradition  preserved  by  Berossus,  the  last  king  of  Assyria  upon  learn- 
ing of  the  advance  of  the  enemy  set  fire  to  his  own  capital  and  per- 
ished in  the  flames.  According  to  another  form,  the  king  resisted 
the  besiegers  for  three  years  and  committed  himself  to  the  flames 
only  after  the  Tigris  had  washed  away  a  portion  of  the  city's  walls. 
The  excavations  at  Kouyunjik  have  revealed  the  fact  that  most  of 
the  buildings  there  had  suffered  from  fire. — //  will  devour  thee  like 
the  young  locust]  These  words  are  best  treated  as  a  gloss  or  as  due 
to  dittography.f  The  error  was  an  easy  one.  The  words  are 
hard  to  understand  in  M-  Most  naturally,  the  subject  of  the  verb 
would  be  the  'sword'  just  mentioned, -J  but  locusts  are  not  destroyed 
by  the  sword.  If  the  comparison  with  the  locust  applies  to  the 
subject,  i.  e.  "the  sword  will  devour  thee  as  the  locust  devours,"§ 
the  figure  is  a  weak  one.  Moreover,  in  the  following  clause,  the 
'locust'  is  applied  figuratively  to  Nineveh,  the  devoured.  If  the 
thought  be,  "will  devour  thee  though  thou  art  numerous  like  the 
locust,**  it  anticipates  and  renders  forceless  the  following  phrase. 
If  the  words  be  original  here,  they  must  go  back  for  a  subject  to  the 
preceding  'fire,'  viz.  "fire  will  devour  thee  like  the  locust";  this  was 

*  V.  Bavian  Inscription. 

t  So  e.  g.  We,  Rub.  {JQR.  XI,  459),  Oort^"-,  Now.i,  GASm.,  Hap.,  Marti,  Dr.  (?),  Now.K, 
Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kent.  t  Hi.. 

§  The  Vrss.,  Strauss,  Knabenbauer,  Dr.  ( ?),  and  most  earlier  commentators. 
**  Or.,  Dav.. 


350  NAHUM 

one  of  the  means  of  exterminating  this  pest.*  One  interpreter  seeks 
to  save  the  phrase  by  making  it  mean,  "lire  and  sword  shall  rage 
against  thee  as  furiously  as  they  are  made  to  destroy  the  baneful 
flood  of  Iocusts."t  But  this  is  to  crowd  too  much  into  two  words. 
Another,  by  emendation,  reads,  "the  battle-axe  will  destroy  thee." 
But  this,  in  turn,  introduces  a  new  word  into  the  Hebrew  lexicon, 
adds  a  superfluous  detail  since  'sword'  naturally  represents  all 
weapons  of  warfare,  and  fails  to  reckon  with  the  fact  that  these  words 
render  this  line  unduly  long. — Multiply  thyself  like  the  young  locust; 
multiply  thyself  like  the  locust- sivarm]  The  prophet  now  turns  from 
the  forts  and  walls  toward  the  almost  innumerable  mass  of  the  pop- 
ulation within  Nineveh,  bidding  the  city  increase  its  defenders  be- 
yond measure  only  to  find  them  as  futile  as  the  broken-down  walls. 
— 16.  Increase  thy  traders  more  than  the  stars  of  the  heavens]  The 
merchants  of  Nineveh  were  an  important  source  of  her  wealth ;  and, 
in  her  case,  commerce  regularly  "followed  the  flag."  It  may  be  that 
the  merchandise  alluded  to  here  is  of  the  same  sort  as  that  men- 
tioned in  3^ ;  t  but  this  does  not  appear  on  the  face  of  the  statement 
and  the  additional  classes  mentioned  in  v.  "  render  such  a  meaning 
somewhat  improbable. — The  young  locust  strips  and  flies  away]  This 
probably  refers  to  the  final  emergence  of  the  locust  from  the  pupa- 
stage,  at  which  time  it  casts  off  the  membraneous  sheaths  which 
have  thus  far  confined  its  wings,  rises  into  the  air  and  flies  away.§ 
Another  possible  rendering  is,  "the  young  locust  plunders  and  flies 
away."  But  it  is  hardly  legitimate  to  apply  this  to  the  departure 
of  the  enemy  from  Nineveh  after  her  destruction;**  since  in  vv.  ''•  '^ 
the  locusts  evidently  represent  the  Assyrians  themselves.  An- 
other interpretationff  gives  the  first  verb  the  meaning  'go  forth'  or 
'set  themselves  in  motion,'  and  cites  Ju.  9^-  **  in  support  of  this. 
But  so  weak  and  colourless  a  meaning  is  not  to  be  expected  of 
this  verb,  nor  is  it  made  necessary  by  Ju.  9^-  ^^  where  the  rendering 
"make  a  raid"  is  more  suitable.  Still  another  interpretation  is 
"the  locusts  deposit  their  larvae,  etc.";|J  but  this  meaning  must  be 

*  V.  Thomson,  The  Land  and  the  Book,  II  (1886),  297;  and  the  "excursus  on  locusts"  in 
Dr.  Joel  and  Amos,  82-91.  t  Van  H.. 

t  So  Hap.:  cj.  Is.   23!'  '•.  §  So  Dr.  Joel  and  Amos,  85  ;  Shipley,  EB.  2808. 

*♦  So  Strauss,  K.!.,  Kc.,  Knalicnbaucr ;  cj.  Marti,  Hal..  tt  Hap.. 

U  Van  H.. 


3""^  351 

forced  upon  the  verb  and  even  then  furnishes  no  suitable  tertium 
comparationis.  The  point  of  the  comparison  evidently  is  that  the 
crowds  of  Nineveh  will  disappear  as  quickly  and  completely  as 
locust-swarms  when  their  time  comes.  But  the  phrase  anticipates 
the  thought  of  v.  ^^,  has  no  close  connection  with  v.  ^^^  and  is  super- 
fluous in  the  poetical  structure.  It  is  best  handled  as  a  marginal 
note  either  on  v.  '^  or  on  v.  '^.* — 17.  Thy  sacred  officials  ( ?)  like  the 
locust- swarm]  These  words  may  be  taken  either  as  an  independent 
sentence,  "thy  sacred  officials  are  like,  etc.,"  or  as  dependent  upon 
the  imperative  of  v.  '^,  "increase  thy  sacred  officials,  etc.."  The 
latter  seems  preferable,  since  the  merchants  with  the  other  two 
orders  mentioned  are  apparently  correlated  as  representing  three 
leading  classes  in  Nineveh.  The  word  here  rendered  "sacred 
officials  ( ?) "  occurs  nowhere  else  and  is  of  uncertain  meaning.  It 
has  been  interpreted  in  many  ways;  e.  g.  thy  princes,  or  crowned 
ones;t  thy  consecrated  ones,  i.  e.  those  set  aside  to  war  (cf.  Tin3);t 
thy  mercenaries  ;§  thy  bastards,  allusion  being  made  to  the  large 
admixture  of  foreign  blood  in  Nineveh  ;**  thy  tax-collectors  ;f  f  thy 
exorcists,  or  conjurers;J|  thy  watchmen,  or  guards. §§  Refer- 
ence can  hardly  be  made  to  any  high  officials,  since  at  any  given 
time  these  were  relatively  few,  and  the  comparison  with  locusts 
would  thus  be  unsuitable.***  Some  class  including  large  numbers 
is  apparently  intended,  perhaps  the  priests  and  attendant  ministers 
at  the  many  shrines.  The  term  is  probably  an  Assyrian  loan-word, 
the  meaning  of  which  we  can  only  conjecture. — Thy  scribes  ( ?)  like 
the  loctists]  Another  word  of  uncertain  significance  appears  here. 
The  earlier  commentators  conjectured  such  meanings  as  'cap- 
tains,'fff  marshals,JJJ  princes  or  leaders.§§§  The  same  word, 
with  a  slight  variation  in  vocalisation,  occurs  in  Je.  51^^;  but  that  pas- 
sage sheds  little  light  upon  its  meaning,  beyond  showing  that  it  is  a 
designation  of  some  kind  of  an  official.  The  Assyrian  duplarru  or 
tupiarru  is  almost  certainly  the  original  of  this  Hebrew  form.     In 

*  So  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kent.  t  Ra.,  Ki.,  Hd.,  Or.,  AV.  el  al. 

%  Ke..  §  Ew..  **  Hi.,  We., 

tt  Du..  %t  Hpt.;  cj.  Rub.  {JQR.  XI,  460),  Bu.  (EB.). 

§§  So  Jensen  {ThLZ.  1905,  p.  507),  Zimmern  (KAT?,  651),  Knabenbauer,  Hal.,  Kent. 
***  So  Mau.,  We..  ttt  A\'.,  Ew.,  Or..  %%%  RV.. 

§§§  AE.,  Ki.. 


352  NAHUM 

Assyrian,  the  ordinary  meaning  is  " tablet- writer "  or  "scribe," 
but  the  scribe  ser\'ed  also  at  times  as  an  official  of  the  government. 
The  Plebrevv  IDD,  'scribe'  or  'secretary'  is  also  used  to  designate 
a  military  officer  (Ju.  5"  2  Ch.  26"  2  K.  25'^;  cf.  i  Mac.  5''). 
A  similar  development  is  exhibited  by  the  root  ^t2w^.  In  view  of 
these  facts,  it  is  probable  that  ^DSU  too  had  both  meanings,  viz. 
'scribe'  and  'officer.'  The  objection  that  this  is  too  special  a 
meaning  for  this  place,*  is  of  force,  if  we  must  think  of  either  as 
constituting  a  very  small  class.  But  scribes,  at  least,  were  abun- 
dant, especially  in  and  after  the  literary  age  of  Ashurbanipal.f  The 
suggestion!  that  Nahum  is  deriding  Nineveh  by  implying  that  the 
stalwart  warriors  of  her  days  of  power  have  given  place  to  mer- 
chants, scribes,  and  the  like,  may  be  near  the  mark,  being  wholly  in 
keeping  with  the  spirit  and  tone  of  this  prophecy. — That  encamp 
in  the  walls  in  cold  weather]  A  well-known  characteristic  of  locusts.  § 
So  Nineveh  is  crammed  with  a  huddled  mass  of  population. — But 
the  sun  shines  forth  and  they  flee  and  their  place  is  not  known]  The 
similarity  between  the  people  of  Nineveh  and  the  locusts  is  in  the 
speed  with  which  they  both  alike  depart  and  are  lost  to  sight.** 
The  details  of  the  figure  evidently  must  not  be  applied  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Nineveh.  For  the  closing  words,  cf.  Ps.  103*®  Is.  17"  Jb. 
7'"  Rev.  18^';  but  the  thought  here  is  that  none  knows  whither  the 
locust  has  gone,  not  where  he  has  been.  M,  adds  a  word  here, 
making  the  phrase  read,  "their  place  is  not  known  where  they  are." 
This  is  a  correct  interpretation  of  Nahum's  words,  but  it  is  gener- 
ally recognised  as  weak  and  tautological  and  as  not  belonging 
here.f  f  It  is  better  placed,  with  a  slight  change,  at  the  beginning 
of  V.  ^\ 


♦  Now.. 

tThey  were  highly  regarded  by  that  king,  who  himself  acquired  their  art  (Annals,  I,  32  /.) 
and  employed  many  of  them  in  copying  ancient  tablets  and  collecting  his  great  library.  In  the 
Tel-el-Amarna  period,  the  dupsarru  at  the  Egyptian  court  was  credited  with  great  influence ; 
V.  Knudtzon's  Eil-Amarna  Tajeln,  Nos.  286,  I.  61;  287,  11.  64  /.;  289,  1.  47,  where  Abdihiba, 
king  of  Jerusalem,  entreats  the  favour  of  his  influence  with  the  Pharaoh. 

X  Van  H.. 

§  V.  Jer.  adloc;  Thomson,  The  Land  and  the  Book,  II  (1886),  299. 

♦♦  V.  Thomson,  op.  cit.  p.  297:  "thousands  upon  thousands,  with  most  fatal  industry,  deposit 
their  innumerable  eggs  in  the  field,  the  plain,  and  the  desert.  This  done,  they  vanish  like 
morning  mist." 

tt  So  Am.,  Hap.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kent,  Du.. 


3''-''  353 

Str.  VI  which  closes  this  oracle  and  the  book  does  not  carry  the 
thought  of  the  preceding  str.  any  further,  but  takes  up  a  dirge  over 
the  city,  fallen  to  rise  no  more,  and  tells  of  the  joy  with  which  the 
whole  world  receives  the  tidings. — 18.  How  thy  shepherds  slumber, 
thy  nobles  sleep/]  The  so-called  dirge  rhythm  appears  here  and  con- 
tinues to  the  end  of  the  str..  M  inserts  here  O  King  of  Assyria] 
which  not  only  spoils  the  dirge  rhythm,  but  also  introduces  a  new 
personality  at  the  very  end  of  the  prophecy.  It  is  probably  a 
gloss.*  "Thy  shepherds"  is  a  phrase  much  more  naturally  ad- 
dressed to  a  city  than  to  a  king,  who  is  himself  the  shepherd  of  his 
people.  The  title  "shepherd"  was  a  favourite  one  with  Semitic 
rulers;  cf.  Je.  3^^  Ez.  37^^t  The  slumber  and  sleep  are  not  pic- 
tures of  the  slothfulness  and  weakness  of  Assyria's  rulers.  J  The 
vigour  and  obstinacy  of  the  city's  defence,  which  withstood  the 
attacks  of  the  foe  for  at  least  two  long  years,  protects  the  memory 
of  her  defenders  against  such  a  charge.  Sleep  is  here  rather  a  eu- 
phemism for  death  (cf.  Is.  14^*  Je.  51^^-  "  Ps.  13^  76^-  ^),  and  the 
prophet  is  describing  the  situation  after  the  fall  of  the  capital. §  M 
has  "settle  down"  or  "dwell"  for  the  second  verb;  if  correct,  this 
must  be  understood  as  meaning  "are  at  ease"  or  "secure,"  which 
would  be  a  very  free  rendering.  But  a  closer  parallelism  with 
"slumber"  is  expected  and  (^  points  to  a  different  text. — Thy  peo- 
ple are  scattered  upon  the  mountains  with  notie  to  gather  them]  The 
"people"  are  the  defenders  of  the  city,  as  in  v.  ^^.  They  have  for- 
saken her  and  are  like  sheep  without  a  shepherd;  cf.1K.22"  'Ez.  34® 
Zc.  13^  Nu.  2j". — 19.  There  is  no  healing  for  thy  wound;  thy  hurt  is 
incurable]  For  similar  language,  cf.  Je.  10*^  14'^  30"  46".  Amos 
threatened  Israel  with  the  same  fate  (5^).  The  word  'wound'  is 
commonly  applied  to  the  crash  of  states  (e.  g.  Am.  6^  Is.  30^^  Je. 
8^'),  though  it  is  occasionally  used  of  individuals  (e.  g.  Pr.  16*^  17*^ 
18'^). — All  who  hear  the  report  of  thee  clap  their  hands]  For  this 
action  as  expressive  of  joy,  cf.  Is.  55^^  Ez.  25^  Ps.  47^  98®.    The 

*  So  Am.,  Marti,  Hap.,  Now.^,  Hpt.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent ;  Du.  om.  only  the  word  "king"  and 
leaves  "Assyria"  as  the  one  addressed. 

t  So  e.  g.  Tiglath-pileser  I  (Prism  Ins.  I,  i8),  Sennacherib  (Taylor  Cyl.  I,  3)  and  Shamash- 
shum-ukin. 

X  Contra  many  commentators ;  e.  g.  Mich.,  Kre.,  We.,  van  H.. 

i  So  Or.,  Dav,,  GASm.,  Jrm.,  Hap.,  Marti,  Ha!.,  Dr.. 


354  NAHUM 

prophet  here  states  even  more  positively  what  he  has  already  sug- 
gested in  3^.  He  is  conscious  that  he  expresses  the  feelings  not 
only  of  his  ovi^n  nation,  but  of  all  the  peoples  vi^ho  have  suffered  at 
the  hands  of  the  world-oppressing  tyrant.  M  adds  here,  at  thee] 
But  this  is  unnecessary  to  the  sense  and  constitutes  a  blemish  upon 
the  otherwise  perfect  elegiac  rhythm.  It  is  probably  the  work  of  a 
glossator.* — For  upon  whom  has  evil  from  thee  not  passed  over  con- 
tinually?] This,  too,  is  best  considered  as  a  gloss. f  It  fails  to  con- 
form to  the  metre  of  this  closing  str.  and  it  weakens  the  prophet's 
climax.  It  is  an  attempt  to  justify  the  universal  joy  of  the  previous 
statement,  which  needed  no  such  prosaic  apology  in  the  days  of 
Nahum.  The  oppression  of  Nineveh  was  notorious  enough  to 
be  taken  for  granted  every^vhere.  "Evil"  here  is  equivalent  to 
"calamity,"  "disaster"  or  "wrong." 

The  logical  divisions  of  this  piece  are  so  clearly  marked  as  to  have 
produced  practical  unanimity  among  its  interpreters  regarding  its  analy- 
sis. Organising  strs.  on  the  basis  of  this  logical  grouping  alone,  and 
trusting  to  the  parallelism  for  guidance  as  to  the  length  of  lines,  we  secure 
six  strs.,  having  8,  6,  6,  6,  8  and  4  lines  respectively.  This  involves  a 
few  changes  from  iM.  In  v.  ^,  one-half  of  the  second  line  is  missing. 
In  v.  ',  two  words,  Oa  iS'i'3%  must  be  om.  as  a  gloss.  Other  glosses  are, 
rh  aoD  D>o  (v.  8),  ycy  (v.  "),  pSo  iSdnh  (v.  ^^),  ni'^i  t2::'e  ,1':''  (v.  •«), 
-\wn  "^r^  (v.  '8),  and  probably  7\-ip  |>ni  o>ixdi  (v.  «)  and  nS  in  Sjj  13  T'Vj? 
n-cn  nn>n  may  (v.  '').  In  addition  to  these  omissions,  the  phrase 
'3  v?n  hSdk  (v.  ")  is  tr.  to  foil,  l^inj  in  the  same  verse.  This  strophic 
arrangement  gives  a  sharper  point  to  We.'s  question  as  to  whether 
w.  '8-  "  constitute  an  original  element  in  the  poem  or  not.  Strophic 
symmetry  demands  the  closing  of  the  poem  with  v.  ",  where  an  eight- 
line  str.  ends,  thus  balancing  the  eight-line  str.  with  which  the  poem  be- 
gan. These  verses  also  seem  to  look  back  upon  the  overthrow  of  Nineveh 
as  an  accomplished  fact;  whereas  all  that  precedes  has  looked  forward 
to  the  fall  of  the  city  as  a  thing  hoped  for  and  confidently  expected  at  no 
distant  date.  It  cannot  be  said  with  certainty,  of  course,  that  Nahum  is 
not  here  in  imagination  placing  himself  at  some  point  in  the  future, 
whence  he  looks  back  upon  Nineveh's  ruin.  This  is  a  common  enough 
method  of  procedure  with  the  prophets.  Hence,  the  question  of  the  date 
of  vv.  "■  19  must  remain  open,  with  the  probability  upon  the  side  of  the 
later  origin. 

The  metres  of  this  piece,  like  all  the  rest  of  the  book  of  Nahum,  are 
very  uneven ;  lines  of  four,  five,  six  and  seven  beats  are  all  found  here,  but 
•  So  Bu.  (£B.),  Marti,  Now.k.  t  So  Marti,  Hpt.,  Kent. 


3'"'  355 

with  a  preference  for  the  line  of  six  beats.  The  qina-rhythm  appears 
here  and  there  throughout  the  poem,  but  is  consistently  adhered  to  only 
in  w.  !«■  ",  where  it  is  the  natural  measure  for  the  sentiment. 

1.  'in]  V.  H.AH.  127;  cf.  Dr..  Du.  adds  mj^j.— o^pi]  Tr.  _  to  hSd 
mtr.  cs.. — nSr]  <&  H  ignore  sf.. — w'hd]  Du.  ."iot:. — p-\B]  air.  in  this 
sense;  cf.  Ob. '^.  <§  ddiKias;  similarly  &.  Aq.  i^avxevta/jLoO.  S  dwo- 
ronlai  OT /JieXoKOTrias.  TSi  dilaceratione.  ®  NT3, 'booty.'  Gr.  ip.tt'.  Rub. 
{JQR.  XI,  458)  proffers  I'id,  'lies,'  as  the  original  of  this  and  also  of  trno 
in  V.  3j  which  with  n-'yn  he  considers  a  misplaced  marginal  note  on  piij. 
But  r">£)  in  meaning  'lies'  is  air.  in  Heb.  {cf.  Assy.)  and  thus  possesses  no 
advantage  over  pia.  Du.  Pioj. — Hvs'rD]  For  inverted  position  within 
the  phrase,  cf.  Is.  22=. — ii^c]  Intrans.  as  in  Jos.  i'  Ex.  1322  Ps.  5512  Zc. 
14''.  ®  \l/T]\a<p7]6i^<T€Tai;  similarly  ^.  2  (ottou)  ddiaKenrros. — T^'J]  Prob- 
ably here  the  act  of  plunder  rather  than  the  plunder  itself.  The  corre- 
sponding nominal  form  in  Ar.  is  regularly  used  for  the  inf..  Gr.  lib. 
Hal.  adds  n^hnp;  cf.  Ps.  5512.  Rub.  (/.  c.)  adds  na-ipp.  Marti  sug- 
gests the  addition  np^oS  nX|-;-|^><i;  so  Now.'^. — 2.  tow]  d  pi.. — Sipi] 
The  metre  would  be  improved  by  the  om.  of  'p  as  a  dittog.. — •^•>'"']  Though 
used  for  'earthquake,'  it  is  difficult  to  refer  it  here  to  the  trembling  of  the 
ground  as  the  chariots  dash  by  (BDB.) ;  it  is  rather  the  noise  made  by  the 
wheels  themselves. — in-i]  Hit.;  but  cf.  nnm,  Ju.  $^.  Barth  {Wurzelun- 
tersuchungen)  and  Hpt.  connect  with  Ar.  hdr  by  metathesis  and  render 
'neighing.'  Cf.  &  snorting;  TS  frementis.  ^  duoKovros. — mp-in]  (6 
dva^pdaaovTos. — 3.  n'^j.'c]  Qal  is  used  of  the  steed  in  Je.  46'  2  K.  g^^O; 
Hiph.  of  the  rider  causing  his  horse  to  rear  as  here  in  Je.  5127.  (5  dva- 
^alvovTos,  treating  it  as  Qal;  so  H.  Gr.  S'rnnp.  OortEn^- n|^j;.  Rub., 
V.  on  v.  '. — ^''U^]  ($  TOLS  edveaiv  airijs.  Du.  n»ijS. — iSt'ji]  Rd.  in  impf. 
with  Kt.  (so  &  ®),  ^^\f'D\  This  is  better  than  the  Qr.  iSr^i  (so  CI, 
many  Heb.  mss.,  H),  for  this  vb.  contributes  only  a  slight  detail,  not  a 
new  element  in  the  scene. — DHMja]  Rd.  nnja,  with  Marti,  Now.'^,  Stk., 
Kau.,  Kent.  D  is  dittog.  from  foil.  word.  Oort^™-  nniiJ3.  Hal. 
DJijja  {cf.  Ho.  142).  Du.  om.  as  a  variant  of  'jS. — i.  'r  aic]  CS  joins 
to  v.  '. — njir]  Du.  om.  as  due  to  dittog.. — jn  naia]  (I  KaXr)  Kal  ivixo-PV^- 
H  speciosae  et  gratae. — nSya]  In  cstr.  with  foil,  noun  to  denote  a  char- 
acteristic; cf.  i2  Is.  4i'5;  Ges.  ^  '28  s.u_  (I  rjyovnivT]. — mjcn]  Cf.  Fraenkel, 
Aram.  Fremdworter,  127.  'd  never  means  "get  control  over,"  but  always 
"sell "  or  "deliver  over  to  another  " ;  Est.  j*  Is.  50'  52'  are  no  exceptions 
to  the  regular  usage.  S*  who  flourishes.  Bu.  (on  Ct.  i^),  n-igron;  so 
Marti,  Now.'^(?),  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent. — 5.  niNJs  '^]  ^  inserts  ^hSn.  Du. 
om.  's  as  due  to  influence  of  2'^. — •'niSn]  §  ajtd  I  will  throw  back. — 
l^^v.^]  ($  rd  drrlffw  cov.  B  pudenda  tua;  so  ^. — y:D  ^y]  Du.  om.  as 
gloss  derived  from  Je.  1326. — Tiyc]  Syn.  with  ry^-\],\  Apocopated  from 
nnyn;  cf.  jyo,  from  njjrc. — 6.  a^i-ps']  (S  §  sg..  Hap.  om.  as  gloss  upon 
TTiVaj. — "i"'nS3Ji]  CS  Kara  rds  dKa6ap<rlas  <rou;  hence  Du.  in'73;,  which  he 


356  NAHUM 

treats  as  a  variant  of  the  foregoing  T<ys.  Cf.  Hpt.  who  om.  as  gloss. 
Hap.  TJ'^fJJ,  'thy  carcasses.' — ''n-id]  Om.  3  as  dittog.  of  preceding  r; 
cj.  <5  e/j  irapddeiyna  (so  B  "B).  Cf.  Mesa  Ins.,  1.  12,  n>-»  =  r^Nn  {cf.  nij 
for  niNj);  cf.  "iixn,  Ez.  28".  Praetorius  (ZDMG.  LX,  402)  would  correct 
MeSa's  P''^  to  n^'^pa,  explaining  the  loss  of  p2  as  due  to  the  preceding 
word  ^pnc  and  translating,  "I  destroyed  all  the  people  from  the  city,  in 
Qeryyoth,  for  Cheraosh  and  for  Moab."  But  Qeryyoth  is  out  of  place 
here,  the  idiom  S  jnn  is  harsh,  and  the  ordinary  interpretation  is  easy 
and  natural.  For  the  same  thought,  v.  Sachau's  Assuan  Papyri,  I,  15/.. 
— 7.  T'Ni]  Note  assonance  with  'Nn. — •^^•\^]  On  form,  Ges.  ^"'"'.  (6 
KaTa^-q(reTai.  2  dvaxwpijo-et.  H  resiliet. — ^"^"'"f]  For  htiu';  cf.  O'i'J?,  2*. 
Ges.  ^  "q.  ^  SeCKaLa. — rh]  &  B  ®  =  1^;  so  many  Heb.  mss.  and  Gr.. — 
D-anjc]  (S  irapa.K\7)(TLv.  B  consolatorem ;  so  &.  Cf.  Jb.  2"  Is.  51"  for 
a  similar  parallelism  with  iij\ — i':']  Rd.  nS,  with  <S  oi)t^;  so  Rub. 
{JQR.  XI,  459),  OortE'"-,  Marti,  Now.k  Stk.,  Kau.,  Du..  8.  ^arv-n 
poN  md]  A  confusion  in  the  vb.  of  Qal  and  Hiph.  forms;  best  pointed 
as  Qal,  "'TJ\7n  {cf.  Ges.  ^"").  'ds  m  is  abbreviated  to  nj  in  Ez.  3o'<-", 
and  apparently  transposed  in  Je.  46",  NJi?  pcN  (CI  rbv  ''Aix/xuv  rbv  vibv 
avTTJs).  (S  in  Ez.  3o'<-'«  identifies  nj  as  Thebes,  viz.  Ai6a-iro\ii.  The 
Assy,  reproduces  it  as  al  Ni'i  {cf.  Dl.  Paradies,  318^.);  this  and  the  Heb. 
Nj  represent  the  Egyptian  7it  (with  the  /  elided  as  is  common)  =  'town,' 
which  was  probably  vocalised  as  ne{t).  Hence,  the  name  means  "the 
town  of  Amon."  In  contemporary  Egyptian  records,  Thebes  was  com- 
monly designated  as  "the  town,"  par  excellence ;  v.  Steindorff,  BAS.  I, 
597;  W.  Max  Miiller,  EB.  3427.  Other  cases  where  Assy.  *e'  or  'i'  cor- 
responds to  Heb.  'o'  are  listed  by  Hpt.,  viz.  B'sn  =  resu;  jnn'^DN  = 
Asur-aha-iddina;  l^'i  =  senu;  S5N''  =  ekul;  pjnD  =  Sarru-kenu.  The 
Vrss.  vary.  (&  iroifiaffai  /xep/5a,  Hpiiocrai  xopS-^v,  erolpxKrai  fieplba  '  A^/xciv; 
a  composite  rendering  combining  two  variants,  in  which  the  vb.  is  read 
as  a  Hiph.  imv.  and  njd  as  'jc  =  n:c.  Some  mss.  of  ^  dp/jLoa-ai  (or 
dp/jLoaov)  xo/'SiJ;' /aep2j 'A;a/i(i^.  &  Art  thou  better  than  Javan  of  Amman? 
TJ  numquid  es  melior  Alexandria  populorum ;  so 31.  Aq.  26  =  'N  l??;  so 
Hap.. — onsi]  PI.  majest.,  like  nnnj,  Ps.  137'  (so  Hpt.);  this  is  better 
than  "Nile-streams"  as  ordinarily  taken. — nrs]  Du.  om.,  as  also  a\ — 
S'n]  Rd.  n^-^n;  so  We.,  Or.,  Now..  Rub.  (/.  c),  Bu.  {EB.  3262),  Hal., 
Hap.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent.  Du.  ^'':;:\}. — a;??]  Rd.  o^ci, 
with  (S  Kal  C5wp;  so  &  B,  some  Heb.  mss.,  and  We.,  Gr.,  Rub.  {I.  c), 
Oort'^'"-,  Or.,  Dav.,  Now.,  Bu.,  Hal.,  Hap.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  Dr.,  Stk., 
Kau.,  Du.. — n.iDin]  CI  =  n\nb"in. — 9.  ri:]  (6  Kal  kWioTrla. — ncx>]  Rd. 
ncx;;,  with  (g  ^crxi>s  aitrrji;  so  &  B  21  and  Stei.,  Or.,  Rub.  (/.  c),  Oort^"-, 
Now.,  Hal.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Kau.,  Stk.,  Kent. — bis]  (S  t^s  <f>vyri^  =  x^t) 
(Schleus.)  or  o'^d  (Reinke,  Stek.).  B  Africa.  Marti,  uid^,  connecting 
it  with  'p  ]"!<  as  in  C5.  Hap.  nj^^o'',  om.  r^'ip  as  a  later  correction. 
Du.  aioi. — ouiS]   One  ms.  of  de  R.,  am"?. — imry^]  Rd,  np^,"},  with 


3'-'*  357 

(6  poridol   airrrjs;   so  &   and   Stei.,    Gr.,    We.,    Oort^'"-,    Or.,    Now., 
Marti,  Dr.,  Hpt.,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Kau.,  Kent,  Du..     J  is  Beth  essentiae  as 
in  Ex.  i8<  Dt.  33",  where  it  is  likewise  used  with  'ry. — 10.  N^n]  Du.  n^n. 
— i3if 0]  <S  alxfidXuTOi.   &  om.. — v^ioi^]  <g  ida<(>iov<Tiv;  cf.  Ho.  io'«.    Gr. 
iB't?7;  so  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  Hpt.,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Du..     But  the  change  is 
unnecessary;  a  vivid  impf.  lends  variety  to  the  description. — n«in]  (S 
adds  n^  __;  so  &.— n^napj  hp]  (S  =   'j-'t'J-Sp;  so  Stk.,  Du..     On  d.  f. 
in  f  cf.  Ges.  '>  "  pp.— n^]  Also  Ob. "  Jo.  4'.     Pf.,  1/  11%  a  by-form  of  n-i\ 
Accent  probably  due  to  rhythm.     Gr,  n;.— 'j-Sdi]  Marti  om.  So;    so 
Hpt.     Du.  suggests  the  insertion  of  aj. — ipm]  Only  in  Qr.  of  Ec.  i2«, 
where  text  is  doubtful.     Noun-forms  occur  in  i  K.  6''  Ez.  7"  Is.  40", 
but  afford  little  help,  partly  because  of  textual  corruption.     The  foil, 
word  here  points  clearly  to  the  desired  meaning. — d^i?t]  Connected  with 
Assy,  sinku  from  sanaku,  'bind  fast'  (Zimmem,  KAT.^,  650).     ?  is,  per- 
haps, due  to  influence  of  j  in  0>i?;iT  =   d>i?t,  like  pi,  'time'  =  Assy. 
simdnu  (Hpt.). — 11.  dj]  Twice  in  this  verse,  apparently  to  balance  the 
double  occurrence   in  v.  >»,— nsBTi]   &   ^^o?Z   ('unhappy'),   proba- 
bly an  error  for  ^ohZ  ('be  drunken').     Du.  >-\3U'n,— ••nn]  An  inex- 
plicable jussive;  c/.  Dr.  ^"o  »•.    There  is  scarcely  any  basis  for  the  render- 
ing "mayest  thou  be"  (BDB.  s.  v.  aSy).     For  the  use  of  the  impf.  plus 
the  prtc.  to  express  a  continuing  condition,  v.  Dr.  ^"5.  6. — nsSjJj]  An 
exact  parallel  of  this  idiom  is  cited  from  Ar.  by  Hpt.,  viz.  guUya  alayhi, 
lit.  "a  cover  was  put  upon  him,"  i.  e.  he  swooned.     (S  vTepewpafiiv-n; 
so  &  H.     Gr.  r\shy,^  (so  Dr.(?),  Du.)  or  noSynD.— nyn]   May  be  de- 
rived either  from  nj?  or  riy;  taken  by  the  Massoretes  from  the  latter, 
e.  g.  ''3>:n,  except  in  2  S.  22",  Miyn.     Probably  M  confuses  two  words 
from  these  two  roots;  cf.  Sta.  ^  269 e  and  Brockelmann,  VergL  Gram.  §  195, 
Here  and  in  i',  it  is  better  connected  with  ny,  'seek  refuge';  contra  Hpt.. 
01  a-riiTiv.     :H  auxilium.     Gr.  Dijc  (?).— 2'Nr]  (&  pi..    &  0  =  13>nd.— 
12.  D'jNn]  &  =  'n?. — ay]  Rd.  ■hdj;,  following  Bu.'s  suggestion  of  ao? 
(on   Ct.  4") ;  so  Marti,  Now.^,  Hpt,  Kent.     3  being  very  close  to  D 
in  form  was  dropped  by  haplography;  v.  on  Mi.  i*. — amja]  <&  (tkottovs; 
some  mss.  Kupirois.    "B  cum  grossis  suis. — 13.  icy]  Om.,  with  Marti, 
as  a  misplaced  correction  of  ay  in  v.  ";  so  Now.'^(?). — a^trj]  05  &  ®  = 
'j3;  so  Hap..     Hpt.  id^b-^  'they  will  destroy.' — nmc]  Du.  om.  as  a  cor- 
rupt variant  of  'oi. — IxtN]  'n  may  be  applied  to  the  region  under  the 
control  of  a  single  town  {cf.  i  S.  9*  •  0  a-s  Hap.  maintains  here;  but  even  so 
the  whole  land  might  well  be  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  Nineveh,  the  cap- 
ital.—l'n>i3]  Mich.  ■^^^'13,  '  thy  fugitives.'— 14.  t2>t33  ^n3]  Cf.  Assy,  ttta 
erebu  (Hpt),  an  exact  equivalent  in  meaning.  Gr.  ■'p^s;  so  Now.,  van  H., 
Stk.;  cf.  Zc.  io5. — -icna]  (g  iv  dxi5poij.— pSn]  Only  in  2  S.  12"  (Qr.);  in 
Je.  43',  if  text  is  correct,  's  has  a  wholly  different  sense.     Hoffmann, 
ZAW.  n,  53-72  (cf.  Dr.  Heb.  Text  of  Books  of  Samuel,  226/.),  has  made 
the  meaning  'brick-mould'  almost  certain,  showing  (i)  that  in  post-Bib. 


358  NAHUM 

Heb.  it  designates  primarily  a  brick-mould  and  then  things  of  the 
same  rectangular  shape,  e.  g.  door-frames;  (2)  that  the  same  twofold 
usage  characterises  the  Ar.  and  Syr.  milban.  The  secondary  meaning 
applies  in  Je.  43".  The  rendering  brick-kiln'  of  the  earlier  transla- 
tors is  out  of  the  question.  Hap.  suggests  'brick  wall,'  which  is  pos- 
sible in  Je.  43'  (though  less  suitable  than  'court'  or  'square'),  but  is 
usable  here  only  if  the  Hiph.  of  'n  be  changed  to  a  Pi'el,  yielding  'repair 
the  wall.'  (S  vir^p  nXlvdov  =  nn*^::.  51  thy  building.  H  laierem.  & 
|i  -,V«v.,  ('promise'),  probably  an  error  for  ]\  n\v  ('brick-mould'); 
so  Seb.,  foil.  Bernstein.  Hap.  njaVa. — 15.  os']  Against  temporal  sense, 
V.  note  on  Zp.  i".  Hpt.  DJ  or  on. — pS^a  iSdnp]  Gre.  om.  'o  and  tr. 
njnNj  to  take  its  place.  Du.  and  Kent  om.  '•'3  and  connect  'n  with  pre- 
ceding 3in  as  subj..  Riedel  {SK.  1903,  pp.  166  /.),  ^p;?'?  :i^?n  {cf. 
Assy,  kallaptu,  'battle-axe');  so  Now.«,  Kau.(?).  Hal.  rh-^  'np. — 
naann]  Rd.  ''ia?rin,  with  some  mss.  of  Kenn.;  so  We.,  Now.^,  Oort^™-, 
Marti,  van  H.,  Stk..  <S  ko.1  ^ap\)vd-f)<7ei;  <&^^Q  -d-n(T-rj.  &  because  thou  hast 
increased.  Gre.  naanni.  Or.  n^asnri;  so  Hap..  Riedel  (/.  c),  naoa 
Now.»  'lapn.  Rub.  {JQR.  XI,  459)  om.  as  variant.  Van  H.  '•"lasnn. 
Hpt.  ^^-)pr}. — naann]  (^  om.  this  and  foil,  word  (so  Now.,  Hal.);  but 
HP.  23,  62,  87,  91,  147,  310,  &"  and  3  have  irXTtffv vOriT  iwj  /3/>o0xoj.  & 
and  hast  become  numerous.  Gre.  om.  as  variant.  Gr.  nonn.  Rub. 
(/.  c.)  iiajnn.  Hap.  nianrin.  Du.  ''larrn. — naiN}  To  be  taken,  with 
j)l_HWB.  126^  from  anx  {cf.  Assy,  dribu,  eribu,  eribH,  'a  swarm  of  locusts') 
with  nominal  afl&x,  rather  than  from  nan,  with  n  prosthetic.  Du.  joins  'n3 
with  first  word  of  v.  ^'. — 16.  n^ain]  Rd.  i3-jn,  with  We.,  Now.,  GASm., 
Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Stk.,  Kau.;  cf.  New.  nn  u->n.  Some  mss.  of  Kenn. 
'H^ain.  Du.  mann. — T''^^"']  (5  rhs  iniropias  ffov.  H  negotiationes  tuas. 
Kre.  'n:'?3"!,  'thy  mercenaries.'  Du.  ■^ap-i. — '^-n  ••aaia::]  Du.  i::rn  ou3. 
— pS"]  Gr.  pSo.  Ges.  {Thesaurus)  et  al.  connect  with  pp^,  'to  lap, 
lick';  but  Hpt.'s  proposal  to  ally  it  with  Ar.  walaqa,  which  denotes  a 
'leaping  gait'  of  the  camel,  seems  better;  '•>  thus  becomes  'the  leaper.' — 
ucd]  <&  uipfiTjcrev.  Rub.  {JQR.  XI,  459),  vvs,  'anointer.*  Gr.  ca,  'fly- 
ing.'— ']';']  (S  i^eTrerdffdT].  Rub.  (/.  c),  IB'm,  'and  conjurer.'  Van  H. 
113,''^]. — 17.  1^1',-'?]  D.  f.  dirimens;  Ges.  ^''"'.  We.  connects  with  ^jcc, 
'bastard,'  as  a  by-form;  but  there  is  no  basis  in  the  parallel  terms  Ss") 
and  ^Dsj  for  supposing  any  contemptuous  epithet  here.  Nor  is  there  any 
analogy  in  Heb.  for  the  interchange  of  d  and  t,  even  though  Eth.  does 
yield  manzer.  Hpt.  explains  it  as  prtc.  Pi'el  of  Assy,  nazdru,  'to  curse, 
execrate,'  viz.  n^.ip.",  'thy  exorcists.'  Zimmern  connects  it  with  Assy. 
massaru  =  manzaru,  'guard';  but  we  should  not  expect  such  a  Baby- 
lonian spelling  in  Nahum.  The  rendering  given  above  makes  no  at- 
tempt to  be  specific,  but  is  based  upon  the  general  sense  of  the  Heb. 
■>T0  and  upon  the  well-known  predominance  of  the  temple  hierarchies 
in  Assy..     B  custodes  tui.     &  thy  Nazirites  (or  consecrated  ones).    <8's 


3"-"  359 

^?7}XaTo  seems  to  be  a  second  rendering  of  lyi  (v. '«),  'd  being  passed  over 
in  silence  as  unknown  (Stek.),  Rub.  (/.  c.)  "ini;?,  '  thy  measuring- 
clerks '  (an  Assy,  loan-word,  otherwise  unknown).  Gr.  "I'.jrn,  'thy 
princes.'  Hap.  ^3^3;D  nnj,  'thy  mixed  multitude  starts  up  in  terror.' 
K6.  II,  i,  90  T.1\\^;  so  Dr.(?). — inoijjj  The  pointing  'do  in  Je.  51" 
is  only  a  dialectal  variation;  the  more  normal  pointing,  if  related  to 
Assy,  dupsarru,  would  be  'fla.  No.  ZDMG.  XL,  732,  declares  the  rela- 
tion to  dupsarru  suitable  here,  but  wholly  unsuited  to  Je.  51".  This  latter 
view  is  certainly  justifiable,  if  the  word  must  be  confined  to  the  narrow 
sense  of  'scribe';  but  this  is  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  Heb.  analogies 
and  of  the  influential  position  of  the  dupSarru  in  the  Tel-el-Amarna  let- 
ters {v.  s.) ;  cf.  Dl.  Hebrew  Language,  13.  For  the  interchange  of  '  d '  and 
't',  cf.  the  Sabaean  ^3,  'tablet,'  in  Glaser,  1053  {v.  Hommel,  Au/satze 
und  Abhandlungen,  141 ;  Zimmern,  KA  T.^,  400).  ^  6  crv/xpuKTSi  <rov,  per- 
haps, like  H's  et  parvuli  tui,  based  upon  the  first  syllable  id,  the  re- 
mainder being  unknown.  &  and  those  that  strive  for  thee.  Hap.  om. 
as  gloss.  Hpt.  T'-ippai. — •'31J  3U3]  Rd.  "'auj,  om.  3ij  as  dittog.  with 
(6,  wi  6.Kpk;  so  B  and  Ore.,  New.,  We.,  Dav.(?),  Rub.,  Now.,  Hap., 
Marti,  Hal.,  Dr.,  van  H.,  Stk.,  Kau..  Hpt.  om.  >3iJ.  Gr.  oua  3ij. 
21J  is  &n.\  taken  by  the  earlier  comm.  as  an  intensive  genitive,  meaning 
'the  great  locust';  so  Or..  On  root-meaning  of  ^au,  v.  H.ah.  i62;  cf. 
Barth,  NB.^^^.  Brockelmann,  Vergl.  Gram.  I,  p.  412,  derives  it  from 
the  related  root  3iJ,  with  the  nominal  aflSx  v. — o^jinn]  (^  ini^e^rjKvTa. 
Gr.  n^nn;  soDu.. — nip  Din]  We.  a^'n  ipa(?);  so  Hpt..  But  this  change 
is  unnecessary;  the  phrase  recurs  in  Pr.  25'''.  It  means  not  merely 
'in  the  cool  of  the  day,'  but  'on  a  cold  day'  or  'in  cold  weather.' — 
ni-nj2]  (S  sg..— nSi  tiiji]  Now.  xV  -ni^J];  so  Hap.,  Marti,  van  H.,  Stk., 
Kau.;  cf.  We..  Hpt.  om.  as  gloss.  The  form  is  Po.  pf.  active;  cf.  Sta. 
'1^^'.  The  change  to  pi.  is  unnecessary;  the  sg.  of  pS'>  ,  naiN  ,  uu,  the 
collective  nouns,  prevails  over  the  pi.  prtc.  which  is  not  in  close  proximity. 
— y-nj]  (S  eTfw.— loipc]  Now.  DDipD;  so  Hap.  et  al.. — d^n]  Rd.  "i^n, 
with  Du.,  and  tr.  to  beginning  of  v.  's.  For  confusion  of  3  and  D,  v.  on 
Mi.  2'.  For  n\s  with  the  pf.,  v.  2  S.  i"  Je.  2"  9I8;  cf.  hd^n,  La.  i«  2'  4'- ', 
<5  oial  airols.  Arn.  om.  as  gloss;  so  Hap.,  Hpt..  Gr.  in^x;  so  Hal.. 
Marti,  iS  'in;  soNow.k  Stk.,  Kent.— 18.  irj]  (g  ivivTa^av.  CB.  1D:.— 
TV^]  Rd.  this  and  the  foil,  suffixes  in  the  fem.,  since  the  address  thus  far 
has  been  to  the  city  of  Nineveh;  so  Am.,  Marti,  Hap.,  Now.i^,  Hpt.,  Stk., 
Kau.,  Kent— tjoc^]  Rd.  i3r;;  so  We.,  Oort,  GASm.,  Hal..  Dr.,  Hpt., 
Stk.,  Kent,  Du..  (S  iKolfuffep,  vnth  'king  of  Assy.'  as  its  subj..  C5  is 
so  awkward  here  that  Hap.  shrewdly  surmises  that  'king  of  Assy.'  was 
inserted  later  into  its  text,  the  original  rendering  having  been  something 
like  iKOLfi'^erjcrav  ot  Swdarai  aov.  Koi/i/fw  is  usually  the  equivalent  of 
some  form  of  jyz',  which  is  also  rendered  much  more  frequently  bv  the 
related  vb.  Kotudu,     In  Ju.  16",  however,  Koifid^u  represents  the  Pi 'el  of 


360  NAHUM 

IS"  and  Koifiau)  renders  the  same  vb.  several  times.  On  the  whole,  pref- 
erence here  must  be  given  to  ]Z'\  The  impf.  usci  between  the  two  pfs.  is 
in  any  case  unusual. — T'-\nx]  &  thy  neighbours. — itt'Dj]  Rd.  isdj;  soGr., 
BDB.,  Hal.,  Dr.,  Now.'^,  Hpt,  Stk.,  Kau..  (S  dnijpev.  B  latUavit.  iu-dj  is 
&ir.;  connection  with  z'^D,  'skip  about,'  is  possible,  but  hardly  suitable  in 
this  context.  Syr.  and  Aram.  ciD, 'remain  behind,' is  little  better.  Cf. 
I  K.  22". — 19.  nn:i]  Rd.  nnj,  with  <&,  facrtj;  so  We.,  Dr.,  Now.^^, 
Hpt.,  Kau..  ^  one  who  grieves ;  so  W.  "B  ohscura.  'aisfiir.;  the  only 
meanings  obtainable  from  this  root  are  'dimness'  and  'quenching,'  nei- 
ther of  which  is  applicable  to  a  wound  {contra  van  H.).  For  'j,  v.  Pr. 
17^  and,  as  a  vb..  Ho.  5". — n^n:]  Q5  i(f>\iyfw.vev. — t"?:."]  (B  3td  iravrSs. — 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  upon  the  order  of  w.  "-'»;  e  g. 
jjpt.  n.  11.  ub.  i6».  12.  13.  18.  19-  Stk.  '••  "•  "•>•  "»•  '^-  "•  "»•  "-'o-  while  Du. 
would  place  "»  between  "»  and  '5''  and  drop  •'•  as  a  gloss.  The  im- 
provement is  hard  to  discover.  For  example,  "  follows  "  no  better  than 
•»  does,  while  the  fact  that  both  mention  -fix^o  is  a  very  insuflScient 
reason  for  bringing  "  and  "  into  juxtaposition.  M's  position  for  "» 
could  not  well  be  improved,  constituting  as  it  does  a  proper  climax. 


INDEXES  TO  MICAH,  ZEPHANIAH 
AND   NAHUM. 


I.    INDEX  OF  HEBREW  WORDS. 


DiriK,  88. 

PITDD,    230. 

ppN,  40. 

D^^'JC,  351,  358/. 

Sy>S3,  308. 

JPDD,    208  /. 
DipD,    40. 

o-iJ,  244. 

oinj,  285  /. 

}-?-[,  208. 

loj,  297. 
nicD,  SI. 

3?^.  32^' 

Snn,  230. 

mny,  SI. 
Sop,  96. 

iDoa,  352,  359. 

Sonj;,  210. 

Dia,  222. 

-injj,  254. 

i'T?l.  39- 

mSo,  314,  329. 

3  and  D  confused, 

34, 

115,  139,  153, 

m;x,  69. 

192,  262, 

330. 

357. 

359- 

nijDX,  184. 

D3D,    156. 

o>"io?,  192. 

1D3,    222. 

Ji?.,  224. 

B'8'p,    221. 

QiCB'?,    117. 

onS,  210. 

mam,  329  /. 
Sn,  329- 
am,  SI. 

D  and  a  confused. 

300 

/. 

nnNB',  69,  112. 

"3'°,   31- 

D1BB',    123. 

I^'^D,   357  /. 

onDB',  210. 

361 


362 


INDEX 


II.     INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


ACHZIB,  48. 

Acrostic,  295/.,  306,  309,  327. 

Adullam,  49. 

Apocalypse  of  Zephaniah,  166. 

Ashdod,  216. 

Asherim,  114/. 

Ashurbanipal,  159  jf.,  344. 

Assonance,   113,  210,  215,  224,  298, 

328,  332. 
Assuan  Papyri,  51,  68,  84,  86,  93, 

96,  189,  192,  245,  356. 
Assyria,  107,  108,  159/.,  277,  337/. 
Assyrian  inscriptions,  115,  184,  192, 

201,  205.  215,  24s,  312,  317,  323, 

330,  336,  339.  344  /•,  347.  349, 

352/- 
Atheism,  202. 

Baalism,  186/. 

Babylon,  92. 

Babylonian  inscriptions,  337. 

Baca,  45. 

Beth  Ephrathah,  102. 

Bethlehem,  103. 

Captives,  treatment  of,  38,  339. 

Coinage,  200/. 

Crete,  216/. 

Criticism,  of  Micah,  9-16;  of  Nahum, 

268^.;  of  Zephaniah,  172/. 
Cruelty,  335/. 
Cyaxares,  163,  170,  276. 

Day  of  Yahweh,  24,  142,  169,  179, 

194/. 
Diaspora,  no,  150. 
Dirge,  41,  58,  64. 
Dittography,  5,  42,  43,  44,  51,  54,  55, 

65,  66,  67,  I02,  119,  130,  149,  192, 

210,  2i8,  236,  254,  294,  307,  328, 

355,  356,  359- 


Elkoshite,  286/. 
Ethiopia,  232,  343  /. 
Excavations,  205,  319,  348/. 

Faith,  68. 

Gates,  of  Jerusalem,  198/.;  of  the 
land,  347;  of  the  rivers,  318/., 

330/- 
Gath,  45,  50,  216. 
Genealogy,  182/. 
Gilgal,  123. 

Hammxtrabi,  code  of,  52,  143. 
Haplography,  5,  108,  357. 
riendiadys,  63. 
Herodotus,  162/.,  170/.,  206,  216, 

277.  335- 
Holiness  Code,  125. 
Huldah,  169. 
Human  sacrifice,  126. 

Jackals,  38. 

Jericho,  205. 

Jerusalem,  destruction  of,  25. 

Josephus,  200,  313. 

Lachish,  46. 
Locust,  350,  352. 

Manasseh,  124,  126,  161/. 

Mareshah,  49,  52. 

Maroth,  46,  51. 

Massebolh,  114,  115. 

Messiah,  104,  108. 

Milcom,  189/. 

Moab,  225/. 

Moabite  Stone,  95,  96,  215,  356. 

Monotheism,  179/. 

Moresheth,  17,  48. 

Mourning  customs,  100. 


INDEX 


363 


Nabonidus,  164. 

Name,  power  of  divine,  248. 

Necho,  165. 

Nimrod,  109. 

Nineveh,  163/.,  274/.,  318/. 

No-Amon,  340/. 

Ophrah,  50. 

Phaestos  Disk,  217. 

Philistines,  216/. 

Poetic  form,  of  Micah,  b  ff.\  of  Na- 

hum,    270  f.;    of    Zephaniah, 

174/. 
Political  parties,  21. 
Priestly  Code,  125. 
Puns,  42. 
Put,  249,  343/. 

Qina,  53,  145,  151,  229,  235. 

Remnant,  in. 
Righteousness,  214. 


Salt-pits,  227. 

Samaria,  fall  of,  20,  37,  39. 

Scythians,  162  /.,  169  ff.,  178,  230, 

232,  276. 
Shamash-shum-ukin,  160/.,  275. 
Shaphir,  45. 
Shear  Jashub,  105. 
Sinjirli,  inscriptions  of,  215. 
Sun-worship,  188. 
Superscriptions,  19,  30/.,  284/. 

Taharka,  159. 

Thebes,  159/.,  274,  276,  340/.,  356. 
Thomas  of  Celano,  204. 
Threshold,  197/. 

Umman-manda,  164. 
Urartu,  194,  220. 

Water  supply  of  Nineveh,  348. 
Weights  and  measures,  133. 

Xenophon,  165,  235,  348. 

Zaanan,  46 


A 

CRITICAL   AND   EXEGETICAL 
COMMENTARY 

ON 

HABAKKUK 

BY 

WILLIAM  HAYES  WARD,  D.D.,  LL.D. 


INTRODUCTION. 

AUTHORSHIP  AND   DATE. 

History  and  tradition  give  us  no  reliable  facts  as  to  the  person- 
ality or  age  of  Habakkuk,  so  that  we  are  left  entirely  .to  internal 
evidence  for  our  conclusions.  Peiser,  MVAG.,  viii,  p.  5  sq.,  con- 
nects his  name  w^ith  Assyrian  hambakukii,  name  of  a  garden  plant, 
and  finds  in  his  use  of  words  in  2^  evidence  that  he  was  trained  at 
Nineveh  in  Assyrian  learning,  perhaps  a  captive  prince;  but  this 
is  pure  imagination.  We  only  know  that  the  book,  substantially 
as  we  have  it,  was  composed  or  compiled  early  enough  to  form  a 
part  of  the  second  collection  of  sacred  writings,  called  The 
Prophets,  and  that  it  antedated  the  editing  of  the  Hagiographa. 
The  third  chapter  is  indicated  by  its  title  and  its  colophon,  as  well 
as  by  its  character  and  by  a  passage  duplicated  in  Ps.  77,  to  be  a 
psalm,  perhaps  taken  from  a  psalm-book,  and  does  not  appear  to 
be  genetically  connected  with  the  first  two  chapters,  although  as- 
signed by  the  editor  to  the  same  author.  The  use  of  m^S  in 
3^  and  of  rT'tTD  for  Israel  in  3^^,  and  the  almost  total  loss  of  the 
article,  are  mentioned  by  Budde  as  proofs  of  a  late  origin.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  the  study  of  Habakkuk  is  found  in  the  question, 
Who  are  the  "wrong-doers,"  the  ClJli  against  whom  the  proph- 
ecy is  directed?  It  is  distinctly  stated  in  i^"  that  the  Chalde- 
ans will  be  summoned  as  Yahweh's  ministers  of  correction.  This 
puts  the  date  of  this  passage  at  a  time  shortly  before  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim. 
No  other  date  can  be  given  to  these  verses,  unless  i^'"  be  regarded 
as  a  dramatic  representation  of  an  earher  divine  interposition  for 
punishment.  But  just  as  plainly  i^^-2^'*  was  written  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem,  while  the  Jews  were  under  the  yoke  of  a  for- 
eign oppressor.     In  i*  the  Clil^l  were  to  be  pvmished  by  the 


4  HABAKKUK 

coming  of  the  Chaldeans;  in  i^^  they  are  the  foreign  and  idola- 
trous oppressors  themselves. 

This  inconsistency  has  led  some  scholars,  as  Giesebrecht  and 
Wellhausen,  to  throw  out  i^"  as  an  earher  prophetic  fragment 
which  has  been  intruded  here;  while  Budde  puts  it  after  2^.  Ewald 
regards  the  present  order  as  correct  and  the  text  genuine  up  to  2^. 
Budde  offers  a  curious  explanation,  supposing  that  Habakkuk's 
prophecy  is  directed  against  the  Assyrians  of  Josiah's  time,  who 
are  about  to  be  punished  by  the  Babylonians. 

The  language  of  complaint  in  i^"^  makes  no  mention  of  a 
foreign  invader.  There  are  people  guilty  of  DDPI  violence,  J*S 
wrong,  ht2]^  trouble,  Iti*  pillage,  2"^^  strife,  and  JIID  contention. 
As  a  result  the  Hlin  Law  is  paralysed  and  tSSwQ  justice  fails. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  native  oppression  and  not  a  foreign  invader 
would  be  described.  Then  follows  in  vv.  ^""  a  description  of  the 
Chaldeans  whose  invasion  would  be  a  pimishment  for  such  sins. 
The  transition  from  the  complaint  of  the  prophet  to  Yahweh's 
answer  is  not  unusually  abrupt,  although  the  latter  has  no  such 
formal  introduction  as  in  2^.  Yahweh's  answer  is  addressed  to 
the  □'•nils  (CIJ^)  who  will  not  believe  it,  an  expression  natu- 
rally applicable  to  those  who  have  some  faith  in  Yahweh.  In 
v.  ®  the  Chaldeans  are  about  to  be  raised  up;  but  they  are  well 
known  and  well  characterised.  They  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
gathering  captives  (v.^)  and  conquering  cities  (v.*°).  There  is 
no  internal  reason  for  separating  vv.  ^""  from  vv.  *"^.  The  crimes 
of  the  wicked  Jews  (vv.  ^-  ^)  are  to  be  punished  by  the  impending 
attack  of  the  Chaldeans  (v.").  The  time  is  between  the  battle  of 
Carchemish,  605  B.C.,  and  the  first  Captivity,  597  B.C.,  and  so 
about  600  B.C.,  or  during  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  unless  (Kuenen) 
we  take  w.  ^'^  as  written  after  the  event  dramatically  described 
as  future.     Thus  far  nothing  implies  a  condition  of  captivity. 

In  i^^"^^  the  condition  changes.  The  oppressions  of  the  wicked 
Jews  are  forgotten,  and  the  complaint  is  against  the  invader,  who 
gathers  captives  like  fishes  in  a  net.  This  must  have  been  writ- 
ten after  the  first  Captivity.  Were  the  last  half  of  v.^^  genuine  it 
would  closely  connect  the  second  complaint  with  the  preceding 
v. " ;  but  it  is  out  of  place,  answering  a  question  asked  in  the  next 


AUTHORSHIP  AND  DATE  5 

verse.  The  Tl^X  fny  God  of  v.^^,  however,  seems  to  refer  back 
to  the  in^X  his  god  of  v."  by  way  of  contrast;  and  the  ^sy 
wrong,  yDI  wicked,  p'^T^  righteous,  and  □■'Hil^  evil-doers  of  v.  ^^ 
seem  an  echo  of  corresponding  words  in  w.  ^"^;  and  the  sacri- 
fices of  V.  ^^  seem  to  refer  to  the  sacrifices  which  an  emendation 
finds  in  v.  ".  But  the  wicked  one  of  w.  ""^'  is  a  foreign  invader, 
a  different  person  from  the  wicked  one  of  w.  ^"^. 

In  the  reply  of  Yahweh  (2  ^^)  a  foreign  foe  is  described,  such  as 
the  Assyrian  power,  or  the  Babylonian  kingdom  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. A  single  clause,  "All  the  rest  of  the  peoples  shall  spoil 
thee,"  brings  a  sHght  support  to  Budde's  theory  that  we  have  here 
a  prophecy  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrians,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
by  such  a  league  that  the  Assyrian  power  was  destroyed.  Vv.  ^- ' 
have  not  a  poetic  form ;  the  vision  written  on  a  tablet,  therefore, 
began  with  v.  *  and  seems  to  continue  through  v.  *,  embracing  the 
first  malediction.  The  "parable"  of  v.^  is  foimd  in  the  descrip- 
tion (w.  ^- '')  of  the  Babylonian  power  imder  the  figure  of  a  usurer; 
the  "interpretation"  nV''^D,  which  was  to  be  inexplicable  to  him, 
niTTl  "a  riddle,"  is  foimd  in  v.^  as  a  definite  prophecy  of  ruin. 

The  data  given  above  strictly  interpreted  would  make  it  appear 
that  i^'",  containing  the  first  complaint  and  Yahweh's  answer, 
belongs  to  the  period  of  Jehoiakim.  With  v."  begins  a  second 
complaint,  with  Yahweh's  answer,  modelled  on  or  closely  related 
to  the  earlier  prophecy,  and  copying  its  expressions,  but  referring 
to  a  later  period  during  the  Captivity,  while  the  Babylonian  power 
was  approaching  its  fall.  There  is  thus  no  need  of  dislocating 
the  order  of  the  verses  by  dropping  i^",  and  uniting  the  two  com- 
plaints into  one. 

It  is  possible  to  escape  the  conclusion  that  we  have  here  a 
composite  by  two  authors  of  different  dates,  by  assuming  a  dra- 
matic form  to  these  chapters.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  prophet, 
considering  the  evils  of  his  own  day,  discovers  the  occasion  for 
them  in  the  divine  retribution  for  the  sins  of  the  people.  He 
thus  defends  the  justice  of  God  in  bringing  the  Jews  into  captiv- 
ity, because  of  the  oppression  and  disregard  of  the  Law  by  his  an- 
cestors; but  now  he  appeals  to  Yahweh  against  the  new  oppres- 
sors.   This  possible  view  gives  us  two  scenes  in  the  drama :  the 


6  HABAKKUK 

one  (i^")  retrospective  and  introductory,  while  the  other  (1*^-2®) 
pleads  against  the  continuance  of  the  present  distress. 

So  long  as  the  word  Chaldean  (v.  ^)  remains  unchallenged  we  are 
compelled  to  refer  this  section  to  the  period  of  the  Captivity.  It 
is  by  a  very  hazardous  conjecture  that  Duhm  makes  the  prophet 
refer  to  the  coming  invasion  of  Alexander.  To  do  this  he  has 
changed  D''ltt'3  Chaldeans  to  D"'Tl3  Greeks,  and  in  i**  he  changes 
nC)lD  to  IttiiS  and  translates,  From  Corner  their  direction  is 
eastward,  and  finds  thus  an  absolute  proof  that  this  was  no 
Chaldean  invasion.  While  Duhm  may  be  right  in  assuming  but 
one  writer,  his  textual  evidence  is  inconclusive  as  to  date. 

The  first  of  the  five  maledictions  of  ch.  2  is  closely  connected 
with  Yahweh's  preceding  answer.  The  second  malediction  has 
no  logical  connection  with  the  first,  but  is  closely  connected  with 
the  third,  which  contains  the  utterance  of  the  pS  stone  and  the 
D''2D  brace  (v.").  But  the  third  contains  three  quotations,  two  of 
them  direct,  from  Mi.  8^"  Je.  51^^  and  Is.  11®.  This  probably 
brings  down  the  date  of  both  the  second  and  third  maledictions 
nearly  or  quite  to  the  Maccabean  period;  and  to  a  similar  date  we 
may  assign  the  fourth  and  fifth  maledictions. 

The  third  chapter  is  a  separate  production,  arranged  for  temple 
worship,  and  may  or  may  not  be  by  one  of  the  authors  to  whom 
we  owe  i^'-2^".  It  belongs  to  a  troubled  period  following  the 
Captivity  but  contains  no  definite  indications  of  its  age  beyond  its 
quotations.  It  takes  v.  ^  from  Dt.  33-;  and  v.  *®  is  based  on  2  S. 
22^  (Ps.  18^,  which  in  turn  is  taken  from  Dt.  ^f\  Vv.  ^°-  "•  '^ 
have  a  close  relation  with  Ps.  77^^'^°;  but  here  the  psalm  is  the 
later  production.  In  Habakkuk  these  lines  are  in  couplets;  in 
Ps.  77  a  third  line  has  been  added  to  each  couplet,  and  the  frag- 
ment differs  in  this  triple  structure  from  the  rest  of  the  psalm.  In 
Habakkuk  they  belong  to  a  song  of  vengeance;  in  Ps.  77  to  a  song 
of  reminiscent  triumph.  In  Habakkuk  there  is  no  reference  to 
past  history;  while  in  Ps.  77  these  verses  are  inserted  in  the  midst 
of  an  account  of  the  victories  of  the  Exodus. 

Logically  3*^  should  follow  v.  ",  precisely  as  in  Ps.  77  v.  ^'^  fol- 
lows V.  *".  Either  vv.  ^^"  are  a  later  insertion,  or  v.  ^  should  pre- 
cede them. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 


The  Oracle  begins  with  the  complaint  of  Israel  personated  by 
the  prophet,  occupying  i^"*;  followed  by  the  response  of  Yah weh, 
embracing  w.  ^".  In  these  eleven  verses  the  wrong-doer  is  to 
be  punished  by  the  invasion  .of  the  Chaldeans,  and  therefore  he 
is  the  vncked  Jewish  court  and  princes.  This  puts  the  date 
about  600  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim.  With  v.  ^^  begins  a 
second  complaint  against  the  foreign  heathen  oppressor,  here  nec- 
essarily the  Babylonians  themselves,  concluding  with  2^.  This 
must  be  later  than  the  time  of  Jehoiakim,  as  the  Babylonians 
have  now  made  their  invasion.  Yahweh's  response  begins  with 
V.  ^;  and  this  and  v. '  announce  the  vision  to  be  fulfilled  at  a  later 
period.  It  is  to  be  preserved  legibly  written  on  clay  tablets  of 
the  Babylonian  style,  and  consists  of  two  parts,  one  about  the 
preservation  of  the  righteous,  and  the  other  the  overthrow  of  the 
wicked  oppressor.  The  prophet  has  not  made  it  quite  clear 
where  the  inscribed  vision  ends.  Indeed  he  seems  to  have  con- 
tinued the  last  part,  that  about  the  wrong-doer,  into  the  first 
malediction.  The  second  and  third  maledictions  are  too  closely 
connected  together  to  be  separated;  but  the  third  contains  three 
quotations  from  as  many  other  prophets,  and  must  therefore  be 
later  than  the  first  malediction;  and  the  fourth  and  fifth  also  seem 
to  belong  to  a  period  considerably  later  than  the  Babylonian 
Captivity. 

The  third  chapter  is  intended  for  musical  recitation  in  the 
temple  worship,  and  may  well  be  of  the  period  of  the  last  part  of 
the  second  chapter.  Being  assigned  to  Habakkuk,  we  may  pre- 
sume that  Habakkuk  was  the  last  compiler  and  editor  of  the  first 
two  chapters,  and  may  have  been  the  author  of  the  last  part  of 
the  second  chapter. 

It  is  impossible  in  translation  to  reproduce  the  abounding  allit- 
erations of  the  original,  or  the  prevaihng  poetic  measure,  consist- 
ing of  three  principal  words  in  a  hne. 


COMMENTARY. 

THE  ORACLE. 

1*.  The  Oracle  which  Habakkuk  tJie  prophet  did  see.  This 
verse  is  probably  a  later  editorial  title. 

THE  COMPLAINT.     1". 

•.  How  long,  Yahweh,  must  I  call,  and  thou  hearest  not, 
Must  I  cry  to  thee,  "Violence"!  and  thou  savest  not? 
'.  Why  dost  thou  show  me  wretchedness  and  trouble? 
And  pillage  and  violence  are  before  me; 
And  there  is  strife,  and  contention  ariseth. 
*.  Therefore  the  law  is  benumbed. 
And  judgment  goeth  forth  no  more. 
[For  the  wicked  circumventeth  the  righteous;  therefore  justice  goeth  forth 
perverted.] 

2-4.  The  conditions  in  these  verses  are  plainly  not  those  of 
war,  but  of  domestic  oppression.  The  law  in  v.  ■*  is  not  the  Torah, 
but  the  religious  institutions,  corresponding  to  justice  in  the  next 
line.  When  coupled  with  ^DJ?,  pK  means  trouble.  The  latter  part 
of  V.  *  is  not  rhythmic,  and  is  a  marginal  gloss.  It  is  meant  to 
elucidate  the  second  member  of  the  couplet,  but  it  is  a  weak  state- 
ment that  the  perversion  of  justice  consists  in  circumventing  the 
righteous. 

THE  RESPONSE,     is-'i, 

'.  Look,  ye  wrong-doers,  and  behold,  and  be  greatly  amazed;  for  I  am 
about  to  do  a  work  in  your  days  which  ye  will  not  believe  though  it  be  told 
you.  •.    For, 

Behold  I  raise  up  the  Chaldeans, 
That  violent  and  vehement  nation. 
Which  marcheth  along  the  far  regions  of  the  earth 
To  hold  the  homes  that  are  not  his. 
•   '.   Dreadful  and  terrible  is  he; 

From  him  judgment  goeth  forth. 
8 


THE   ORACLE 

And  swifter  than  leopards  are  his  horses, 

And  fiercer  than  evening  wolves. 

And  his  horsemen  spread  from  afar; 

And  they  fly  like  an  eagle  eager  for  food. 

All  his  host  is  bent  on  violence, 

[Untranslatable  intrusion] 

And  he  gathereth  his  captives  like  sand. 

And  he  it  is  that  scoffeth  at  kings, 

And  rulers  are  his  derision. 

He  it  is  that  derideth  every  fortress. 

And  he  heapeth  up  earth  and  taketh  it. 

Then  his  purpose  changeth  and  he  passeth  along, 

And  setteth  up  his  altar  to  his  god. 


5.  This  verse  introduces  the  rhythmical  response  which  fol- 
lows. The  corrupt  Among  the  nations  is  easily  corrected  to  wrong- 
doers as  in  V.  ^^.  Their  amazement  implies  that  the  oppressive 
rulers  in  the  time  of  Jehoiakim  depended  on  Egypt  to  protect 
them  against  the  Chaldeans. — 7.  By  omitting  the  word  dignity 
(RV.)  we  keep  both  the  thought  and  the  trimeter  measure.  The 
meaning  is  that  they  are  a  self-willed,  ambitious  people,  who  pay 
no  respect  to  justice,  rights  ordinarily  accepted,  but  do  as  they 
please. — 8.  The  third  member  must  be  emended  by  ehminating 
the  repeated  horsemen,  but  even  so  the  translation  is  not  clear. 
— 9.  The  second  member  must  be  given  up  as  imtranslatable.  It 
is  a  corrupt  intrusion;  or,  possibly,  represents  the  remnant  of  a 
member  of  a  lost  couplet. — 10.  The  emphatic  position  of  the 
pronoun  in  both  couplets  must  be  observed  in  translation. 

11.  This  verse  has  suffered  much  in  transcription  and  was  not 
understood  by  (|,  and  RV.  gives  the  reader  the  choice  of  several 
translations.  The  clause  "and  is  guilty"  is  weak  and  meaning- 
less. If  we  transfer  the  Hebrew  word  to  the  second  member,  as 
we  must,  the  present  text  of  the  first  member  must  read,  as  in 
RV. ,  Thus  sJiall  he  sweep  by  as  a  wind  and  pass  over,  which  gives  a 
fair  sense.  But  we  had  better  follow  a  number  of  mss.  which  are 
of  great  value  in  ch.  3  and  read  his  spirit  in  place  of  wind.  We 
then  have  the  statement  that  the  Chaldean,  having  accomplished 
one  siege,  turns  to  a  new  purpose,  as  we  were  told  in  v.  "^  that  his 
judgment  goeth  forth  from  himself  Cf  Jb.  9"  Ct.  2"  for  the  simi- 
lar use  of  the  verb.     The  second  member  gives  no  suitable  mean- 


lO  HABAKKUK 

ing  and  is  probably  past  reconstruction.  It  is  most  probable  that 
the  original  text  contained  the  word  for  sacrifice  or  altar,  in  place 
of  this  his  strength,  which  requires  the  change  of  3  to  3.  Of  the 
two  emendations  suggested,  the  first  retains  U^^,  with  the  sense 
he  offers  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  to  his  god.  We  learn  from  Nu. 
31"-  ^-  *"  that  after  a  battle  the  soldiers  were  ceremonially  un- 
clean, through  having  touched  the  dead,  and  offered  sacrifices 
for  purification.  The  same  custom  is  referred  to  in  i  S.  15**-  " 
where  Saul  saves  Amalekite  cattle  to  sacrifice  to  Yahweh.  In 
rabbinic  times  everything  was  ceremonially  lawful  to  an  army  in 
war,  and  they  could  even  break  the  Sabbath  or  eat  swine's  flesh, 
and  the  Talmud  is  puzzled  over  the  need  of  purification  in  Nu. 
31.  But  it  is  preferable  to  change  Dli^'X  to  Qf "»  and  read  he 
setteth  up  his  altar  to  his  god.  The  altar  would  not  be  built,  but 
set  up,  as  in  war  the  king  would  use  such  a  portable  altar  as  is 
often  figured  on  the  monuments.  The  reading  proposed  assumes 
a  second  D  after  Dii''',  just  as  in  the  first  member  a  second  1  is 
required  for  irm. 


3.  ^  ta>3n  (S  ivi^Xivuv  ToKanruplav,  reading  na'C^an.  So  A  and 
3  videre  pradam.  0  seems  to  read  B'3n.  The  text  of  tH  requires 
a  Hiph.  sense  which  the  word  never  has.  It  is  redundant,  suggested 
perhaps  by  v.  ";  cf.  Nu.  23*'.  M  a^^  is  superfluous,  but  was  a  neces- 
sary addition  when  |nD  became  inn,  <8»  Kpiriis,  followed  by  A  and  &. 
The  third  member  in  this  verse  suggests  that  a  fourth  has  been  lost. — 4. 
£Bi  nxjS.  The  desired  antithesis  to  Spyn  in  the  early  gloss  which  com- 
pletes the  verse  has  compelled  Vrss.  and  com.  to  give  nxj  the  impossible 
meaning  of  sincerity.  So  Ra.,  Ges.,  de  W.,  Ew.  Suggested  emenda- 
tions are  najS  and  mjS.  ill  iTac.  (8  KaraSuvoo-rei/et.  We.  suggests 
"i-ddd;  but  in  Ju.  20*'  and  Ps.  22"  ino  has  the  sense  of  assailing,  or  en- 
compassing with  purpose  to  destroy.  n>ioD  would  be  too  strong  a  word, 
as  these  are  domestic  enemies. 

5.  DMJ3  is  to  be  corrected  to  anjj;  so  <!5  &  and  critics  generally, 
after  v. "  and  2".  M  inan  inDnni  to  be  corrected  after  We.,  et  al., 
to  innncnm,  cj.  2'. — 6.  For  •>2mc  rd.  ^■lmD,  after  Is.  8*. — 7.  ifl  in- 
serts iDNCi,  which  injures  the  measure  and  obscures  the  contrast  with 
OBV-a  nxjS  nxi  n'^i,  cf.  v.  ^  The  Copt,  omits  it,  probably  following  an 
earlier  <8.  For  iPNB'ncJD'^'D  rd.  nNric:Di:'D,  destruction,  cf.  La.  3". — 
8.  tA  inserts  vififii  by  dittog.  before  pinnD,  and  then  adds  ik3'  after 
it  to  provide  a  predicate.     (5  kolI  i^nriricrovrai.  ol  lirweh  Kal  dpn^aovrat 


THE  ORACLE  II 

IMKpbBev,  probably  omitting  in3\  Ew.  and  St.  omit  1N3''  pimn  va'-\i5i  as 
a  gloss.  Rd.  iflNl  for  M  iflN"",  (S  Kal  Treracr^^crovTat.  So  &. — 9.  The 
clause  inserted  by  M  nonp  dh^jd  tdjc,  interrupts  the  parallel,  lacks 
fitness  and  is  apparently  an  untranslatable  intrusion.  Q§>  could  not 
translate  it,  avdeartiKdras  npocrwirois  ain-Qv  i^  ivavrlas. — 11.  i®  nn,  better 
inn.  Several  important  mss.  (HP.,  62,86,  147  and  others)  give  irvevfj.a 
ain-ov.  M  IHD  It  orNi  yields  no  reasonable  sense  and  is  corrupt.  It  is 
to  be  corrected  by  some  form  of  the  |/  nai  such  as  ihSnS  nar  atrxi  or 
idSn'?  inaiD  DJ?;!,  cf.  v.  '«. 

SECOND   COMPLAINT,     l"-'" 

".  Art  not  thou,  Yahweh,  from  of  old? 

Thou,  my  God,  my  Holy  One,  diest  not. 

[Yahweh,  for  judgment  hast  thou  appointed  him, 

And,  O  Rock,  for  reproof  hast  thou  established  him.] 
".  Why  dost  thou  look  on  the  wrong-doers, 

Art  silent  when  the  wicked  consumeth  the  righteous? 
".  And  thou  makest  men  like  the  fish  of  the  sea, 

Like  swarms  that  have  no  ruler? 
".  All  of  them  he  sweepeth  into  his  net. 

And  gathereth  them  into  his  seine; 

[Therefore  he  rejoiceth  and  is  glad.] 
".  Therefore  he  sacrificeth  to  his  net, 

And  burneth  incense  to  his  seine; 

For  by  them  his  portion  is  fat 

And  his  food  is  dainty. 
*'.  Shall  he  therefore  ever  empty  his  net. 

And  spare  not  to  slay  nations? 

12.  The  parallelism  requires  Thou  diest  not,  in  place  of  the 
irrelevant  We  shall  not  die,  of  M-  The  second  couplet  is  an  in- 
trusion quite  out  of  place  and  anticipates  the  answer  to  the  com- 
plaint which  it  interrupts.  It  was  added  to  explain  God's  prov- 
idence. So  We. — 13.  M  has  The  wicked  consumeth  him  who  is 
more  righteous  than  himself,  instead  of  simply  the  righteous.  It 
was  an  added  gloss  because  it  was  not  thought  that  one  fully 
righteous  could  be  swallowed  up  by  the  wicked. — 14.  The  sense 
seems  to  be  that  God,  who  has  a  providence  for  men  who  serve 
him,  appears  to  treat  them  no  better  than  the  lower  animals  to 
which  he  pays  no  attention,  leaving  them  to  the  accidents  and  fates 
of  nature.  The  thought  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  Jesus,  who  de- 
clared the  sparrows  to  be  under  God's  care. — 15.  This  verse  has 


12  HABAKKTJK 

an  extra  member,  omitted  in  a  class  of  mss.  and  not  needed.  The 
omission  of  liftelh  with  his  hook  not  only  corrects  the  metre  but 
relieves  the  figure,  as  the  Chaldean  army  could  hardly  be  compared 
to  an  angler  with  a  hook.  He  catches  them  in  swarms  (v.  ")  and 
sacrifices  to  his  net  and  seine  (v.  *"). — 16.  It  is  not  meant  that  the 
Chaldeans  literally  sacrificed  and  burnt  incense  to  their  net  and 
seine.  This  simply  carries  on  the  figure.  The  sacrifice  was  to 
the  gods  of  war  such  as  Marduk  and  Adad  and  Ishtar. 

THE  WATCH  FOR  YAHWEH'S  ANSWER.    2'. 

I  will  stand  upon  my  post 

And  station  myself  on  a  tower; 

And  I  will  look  out  to  see  what  he  will  say  to  me. 

And  what  answer  he  will  return  to  my  complaint. 

The  response  to  the  prophet's  second  complaint  is  more  elab- 
orate than  that  to  the  first  complaint,  and  is  more  formally  intro- 
duced. The  first  complaint  was  against  native  oppression,  and 
the  response  threatened  their  punishment  by  the  Chaldean  con- 
quest. The  second  complaint  is  against  these  Chaldean  conquer- 
ors, and  so  is  later,  unless  we  may  regard  i*'"  as  a  dramatic 
retrospect,  explaining  the  subject  condition  of  the  Jewish  people. 
One  may  prefer  the  reading  rock  to  tower,  following  the  Vrss., 
but  the  longer  ^II^D  is  probably  genuine  and  more  musically 
matches  "•fl'lDtyD  by  the  latent  paronomasia  which  the  prophet 
much  affects. 

12.  iSl  niDj  noted  by  Mas.  as  Hkkun  sopherim.  ®  interprets  as  nS 
men,  so  Ra.,  Ew.,  Kue.,  No.,  et  al. — 13.  fH  udd  omitted  by  (&  &.  For 
fK  irnD'  05  rd.  imD',  Kal  iirXaffiv  fie  rov  ' ekiyx^'-^  iraiSelav  dvrov,  giving 
"i«  the  Aram,  sense  of  form,  fashion. — 14.  Rd.  nirpni. — 15.  The  irreg- 
ular metre  can  be  restored  by  the  omission  of  nSpn  r\2n2,  which  is  in- 
appropriate, as  the  Chaldean  captures  were  wholesale,  and  there  is 
no  sacrifice  to  the  hook.  M  '^»3•'^  nciP'  p  Sy  is  omitted  in  mss.  men- 
tioned in  V.  ». — 17.  For  M  ?3  hyr\  Gie.  and  We.  read  dSu'h,  but  n^cn 
belongs  to  this  member.  For  imn  they  read  oin,  as  does  Copt,  and 
one  ms.  of  <S  ;  but  it  is  more  poetic  to  continue  the  figure.  M  T'Dni 
JinS.  So  (6  3,  but  &  divides  the  members  after  n^cn,  omitting  the 
conj.  This  makes  two  equal  members,  and  allows  Sicn^  nS  to  denote 
continuance,  parallel  to  Tsn.     We.  changes  M  h^zn^  to  Sin\ 


THE  ORACLE  13 

2'.  M  iixc.  <&  iriTpav,  so  |J,  reading  -nx.  jSR  3''B'N.  But  the  par- 
allel requires  3'B'"'.  M  would  mean,  What  answer  I  shall  return  to 
those  who  sent  me,  cf.  2  S.  24";  but  there  is  no  indication  of  the  proph- 
et's representative  character.    &,  Brd.,  We.,  Oort,  et  al.,  rd.  tv. 

YAHWEH'S   DIRECTION.    2^K 

'• '.  And  Yahweh  answered  me  and  said:  "Write  the  vision  and  engrave 
it  on  tablets,  that  one  may  read  it  readily.  For  the  vision  is  only  for  a  set  time, 
and  is  ripening  toward  its  conclusion,  and  it  will  not  fail.  If  it  linger  wait 
for  it,  for  it  will  surely  come;  it  will  not  delay.     Behold:" 

2.  The  tablets  were  like  those  of  Babylonia,  of  clay,  not  of  wax, 
and  were  to  be  preserved  during  the  years  that  should  elapse 
before  the  overthrow  of  the  Babylonian  power.  They  were  to 
be  written  distinctly  for  public  knowledge  and  encouragement. 
The  use  of  tablets  implies  that  the  prophecy  was  written  in  Baby- 
lonia. It  was  a  roll  which  Isaiah  took  in  8*. — 3.  This  verse  and 
V.  *  are  directed  to  the  encouragement  of  the  captive  Jews  in  their 
patient  assurance  of  the  divine  faithfulness.  Budde  makes  ^3, 
for,  the  sign  of  direct  discourse,  as  in  Is.  9^^-  ^°,  and  the  oracle 
begin  here.    But  this  is  not  clear. 

THE   ORACLE.     2*K 


••  And  also: 


The  upright  [shall  rest]  his  soul  in  me; 

And  the  righteous  shall  live  in  my  faithfulness. 

As  with  wine  the  wrong-doer  vaunteth, 

He  hath  more  than  enough,  but  is  not  filled; 

Who  enlargeth  his  desire  like  Sheol, 

And  like  Death  he  is  not  sated; 

But  gathereth  to  him  all  the  nations, 

And  heapeth  to  him  all  the  peoples. 

We  have  in  these  verses  a  double  consolation.  In  v.  *  the  faith- 
ful righteous  is  told  that  he  shall  be  preserved,  because  the  God 
of  Israel  is  faithful  to  his  covenant;  in  v.  ^  the  thought  turns  to 
the  oppressing  nation  which  is  to  be  visited  with  maledictions. 

4.  This  verse  is  one  of  two  which  Paul  depended  on  for  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  following  the  meaning  of  the  pres- 
ent Hebrew  text,  which  should  probably  be  corrected  after  C5. 


14  HABAKKUK 

The  first  member  of  the  verse  gives  no  sense,  but  must  have  given 
a  sense  like  that  of  the  second  member. 

5.  And  also  is  not  part  of  the  poetic  measure.  The  three 
couplets  explain  the  occasion  for  the  maledictions  that  follow,  in 
the  greed  of  the  Chaldean  ambition.  The  corrupt  first  couplet 
must  be  restored  conjecturally.  The  word  wine,  which  must  be 
retained,  gives  the  key  to  the  emendation,  and  the  first  two  coup- 
lets correspond  to  each  other.  The  oppressor  boasts  hke  one 
filled  with  wine  and  still  unsatisfied,  and  in  the  next  couplet  he 
is  like  Death  who  is  ever  greedy  and  never  has  food  enough. 
There  is  here  a  partial  quotation  from  Is.  5",  Therefore  Sheol  en- 
largeth  her  desire. 


3,  jtt  nD^^,  (&  dj/oTcXet,  3  apparehit.  &  appears  to  have  read  xaM 
Vpn.  Seb.  emends  to  y^av.  Brd.,  We.  and  Oort  read  n-\s^^.  Ehr.  re- 
tains iSH  nijM,  but  reads  "ij?.  for  M,  iiJ7,  and  translates,  The  vision  shall 
bear  witness  for  time  to  come,  and  proclaim  to  the  end;  as  ix  and  no'^  are 
thus  connected  in  Ps.  ay'^Pr.  6"  12"  14^5  iq5.  9^  although  mispointed 
Pi'fiv  in  Pr.  M  inN>  nS,  (g  &  3  QI  A  and  40  mss.  collated  by  Kenn. 
and  de  R.  read  s'Si. — 4.  The  first  member  of  this  couplet  is  corrupt 
past  safe  reconstruction.  (6  ia.v  viroarelX-qTai  ovk  €v8oKei  ij  ypvx^  f-ov 
iv  avTi^,  reading  iSy  jn  and  ''tfCJ.  3  Ecce  qui  incredulus  est,  non  erit 
recta  anima  ejus  in  semetipso,  guessing  at  the  meaning  nSo;'  from  injiaNa 
in  the  corresponding  member.  ^  read  (or  heard,  Sebok)  nSiy  for  nScj?. 
Br.  and  Bu.  emend  I'^yjn  for  nVoj?  njn,  and  suppose  (6  to  have  read 
iVj?  |n.  We.  emends  Vij;n  for  nSoy.  The  emendation  iSyjn  is  inap- 
propriate, as  it  introduces  a  fainting,  discouraged  Jew,  ready  to  apos- 
tatise, neither  p'''\i  nor  njn,  of  whom  nothing  is  said  before  or  after. 
That  is  rather  a  NT.  thought,  and  accordingly  this  passage  is  quoted 
in  Heb.  io^»  from  05.  The  parallel  demands  a  statement  encouraging 
the  faithful  to  expect  deliverance.  Probably  lu'^  is  concealed  in  n-ia*', 
corresponding  to  pnx  in  the  next  member,  and  the  original  text  had 
some  such  meaning  as  The  upright  shall  stay  his  soul  or  shall  deliver 
his  soul  (Am.  2'<);  or,  possibly,  by  transposition,  13  iCflj  ic^  iSj?'  n?.  M 
inilDN3.  (6  iK  Tn<TT€ct)i  fj.ov  fi}(reTai,  which  gives  the  probably  correct 
^njiDNO.  But  ixov  omitted  in  mss.  noted  above,  and  in  Gal.  311. — 
5.  By  common  consent  of  critics  the  first  couplet  of  this  verse  is 
corrupt.  (6  translates  r'^  by  Karoiofi^vos,  probably  a  mistake  for 
Karoivovfjievos.  We  must  first  correct  M  '"iij'  to  r\^-\\  so  We.  <6  wtpdirQ, 
S  fiiirpay^ffei  or  eiiwop-^aei,  A  probably  thpaiudi^fferai,  as  if  from  nixj; 
SO  3  decorabilur.     The  corresponding  yzv^  vh^  in  next  member  certifies 


THE  MALEDICTIONS  1$ 

nn\  and  in  turn  requires  j"  to  be  retained,  as  in  all  Vrss.,  although 
rejected  by  textual  critics.  Br.,  Gie.  and  Bu.  conjecture  pK3  ddni  for 
]>>n  '•3  rjNi.  We.  suspects  ■'in  concealed  in  J^n;  Houtsma  and  Oort 
suggest  ijn.  Less  change  is  required,  and  a  sense  better  parallel  to  the 
second  member  is  secured  if  we  read  p'  ids  (old  form  nco)  as  with 
■wine  (Zech.  9"  lo^  and  vocalise  i?3.  For  the  impossible  Tn>  rd. 
T>n'>  (Tipv)  or  n^n\  The  two  couplets  ending  with  nni  and  yna'i  thus 
become  parallel,  one  making  the  ijn  insatiable  in  drinking  and  the 
other  in  eating. — 5.  jBH  p38"  nSi.    <S  omits  conj.,  which  is  better. 


THE  MALEDICTIONS.     2^-^". 

6*.   Shall  not  they  all  of  them  take  up  a  parable  against  him,  its  meaning  a 
riddle  to  him,  and  say : 

FIRST  MALEDICTION.     2«i'-i. 

*•>.  Wo  to  him  who  taketh  usury  of  what  is  not  his;  how  long! 

And  presseth  heavily  the  yoke  of  his  pledge! 
'.  Shall  not  they  arise  suddenly  that  exact  usury  of  thee. 

And  they  awake  that  shall  oppress  thee, 
And  thou  shall  be  their  prey? 
•.  For  as  thou  had  spoiled  many  nations, 

All  the  rest  of  the  peoples  shall  spoil  thee. 

[For  the  blood  of  men  and  the  violence  done  to  the  land, 

The  city  and  all  that  dwell  therein.] 


6*.  RV.  may  be  right  in  translating  a  taunting  proverb  instead 
of  its  interpretation  a  riddle.  The  meaning  is  not  clear.  As  trans- 
lated above  it  means  that  the  Chaldeans  could  not  believe  such 
threats  to  be  serious  and  dangerous. — 6^.  This  couplet  (but  not 
what  follows)  is  put  in  the  mouth  of  the  oppressed  nations.  The 
figure  is  of  one  who  oppresses  with  usury  (literally  increaseth,  as  in 
RV.).  The  oppression  of  this  usurer  is  such  that  he  requires 
usury  on  what  he  has  not  lent.  Also  in  the  second  member  M 
may  be  right,  in  which  case  the  meaning  will  be,  That  maketh  heavy 
on  himself  pledges;  but  it  seems  better  to  regard  the  burden  of  the 
yoke  (for  on  himself)  to  be  borne  by  the  oppressed. — 8^.  It  is 
perfectly  evident  that  this  couplet  is  out  of  place  and  has  in  some 
way  been  inserted  from  """. 


l6  HABAKKUK 


SECOND  MALEDICTION.    2»-». 

•.  Wo  to  him  that  gaineth  an  evil  gain  to  hb  house. 
To  set  his  nest  in  a  high  place 
To  escape  from  the  hand  of  evil. 
'•.  Thou  hast  devised  shame  to  thine  own  house; 
Thou  hast  cut  ofJ  many  peoples, 

And  brought  guilt  on  thine  own  self. 
".  For  the  stone  shall  cry  out  of  the  wall, 

And  the  brace  out  of  the  timber  shall  answer  it  [and  say] 

9-10.  It  is  noticeable  that  these  have  three  members,  as  in 
V.  '.  In  each  case  the  third  member  is  essential  to  develop  the 
thought.  One  might  think  from  v.  '  that  the  wo  was  directed 
against  Edom  whose  nest  was  in  a  high  place,  but  v.  ^^  with  its 
repetition  of  the  multiplied  conquests  applies  the  malediction  still 
to  the  Chaldeans. — 11.  The  figure  of  a  stone  and  a  timber  from 
the  oppressor's  house  prophesying  is  a  violent  one,  ana  it  does  not 
come  naturally  from  the  preceding  verse;  and  we  may  suspect 
that  this  verse,  with  the  next  malediction,  is  a  later  addition. 

THIRD  MALEDICTION.     2iJ-i«. 

".  Wo  to  him  'that  buildeth'  a  city  'by  blood,' 
And  foundeth  a  town  'by  crime.' 
•••  Are  not  these  the  words  of  the  Lord  of  hosts: 

'And  the  people  shall  toil  but  for  the  fire, 
And  the  nations  weary  themselves  for  nothing.' 
".  'For  the  earth  shall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  Yahweh, 
as  the  waters  cover  the  sea.' 

Here  is  a  remarkable  succession  of  quotations,  definitely  desig- 
nated as  such  and  depending  on  a  previous  collection  of  sacred 
books.  We  can  hardly  doubt  that  this  malediction,  with  v." 
which  introduces  it,  is  the  late  addition  of  one  who  was  not  him- 
self an  original  and  authoritative  prophet,  but  a  scribe. — 12. 
This  passage  from  Mi.  3'''  was  addressed  to  the  oppressive  Jewish 
rulers  who  were  building  Zion  and  Jerusalem  by  forced  service, 
but  is  here  applied  to  the  Chaldean  power  under  the  figure  of  a 
house. — 13.  The  first  sentence  in  this  verse  is  to  be  regarded  as 
prose,  to  introduce  a  poetic  quotation  from  Je.  5^^.    The  quota- 


THE  MALEDICTIONS  17 

tion  is  not  literal,  but  ad  sensum,  and  arranged  for  the  trimeter 
measure.  In  this  case  the  quotation  is  apposite,  as  Jeremiah's 
prediction  was  against  Babylon. — 14.  The  quotation  from  Is.  ii^ 
is  not  metrical,  nor  has  it  any  particular  bearing  on  the  subject, 
but  is  merely  a  pious  reflection  thrown  in  at  hazard. 

FOURTH  MALEDICTION.    Z's-'t. 

«.  Wo  to  him  that  maketh  his  neighbour  drunk  from  the  cup  of  thy  wrath. 

Even  making  them  drunken,  so  as  to  look  on  nakedness. 
».  [Thou  art  sated  with  shame  for  glory.] 

Drink  thou  too,  and  show  thy  uncircumcision. 

The  cup  of  Yahweh's  right  hand  shall  come  round  to  thee, 
And  shame  upon  thy  glory. 
>'.  For  the  violence  done  to  Lebanon  shall  cover  thee. 

And  the  destruction  of  the  cattle  shall  affright  thee. 

The  blood  of  men  and  the  violence  done  to  the  land, 

The  city  and  all  who  dwell  therein. 

The  irregularity  of  the  metre  in  w.  ^^^^  suggests  that  lines  have 
been  inflated,  perhaps  by  the  addition  of  the  clauses /r<7m  the  cup 
of  thy  wrath,  Even  making  them  drunken  and  right  hand. — 15. 
The  sufl&x  in  thy  wrath  disagrees  with  his  neighbour,  but  the  transi- 
tion to  2  pers.  sg.  agrees  with  v.  ".  For  a  similar  use  of  the  figure 
of  the  shame  of  uncovered  nakedness  see  Na.  3^.  The  story  of 
Noah's  drunkenness,  and  the  care  to  keep  his  body  covered,  is 
one  of  many  cases  in  OT.  in  which  that  sense  of  modesty  is  illus- 
trated which  Greek  writers  say  characterised  the  Persians,  and 
which  also  appears  in  Assyrian  art,  but  is  absent  in  Greek  and 
Egyptian  art. — 16.  The  omission  of  the  first  clause  is  required, 
as  it  anticipates  the  cause  of  the  shame  in  the  next  two  members, 
and  repeats  the  last  member.  Literally,  be  uncircumcised;  a 
strong  expression  for  show  thyself  uncircumcised,  implying  the 
double  shame  of  personal  exposure  and  also  uncircumcision. 
— 17.  We  cannot  be  certain  what  particular  invasion  of  an  enemy 
is  referred  to.  From  the  earliest  times  the  conquerors  cut  the 
timber  of  Lebanon,  killed  its  cattle  and  himted  its  wild  beasts,  as  is 
narrated  by  various  kings  both  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  There 
is  progress  in  the  description  of  ravage  from  the  ruin  of  the  for- 
ests to  the  slaughter  of  the  cities. 


l8  HABAKKUK 


FIFTH  MALEDICTION.    2i«-«. 

".  [What  is  the  profit  of  a  graven  image,  that  its  maker  hath  graven  it,  the 
molten  image  and  the  teacher  of  lies,  that  its  framer  trusted  in  it  to  make 
dumb  idols.] 

»•.  Wo  to  him  that  saith  to  the  wood,  'Awake,  arouse  thyself!' 
To  the  dumb  stone,  'It  shall  teach!' 
Behold  it  is  overlaid  with  gold  and  silver, 
And  there  is  no  breath  at  all  within  it. 
*o.  But  Yahweh  is  in  his  holy  temple; 
Hush  before  him,  all  the  earth! 


The  entire  malediction  probably  comes  from  a  later  editor  who 
wrote  long  after  the  time  of  the  Captivity.  It  is  general  against 
idolatry  and  has  no  special  pertinency  as  against  the  oppressors. 
Certainly  the  prosaic  v.  ^^  must  be  expunged.  It  is  crudely  com- 
posed, and  appears  to  be  such  an  outbreak  as  a  scribe  might  have 
hastily  jotted  in  the  margin. — 18.  The  expression,  teacher  of  lies, 
applied  to  a  molten  image,  seems  to  imply  a  certain  residual  belief 
in  a  real  power  of  heathen  gods.  Literally,  the  framer  of  his  frame 
triisteth  in  it,  an  inelegant  redundancy. — 19.  Here  (^  gives  us 
the  true  division.  Both  wood  and  stone  are  given  as  materials 
for  idols,  but  it  is  the  wood  that  is  overlaid  with  gold  or  silver. 
Very  small  idols  of  gold  have  been  found.  The  expressions  are 
taken  from  Is.  44®  sq. — 20.  The  temple  is  represented  as  in  full 
service.     It  is  likely  that  from  the  last  clause  is  drawn  Zp.  i'. 


6.  iK  -\DN>1,  <&  &  have  pi.  So  We.,  who  omits  'PD  iy,  but  the  vocal 
balance  of  the  two  members  requires  it,  as  naiD  corresponds  to  T33D, 
also  iS  kS  to  iSy,  and  tid  np  to  tj^'traj;.  M  vSy.  (S  t6v  KXoiby  airrov. 
Oort  emends  I'jp. — 8.  The  last  couplet  in  this  verse  is  rejected  by  De 
Goeje,  We.,  et  al.  It  has  been  intruded  from  v.  ",  but  is  inappropriate 
here  as  confusing  the  thought  of  an  usurer  with  that  of  slaughter. 

10.  We.  remarks  that  mvp  and  NOin  must  be  made  to  correspond  in 
form,  for  M.  mxp  (&  has  cvvevipava%,  reading  n^'in..  So  3  &  QI.  Ac- 
cordingly Nam  must  be  corrected  to  PNtJn. — 13.  &,  njn.  By  consent  of 
critics  it  should  be  pointed  njn,  to  introduce  the  following  quotations. 
— 15.  iSnoDr.  We.  emends  ncp  after  Zc.  12*.  This  makes  better  sense 
and  a  good  parallelism.  The  n  was  intruded  by  dittog.  Some  Vrss. 
make  c  a  prep.,  but  fail  to  understand  ncD.     A  i^  iKireiifiwi  (or  iirip- 


THE   PSALM  19 

pixpiui)  x"5^oi',  aT6  x^'^^^^  dv/wO  aov.  Origen's  E  read  i^  dirposdoK-^ 
Tov  dyaTpoTrrjs  rijs  dpyiji  aov.  The  suffix  of  "inon  offers  some  difficulty, 
and  is  omitted  by  <S  #  A  and  UJ.  S  reads  ^auroO.  But  sf.  is  original 
and  represents  rapid  transition.  M  Dnni;!D  We.  emends  onnj^D  after 
Na.  3*.  This  is  suggested  by  ^'s  error  (ririjXaia  aiirCiv. — 16.  Either 
the  first  or  last  clause  of  this  verse  should  be  expunged,  perhaps  both. 
We.  removes  the  first  clause,  and  puts  it  in  place  of  the  last,  chang- 
ing nyaa*  to  pair'n.  It  is  better  to  retain  the  last  clause  (changing 
pSp'p  to  pSp,  as  J?3tt>  is  hardly  the  word  to  follow  did  in  v.  i«  and  the 
words  for  drinking  in  v.  '^  For  M  Siyn  (g  has  kslI  SiaaaKevdTjTi,  A 
KaibdrjTi.  ^  and  3  also  probably  read  "jnyni,  as  do  many  commenta- 
tors; but  the  text  of  M  makes  better  sense. — 17.  M  ]r\>n'<  makes  no 
sense.  (&  Trroijcrct  ce.  So  &  and  21.  Ew.,  Ols.,  We.,  Oort  emend  nn^n'. 
M  'Dnn.  The  last  couplet,  to  be  dropped  from  v. «,  seems  required 
here,  with  omission  of  the  prep,  which  the  connection  required  in  v.  • 
and  was  then  intruded  here. — 18.  This  verse  is  not  rhythmical  and  is 
an  intruded  gloss.  St.,  We.,  et  al.,  transpose  w.  '»•  ". — 19.  UJ  my.  <S 
oval  6  \iywv  ry  ^i5Xy  eKV7j\j/ov,  i^ey^pdrjri.,  Kal  tQ  \ld(fi  vxpwdrjTi,  Kal 
o.vt6  iffTiv  (pavraffia.  This  gives  a  division  of  the  members  preferable 
to  that  in  M,  although  (S  erroneously  read  ''cn  for  onn,  and  hn-id 
(as  it  did  in  v. '«)  for  mv  (mm  in  v. '«).  (Read  miy  for  mj?  to  corre- 
spond with  r\:s^pri.)  By  putting  Dcn  and  n-\v  in  the  same  line  we 
get  a  fine  antithesis,  and  nii>  makes  a  paronomasia  with  nnip  in  the 
previous  line. 

THE    PSALM — CHAPTER  3. 

For  emendations  of  the  text  of  chs.  i  and  2  we  have  had  to  de- 
pend mainly  on  (g,  but  we  have  occasionally  noted  another  small 
class  of  mss.  For  ch.  3  we  fortunately  have  more  help  from  this 
class  of  mss.,  chiefly  23,  62,  86  and  147  of  HP.  Two  of  these  are 
among  the  more  ancient  mss.,  and  one  is  an  imcial.  They  agree 
in  being  based  on  a  text  quite  variant  from  HI  and  so  of  special 
value.  Cornill  says  in  his  Ezekiel  that  62,  147  are  not  Lucianic. 
So  VoUers,  ZATW.,  1883,  4,  p.  239,  says  that  this  group  goes 
back  to  ^^sehr  alte  und  wertvolle  Vorlagen." 

Ch.  3  is  not  a  recoimting  of  past  triumphs,  and  contains  only 
covert  allusions  to  early  Hebrew  history.  It  simply  considers  the 
present  distress,  and  seeks  and  receives  a  theophany  of  deliver- 
ance. Yahweh  comes  in  the  guise  of  an  armed  warrior,  with 
horses  and  chariot,  bow  and  quiver,  in  storm  and  lightning,  to 


20  HABAKKUK 

overthrow  the  enemy.  He  starts  from  his  Olympus  in  Mount 
Paran,  moves  northward  to  Palestine,  and  aflfrights  land  and  sea 
with  his  thunder  and  tempest.  It  is  to  Palestine  that  Yahweh 
comes  with  help,  but  there  is  nothing  by  which  we  can  decide 
what  particular  exigency  required  his  aid.  We  are  told  of  the 
possible  or  actual  failure  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  but  whether 
by  drought  or  by  the  ravages  of  war  we  are  not  told,  but  the  aid 
of  Yahweh  implies  the  latter.  Very  likely  this  psalm  belongs  to 
the  Maccabean  period. 

1.  The  Prayer  oj  Habakkuk  the  Prophet.  On  the  Stringed 
Instruments.  This  is  the  title.  Inasmuch  as  ^  translates  Shig- 
ionoth  with  the  same  word  wS^?  as  it  does  Neginoth  in  v.  ^*, 
we  may  make  the  correction. 

Introductory  Prayer  for  a  Theophany,  V.  •. 

«.  Yahweh,  I  hear  the  sound  of  thee; 
I  see,  Yahweh,  thy  work. 
In  the  midst  of  the  years  display  it; 
In  the  midst  of  the  years  make  it  known; 
In  wrath  remember  mercy. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  verse  the  psalmist  anticipates  the  desired 
theophany,  and  in  the  last  part  prays  that  it  may  speedily  develop. 
The  change  of  I  fear  of  iH  to  /  see,  gives  a  much  more  appropri- 
ate sense  as  well  as  a  perfect  parallelism.  He  desires  that  the 
theophany  be  not  long  delayed,  but  that  deliverance  might  come 
during  the  present  years. 

Theophany  in  the  Storm.    Vv. »-'». 

'.  God  cometh  from  Teman 

And  the  Holy  One  from  Mount  Paran. 

His  glory  covereth  the  heavens, 

And  the  earth  is  full  of  his  praise. 
*.  Before  him  it  is  like  the  light; 

Rays  he  hath  at  his  side. 

And  he  rejoiceth  in  the  glory  of  his  strength. 
*.  Before  him  goeth  Pestilence, 

And  Plague  foUoweth  behind  him. 


THE  PSALM  21 

••  He  standeth,  and  the  earth  trembleth; 
He  looketh,  and  the  nations  melt  away; 
And  the  mountains  of  old  are  scattered, 
The  ancient  hills  bow  down. 
''.  [Unlranslaiable,  probably  two  lines.] 
The  tents  of  Cushan  tremble. 
The  curtains  of  the  land  of  Midian. 
*.  With  the  rivers  art  thou  wroth,  O  Yahweh? 
[Is  thy  indignation  against  the  rivers?] 
Is  thine  anger  against  the  sea. 
That  thou  ridest  upon  thy  horses, 
Thy  chariot  of  salvation? 
».  Thou  dost  quite  uncover  thy  bow. 
Thy  quiver  is  filled  with  shafts.     Selah. 
[With  rivers  thou  cleavest  the  earth.] 
'",  The  waters  see  thee  and  they  writhe; 
The  clouds  pour  down  their  waters. 
The  depth  giveth  forth  his  voice. 
The  height  lifteth  his  hands. 
u.  The  sun  [is  hidden  in  his  chamber]. 
The  moon  standeth  still  in  his  dwelling. 
For  light  thine  arrows  go  forth, 
For  brightness  the  glittering  of  thy  spear. 
'8.  Thou  treadest  the  sea  with  thy  horses. 

The  mighty  waters  foam  up. 
•*.  In  rage  thou  marchest  over  the  earth, 
In  wrath  thou  tramplest  the  nations. 
Thou  goest  forth  for  the  salvation  of  thy  people, 
To  save  thine  anointed  ones. 
".  Thou  crushest  the  head  of  the  wicked.     [Thou  piercest  with  thy  shafts 
the  head  of  the  oppressors;  they  stormed  out  to  scatter  me;  their  rejoicing 
was  as  to  devour  the  poor  secretly.] 

It  is  better  to  put  this  whole  theophany  in  the  present  tense. 
That  which  the  prophet  has  prayed  for  he  sees  now  in  vision  as 
on  the  way.  First  Yahweh  is  described,  then  his  companions 
are  designated,  and  then  follows  the  description  of  his  march  in 
lightning  and  storm.  His  home  is  in  the  Arabian  mountains; 
his  movement  is  recognised  in  thunder  and  rain;  the  lightnings 
are  his  arrows  and  spear,  the  thunder  the  rattling  of  his  chariot 
and  horses.  There  follows  a  deluge  of  rain,  and  the  rivers  over- 
flow, and  the  sea  dashes  with  foam.  The  storm-cloud  hides  the 
sun  and  moon,  as  he  marches  forth  trampling  Israel's  foes.  With 
his  home  on  the  mountains,  his  weapons  of  thimder,  lightning, 
storm  and  war,  he  is  such  a  god  as  the  Syrian  and  Babylonian 


22  HABAKKUK 

Adad.  We  now  have,  not  a  recounting  of  past  triumphs,  but  only 
covert  allusions  to  the  events  of  Sinai  and  Canaan.  The  prophet 
simply  considers  the  present  distress,  and  seeks  and  receives  a 
theophany  of  deliverance, 

3.  The  mountain  home  of  Yahweh  is  based  on  the  memory 
of  Sinai.  The  first  couplet  is  imitated  from  Dt.  2;^^. — 4.  The 
rays  proceed  from  his  side,  not  hand,  as  in  RV.  The  older  Baby- 
lonian art  often  represented  solar  deities  with  rays  proceeding 
from  the  body.  And  there  is  the  hiding  of  his  power,  M,  is  jejune 
and  has  to  be  conjecturally  emended.  While  that  here  proposed 
is  not  assured,  some  such  change  is  necessary. — 5.  Pestilence  and 
plague  are  here  personified  as  Yahweh's  attendants,  just  as  Homer 
gives  to  Ares  the  companions  Fear  and  Terror  {^6^o<i  and 
Aetfi6<i)  when  he  goes  forth  to  fight  the  Greeks.  It  is  also  in 
accordance  with  oriental  ideas  to  represent  pestilence  or  a  de- 
structive wind  as  a  demon,  or  chimera,  accompanying  a  god. 
Marduk  was  thus  accompanied  when  he  fought  Tianiat.  So  an 
angel  of  pestilence  appeared  after  David  had  numbered  the 
people.     2  S.  22^^-  ". 

6-7.  There  is  no  intelligible  meaning  in  M,  He  stood  and  meas- 
ured the  earth.  (5  indicates  how  the  text  must  be  corrected.  The 
last  clause  of  this  verse  with  the  beginning  of  v.  ^,  is  untranslatable, 
and  we  have  not  the  material  for  reconstruction.  The  mss.  al- 
ready quoted  had  a  Hebrew  text  which  gave  a  full  couplet.  The 
roadways  of  old  shall  be  changed;  on  his  account  the  world  shall  he 
shaken.  RV.  has  His  goings  were  as  of  old,  as  if  referring  to 
Sinai.  The  margin  has  His  ways  are  everlasting.  Both  are 
unsatisfactory,  and  (&  gives  a  more  satisfactory  translation,  his 
eternal  roadways,  i.  e.,  the  mountains  and  hills.  The  last  six 
words  of  V.  '  make  a  good  couplet,  leaving  the  first  three  words 
/  saw  in  affliction  (RV.)  as  material  for  the  couplet  which  begins 
with  the  last  three  words  of  v.  ^.  The  lands  of  Cushan  and 
Midian  first  feel  the  terror  of  the  theophany,  as  nearest  to  Mount 
Paran. 

8.  Here  the  prophet  turns  from  the  thunder  and  wind  which 
shook  the  hills  to  note  the  effect  of  the  rain  and  storm  on  the  rivers 
and  sea.    But  he  very  naturally  turns  to  view  the  God  who  ere- 


THE   PSALM  23 

ates  the  commotion  as  he  comes  with  horses  and  chariot.  An  ap- 
parent infelicity  in  representing  him  as  upon  horses,  and  yet  with 
a  chariot,  has  led  (^  to  translate  chariot  by  liriraaia,  while  our 
special  class  of  mss.  put  the  chariots,  dpfiara,  in  the  first  clause, 
and  linraaia  in  the  second,  which  avoids  the  confusion  of  thought. 
— 9.  It  is  only  by  a  bold  conjecture,  following  our  special  class 
of  mss.,  that  any  intelligible  meaning  can  be  made  out  of  this  verse. 
The  correction  thus  suggested  makes  a  good  parallelism,  and  the 
only  difficulty  is  with  the  translation  of  JTItDD  as  shafts,  i.  e.,  arrows 
or  javelins.  Our  mss.,  however,  translate  it  by  /SoXiSa?,  unless  they 
possibly  read  msn  for  mtDD.  The  order  of  thought  is  then 
clear.  The  rivers  and  sea  were  aflfrighted  as  Yahweh  approached 
with  the  thunder  of  his  chariot  and  horses.  They  saw  him  with 
his  bow  uncovered,  taken  from  the  armoury  where  it  was  protected 
by  a  covering,  and  now  ready  to  be  dravm.  From  his  quiver  he 
takes  his  weapons  and  hurls  his  spear  and  arrows  of  lightning. 
They  see,  and  the  next  verse  tells  us  that  they  writhe  in  terror. 
Syrian  and  Hittite  art  frequently  represents  Adad-Ramman,  god 
of  storm,  as  armed  with  the  same  weapons,  while  the  Babylonian 
art  gave  this  western  god  the  forked  thunderbolt.  The  last,  un- 
balanced clause  of  this  verse  may  be  regarded  as  intruded. 

10.  Fortunately  we  have  in  Ps.  yy^'^-^'^  the  means  for  some  emen- 
dations of  w.  ^°""-  ^^.  The  Psalm  is  later,  and  adds  a  third  mem- 
ber after  the  couplets.  It  also  has  a  different  purpose,  that  of  re- 
calling the  escape  of  Israel  from  Egypt,  while  Habakkuk  makes 
no  reference  to  Israelite  history,  but  simply  presents  a  theophany  of 
judgment  under  the  figure  of  a  storm.  The  correction  of  moun- 
tains to  waters,  follows  the  Ps.  and  makes  a  much  better  connec- 
tion of  thought  with  v.  *.  Equally  the  emendation  in  the  second 
member  of  this  couplet  greatly  strengthens  the  thought,  for  the 
passing  of  the  tempest  is  no  occasion  for  fear. — 11.  A  couplet 
originally  took  the  place  of  the  single  line  of  four  beats  which  tells 
how  the  dark  clouds  hid  the  sun  and  moon.  We  must  here  fol- 
low our  class  of  mss.  The  dwelling, "?!::?,  has  no  relation  to  the 
rabbinic  use  of  the  word  as  one  of  the  seven  firmaments,  but  is 
used  indefinitely  as  is  tabernacle  in  Ps.  19*.  The  translation  of 
the  last  couplet  in  RV.  is  jejune,  at  the  light  0/  thine  arrows  as  they 


24  HABAKKUK 

went.  The  meaning  is  that  of  Ps.  77",  TJie  lightnings  enlightened 
the  world.  For  the  use  of  the  preposition  cf.  Is.  60'^.  There  is 
no  reference  here  to  Joshua's  miracle,  but  only  the  statement  that 
the  sun  and  moon  retire  behind  the  black  clouds,  and  that  their 
place  is  taken  by  flashes  of  lightning,  represented  as  Yahweh's 
arrows. 

12-15.  It  is  evident  that  v.  *^  is  out  of  place  after  vv.  ^^^*.  It 
belongs  with  w.  *"•  ",  as  it  continues  in  order  the  series  of  expres- 
sions found  in  Ps.  77""^^  It  must  therefore  follow  v.  ". — 15. 
This  corresponds  to  Ps.  77^°,  the  resemblance  being  much  closer 
in  the  Hebrew  than  in  an  English  translation.  If  placed  before 
V.  *  the  connection  might  seem  better,  but  the  parallelism  with 
Ps.  77  fixes  it  after  v.  ".  The  trampling  of  the  nations  of  v.  " 
also  fitly  follows  the  treading  of  the  sea  of  v.  '^. — 13.  In  a  we  have 
the  purpose  of  all  this  theophany.  Kuenen  shows  that  the  title 
of  thine  anointed  applied  to  Israel  is  proof  of  a  postexilic  period, 
as  Ps.  8V".  But  as  it  antedates  Ps.  -jf''-'^'^  it  does  not  belong  to 
the  later  postexilic  period,  but  might  well  belong  to  the  5th  or 
4th  century  B.C.  The  sg.  is  probably  correct,  although  the  Jewish 
recensions  of  (^  make  anointed  pi.,  as  do  the  special  mss.  quoted. 
The  latter  part  of  the  verse  would  require  much  change  to  make  it 
intelligible,  and  the  Vrss.  give  no  real  help.  The  house  and  the 
foundation  have  no  pertinence,  and  they  have  no  relation  to  the 
rock. — 14.  This  verse  is  equally  unintelligible,  except  as  to  the  last 
clause,  which  is  quite  out  of  place,  as  it  represents  a  personal  and 
not  a  national  calamity,  in  which  the  pious  poor  were  the  suf- 
ferers. As  the  text  stands  it  cannot  be  made  metrical,  and  we 
have  not  the  data  for  restoring  it.  Probably  the  whole  is  an  in- 
trusion. 


THE    PROPHET'S    MEDITATION    ON   THE  THEOPHANY.  Vv.  "•>». 

••.  I  have  heard,  and  my  belly  trembleth; 
My  lips  quiver  at  the  sound. 
Rottenness  entereth  into  my  bones, 
And  my  steps  tremble  under  me. 
I  moan  in  view  of  the  day  of  trouble, 
Of  the  coming  up  of  the  people  that  will  assail  me. 


THE   PSALM  25 

".  For  though  the  fig-tree  bear  no  fruit, 

And  there  be  no  vintage  on  the  vines; 

Though  the  yield  of  the  olive  fail, 

And  the  fields  produce  no  food; 

Though  the  flock  be  cut  off  from  the  fold. 

And  there  be  no  herd  in  the  stall, 
'8.  Yet  I  will  exult  "in  Yahweh." 

I  will  rejoice  "in  the  God  of  my  salvation." 
",  Yahweh,  the  Lord,  is  my  strength, 

And  he  setteth  "my  feet  like  those  of  hinds 

And  he  maketh  me"  tread  "on  my  high  places." 
To  the  chorister  on  the  stringed  instruments. 

16.  This  verse  requires  correction  to  make  the  latter  half  in- 
telligible. The  correction  of  which  to  my  steps  is  assured,  but  that 
of  /  moan  in  place  of  /  rest  is  only  suggested.  The  immediate 
effect  of  the  theophany  is  not  the  faith  and  courage  that  might 
have  been  expected,  but  affright;  and  yet  not  fear  of  the  terrible 
theophany,  but  of  the  approaching  foe.  It  may  be  that  the  original 
text  avoided  this  revulsion  of  fear,  and  anticipated  rest  after  the 
invasion,  just  as  the  succeeding  verses  begin  with  the  anticipation 
of  evil,  but  end  with  trust  and  exultation.  Cf.  Dn.  12^^ — 17.  The 
couplets  in  this  verse  may  properly  be  translated  as  conditional,  al- 
though the  text  would  allow  them  to  describe  the  state  of  desola- 
tion and  famine  following  the  invasion  of  an  enemy. — 18.  This 
verse  is  based  on  Mi.  7',  but  is  not  a  close  quotation. — 19.  This  is 
taken  almost  directly  from  2  S.  22^  which  is  identical  with  Ps. 
18^,  and  indirectly  from  Dt.  32^^  33^®.  It  denotes  possession  and 
rule  of  the  land.  The  quotations  in  the  two  last  verses,  with  those 
in  2^",  indicate  an  authorship  at  a  period  later  than  the  first 
standard  collection  of  the  Sacred  Books.  The  writer  was  familiar 
with  Deuteronomy,  2  Samuel,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah  and  Micah,  who 
is  quoted  twice.  We  have  also  the  parallelism  of  2^"-  "•  ^^  with 
Ps.  77"'^°,  in  which  we  have  preferred,  but  with  reserve,  to  regard 
Habakkuk  as  the  original  source.  The  facility  of  quotation,  es- 
pecially from  Micah,  is  an  argument  in  favor  of  a  common  author- 
ship of  chs.  2  and  3. 

1.  ^  nuvje*,  (S  tierh  v5^y,  reading  nrjo  as  in  v.  <«. — 2.  M  "Tin-i^ 
which  destroj^  both  parallel  and  measure.  Rd.  "P'n-i.  The  fear  is 
not  appropriate  till  after  the  theophany,  and  not  to  be  expected  before 


26  HABAKKUK 

V. ".  M  iri>in.  (S  fv'wv,  as  reading  nvn.  &  read  a^n.  The  parallel 
requires  in>in,  c/.  Ps.  19',  corresponding  to  i'lin. — 3.  In  HI  inxn  omit 
art.  inserted  by  dittog. — 4.  njji  as  if  njj  were  fem.  Rd.  nijj,  the  final 
n  being  3  masc.  sf.,  as  in  r\iy,  v,  *.  ^^JJ  corresponds  with  nT,  at  his 
side,  in  the  next  member.  The  f.  ^''^r\  is  impersonal,  Before  him  it 
is  like  light.  M  jv^n  D^'i.  The  text  is  corrupt,  and  was  not  understood 
by  the  Vrss.  <5  kuI  idero  a.ydir7)<rtv,  reading  St',  as  do  also  A  S.  An 
important  class  of  mss.  given  by  HP.  related  to  one  of  Origen's  un- 
named mss.,  and  representing  an  independent  version  of  part,  at  least, 
of  this  chapter,  read  iKei  eTricrriypi/CTai  17  bvvajxis  ti;s  56^ris  avTou.  The 
most  probable  emendation  is  njj;  psja  ncc'i.  For  the  use  of  ]W^  see 
Ez.  242'  30I8  33=8  Mi.  s'  Is.  2"'-  19-  21.  Make  a^jnp  pi.  for  M  dual. 
— 6.  Jfl  TID11  ($  Kal  ^(TaXeMT)  tj  yyj.  We.  suggests  jjdm,  but  that  destroys 
the  paronomasia.  (6  may  have  read  nynni,  but  in  bibl.  use  i;'d  is  con- 
fined to  steps,  feet  or  knees.  Of  the  earth  we  would  expect  Joni.  iH 
i.-iM.  <S  Kal  SieraKri  edftj,  as  reading  isriM.  So  also  &. — 7.  M  sh\y  nwSn 
>n'Nn  JIN  nn.i  •.^'^^.  We.  says:  Der  Vers  wird  iiberfult  durch  dSij?  m3''Sn. 
The  change  of  metre  indicates  either  an  insertion  or  corruption  for 
V. ',  probably  the  latter,  as  the  sense  is  appropriate.  According  to  M 
nwSn  means  the  mountain  ranges  which  are  Yahweh's  roadway,  but 
the  word  means  caravans  or  processions,  and  should  apply  to  the  ter- 
rified caravans  of  the  desert.  The  valuable  class  of  mss.  referred  to 
in  v. ''  followed  a  very  different  text  and  verse  division,  reading,  al  65oi 
al  i^  ipxV^  dWoiud^crovTai-  airoO  IvfKa  (reicTd-^fferai.  i]  olKOvy-ivt]. 
KaravevSrjKa  rds  (TK-qvas  A.ldi.6iru)v  k.  t.  X.,  omitting  iS  and  connecting 
nD''Sn  with  a  succeeding  verb,  and  then  adding  a  new  parallel  member. 
Possibly  for  px  rnn  we  should  read  jmnnn  {the  caravans  were  affrighted), 
but  there  is  not  material  to  make  a  probable  reconstruction,  and  in- 
deed it  is  not  certain  whether  "'n''N-i — ni3i'?n  represents  one  member 
or  two.  The  second  appearance  of  aSiy  is  suspicious,  vS>'? — 8.  fH 
•jflN  onnja  oH,  which  is  redundant,  following  Bi.,  et  al.  flj  mn.  (S 
Jlipyladrji  K6pie.  Perhaps  we  should  read  nnn, — 9.  M  "iiyn  pass,  is 
weak.  We  expect  2  sg.  m.  as  ^  ivrelvtav  iv^reivas.  Rd.  iTTJjn,  which 
is  better.  M  idn  miOD  ni];3tt>  is  untranslatable  and  corrupt.  None  of 
the  versions  give  aid,  except  those  mss.  which  read  ix^P'''"''^"'^  ^oXiSas 
TTjs  (jtapirpas  ai)T7}%.  This  makes  an  admirable  parallel.  For  niyaB' 
they  read  a  form  of  v. «  ';2V,  and  for  nst*  they  read  hdcn.  /SoXfs  also 
translates  y'in  in  v.  ".  ^  also  takes  mBD  as  arrows.  Probably  the 
original  read  njafe'  (or  rii'3tt')  nott'N  ntac  or  nnccN.  In  the  older  writ- 
ing the  resemblance  of  ncs  and  nsjCN  is  much  closer  than  in  the 
square  letters.  The  last  three  words  of  this  verse  have  either  lost  their 
parallel  member,  or  are  intruded. — 10.  Vv.  i"-  •'•  "  must  be  emended 
by  Ps.  77"''o,  which  is  based  on  Habakkuk,  but  with  a  third  member 


THE  PSALM  27 

added  to  the  couplet.  M  ann.  (g  Xaof,  reading  d^gj?.  Both  come  from 
D^nn,  which  we  accept,  following  Ps.  77"  iSin^  D''D  niN-\.  JH  iji'  D''S  air 
must  be  corrected  after  Ps.  77".  nijy  d^d  imt  .  .  .  iS  an.  ^  Ijxpoi 
as  reading  ann,  which  gives  a  better  parallel. — 11.  M  inserts  ni"'  to  the 
injury  of  metre  and  grammar.  The  MSS.  quoted  above  give  a  full 
couplet,  (pds  t6  "Kap/irpbv  roii  tjXIov  iiredx^v-  rb  54  (p4yyos  rjjs  ffeK-fivt)^ 
icTTddr].  The  second  member  must  be  filled  up,  to  say  that  the  moon 
was  withdrawn  into  its  dark  chamber  behind  the  clouds.  Bi.  vent- 
ures to  complete  the  couplet  by  inserting  npMnn  niis  before  tt'Dtt'.  M 
i;Sn'',  should  be  emended  laSnrii,  after  Ps.  77'^  The  subject  is  ■i'>xn,as  in  (S 
e^s  (puis  ^oXldes  <tov  iropeijaovTai.  For  use  of  prep,  in  iinS  and  njjS  see 
Is.  6oi9. 

12-15.  Vv.  '2-'<  interrupt  the  series  of  quotations  from  Ps.  77"-2''^ 
and  interrupt  the  sense  by  the  insertion  of  a  difficult  and  irrelevant  ex- 
planatory passage.  Gumpach,  De  Goeje  and  Kue.  put  v.  •'  after  v.  ', 
but  it  is  better  to  throw  w.  ''-u  after  v.  '5.  We  then  have  w.  '"■  "•  " 
parallel  to  Ps.  7716-19^  and  the  corresponding  passages  in  the  same  order, 
Hb.  318a  corresponding  to  Ps.  77"»;  v. 'obto'**;  "bto'sb;  iibtoist;  and 's» 
and  ^  to  20a  and  *>.  To  put  v.  '*  after  v.  '  would  dislocate  the  parallel. 
— 15.  M  inn.  We.  suggests  doubtfully  non;  Bi.  emends  to  nnna.  The 
mss.  already  quoted  read:  irapdxOv  (ncn)  rd  4^alcnn  vdara;  (5  rapda- 
aovTas  (igH)  \jS03p  iroXiJ.  iK  gives  no  connected  sense.  Perhaps  ion 
should  be  corrected  to  ion,  following  Je.  51^5  doi  d^dd  oh^Sj  idhi,  cf. 
Ps.  46^  or  ninn,  cf.  Ps.  46'.  The  corresponding  passage  in  Ps.  77'" 
has  '\2^y•^  for  T'D-id  nam,  and  i^Saa'  for  "icn. — 12.  •p.-'Vn  nx  yvh.  (5 
ToO  <rw(rot  rhv  xpto-Tiv  <tov.  The  mss.  quoted  above  read  pi(Ta<rdai. 
Toiis  xP'<'"'''"'S  "■<"'•  Both  make  j;tt'''S  a  vb.  as  required  by  pn.  We. 
emends  to  ivu'^  for  j?''B'in\  The  second  couplet  is  corrupt  past  recovery. 
The  Vrss.  have  made  no  sense  of  it.  C§>  seems  to  have  read  pi3  (ddvarov) 
for  n>3C.  Our  special  mss.  make  sense,  but  vary  much  from  flj.  They 
read  (careTi^eutras  K€(pa\di  dvdpihirwv  vitep-qcpdvwv  ewi  d^ixxaov  toO 
TTJs  Oa\dffffr)%  KCLTaMffovrai,  as  if  Psna  were  related  to  a^xn.  It  appears 
to  have  begun  with  Dinn  1>*.  One  of  Jerome's  mss.  gave  ornasti,  as  if 
reading  nny  in  place  of  nnj?.  The  last  clause  seems  to  have  been 
greatly  corrupted  after  the  intrusion  of  n^a  in  the  previous  clause, 
making  it  fit  a  house  instead  of  a  wicked  people,  cf.  Ps.  68"  iio^ ". — 
14.  This  verse  appears  to  be  prose.  The  first  four  words  correspond  to 
the  first  four  of  v.  ",  and  the  intrusion  seems  to  be  quite  late,  as  the 
devouring  of  the  poor  secretly  has  no  relation  to  the  foreign  oppressor. 
^  VBD3.  Bi.  and  We.  emend  to  T'CGa.  The  mss.  cited  read,  i^ 
eSlKijcras  (nopj)  /lera  Svvd/xeojs  <tov  to6s  dpxvyoi's  tQv  dp.apTOj\Qp  (a^snij) 
Tois  vewoiOSras  ('nj.'D')  ivl  ry  aWaSelq.  (Prabbinic  NiJXin)  avruv  iveKev 
Tov  KaTa4>ayeiv  rois  vruxoi'S  \ddpa.  (&  gives  SUKO\j/as  iv  iKO-rdaei.  (for 
eKrdffei)    K€<pa\its    SvvdffTuv,    aeurd-fiffovrai.   iv   airr^    (n'?nyD>,   for  i''). 


28  HABAKKUK 

Siavol^oixTi  (from  ^Xfl)  X'*^"'*"^^  airrdv  (dpiSxd,  Zc.  14")  wi  tffdiiiv 
vTwxoi>i  \ddpa.  The  corruption  nnooa  ^jy  SawS  may  have  come  from 
an  original  'jSokS. 

16.  Hfl  -(^K  ijns  emended  by  Bi.  and  We.  to  read  '"ifN  with  cor- 
responding vb.  n^N  takes  a  f.  sg.  vb.,  see  Ps.  37"  44"  75'.  <S 
irdpaxOv  V  «l«  /^o".  From  iS  1J^^J^  DpS  niSj'*?  n-\s  DvS  nijN  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  any  consistent  meaning.  (S  follows  £&  except  that  for 
1J1U'  ayS  it  has  els  T^aby  irapoiKlas  reaching  a  form  of  lu  with  i  p.  sg. 
affix.  The  mss.  quoted  read  raOra  <pv\d^Tji  iv  vp-^pg.  6\Lypews,  iirayayeiv 
ivl  (9voi  (or  f(pevos)  iroXefiovv  (or  iro\4fMv)  rbv  \a.bv  <tov.  &  is  quite 
variant  for  this  couplet,  and  its  text  it  is  not  easy  to  recover.  For  iK 
1J11J>  it  appears  to  have  read  ijt'J\  J  has  ad  populum  accinctum 
nostrum  for  iH  uiu''  Dj?S,  reading  a  form  of  ijn.  Both  (5  and  3  agree 
in  reading  "i  for  n.  Perhaps  (S's  "lu  is  correct,  but  with  the  meaning,  to 
fear,  instead  of,  to  sojourn.  We  should  probably  read  ijniJ%  who  will 
attack  me,  or  something  like  mus,  or  >niJO,  whom  I  fear.  For  the 
inappropriate  iSJ  mjx  it  might  be  hazardous  to  conjecture  mss,  mean- 
ing /  moan  in  view  of  the  day  of  trouble,  but  nothing  better  occurs. 
For  use  of  prep.  S  in  place  of  V;-  or  p  after  nj.sN,  cf.  use  of  S  after  naa 
and  nu,  Je.  22'"  Jb.  30**. — 17.  ^  nion  (S  Kapiro(pop-^<Tei..  We.  emends 
to  rncn.  nB^jj  f.  pi.  (J.  P.  Peters,  Hebraica,  1888,  p.  iii).  "itj.  We.  itjj. 
i9I  nSoDD  for  inSdcd. — 18.  M  '>mrJJ3  Ew.,  et  al.,  emend  by  omitting 
sf.     Kue.  either  thus  or  vnuuja  following  <&  iv  tj  ySj  aiirov. 


A 

CRITICAL    AND    EXEGETICAL 
COMMENTARY 

ON 

OBADIAH  AND  JOEL 

BY 
JULIUS  A.  BEWER,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE   PROFESSOR  OF   BIBLICAL   PHILOLOGY   UNION   THEOLOGICAL 
SEMINARY,   NEW   YORK. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  OBADIAH. 

§  I.    THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BOOK. 

The  first  literary  problem  in  Ob.  is  the  relation  of  w.  ^"*  to  Je. 
49'  ^•.  These  passages  are  so  much  alike  that  they  cannot  be  in- 
dependent of  one  another.  Either  Ob.  quoted  from  Je.,  or  Je. 
quoted  from  Ob.,  or  both  quoted  from  an  older  oracle.  Every  one 
of  these  positions  has  been  taken  by  scholars.  At  present,  as  a 
result  of  Caspari's  investigation,  almost  all  writers  believe  that  Je. 
49  quoted  from  Ob.  But  a  renewed  comparison  of  both  texts 
shows  that  the  more  original  text  is  contained  in  Je.  49;  that  Ob. 
quoted  w.  ^"^  almost,  though  not  quite,  literally;  that  he  com- 
mented on  this  older  oracle  in  w.  ^"^  partly  in  the  words  of  the 
older  prophet,  partly  in  his  own  words,  in  order  to  show  that  it  had 
been  fulfilled  in  his  own  day;  and  that  in  w.  ^-  ^  he  quoted  once 
more  from  the  older  oracle  vdthout  any  show  of  literalness. 
These  conclusions  involve  the  originality  of  w.  ^-  *•  ^.  See  the 
detailed  discussion  on  pp.  ^;^  ff. 

In  w.  ^^-  "  Ob.  proceeds  to  state  the  reasons  for  Edom's  ca- 
lamity, continues  with  a  vivid  description  of  her  cruel  behaviour 
toward  Judah  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  thrown  into  the  form  of  im- 
passioned warnings  (v\'.  ^""")  and  ends  by  declaring  that  her  pres- 
ent punishment  is  in  just  requital  for  her  own  deeds  (v.  ^^^). — On 
an  attempt  to  athetize  w.  ^^'^  as  secondary,  cf.  text.  n.  ad  loc. 

With  V.  ^^^  we  enter  upon  a  different  range  of  thought.  The 
writer  does  not  describe  a  present  calamity  but  hopes  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  Edom  on  the  day  when  Yahweh  vdll  judge  all  nations. 
These  verses  have  therefore  grown  out  of  a  different  situation.  Ob. 
interpreted  events  that  had  just  transpired,  when  Edom  had  been 
dispossessed  by  her  former  allies.  This  writer  expects  the  day  of 
Yahweh  in  the  near  future  and  confidently  believes  that  Edom 

3 


4  OBADIAH 

will  be  utterly  destroyed  by  Israel.  Evidently  some  time  had 
passed  since  Ob.  had  written,  Edom  had,  after  all,  not  been  com- 
pletely destroyed  but  was  living  on,  a  menace  and  vexation  to  Ju- 
dah.  No  redress  seemed  possible  at  present,  and  so  the  writer 
looks  forward  to  the  future,  to  the  day  when  Yahweh  will  hold  his 
judgment  on  all  the  nations.  Then  Edom's  turn  will  also  come 
and  its  terrible  punishment  will  be  administered  by  Israel.  It  is 
not  likely  that  Ob.  was  the  writer  of  these  verses,  and  Wellhausen 
was  right  in  regarding  vv.  ^^^-  '"■^^  as  an  appendix.  There  is  also,  if 
the  text  is  correct,  such  a  sudden  change  of  address  in  v.  ^^  from  the 
Edomites  to  the  Jews  that  the  same  author  can  hardly  be  credited 
with  it. 

There  are  two  sections  in  this  appendix,  w.  ^^^-  ^^"^'  and  w.  ""^, 
and  we  may  question  whether  they  are  by  the  same  author.  Vv.  ""^* 
are  in  the  nature  of  a  commentary  on  w.  ^^'^-  ^^,  and  it  seems  that 
V.  ^^  with  its  list  of  territories  understood  v.  "^  as  saying  that  the 
house  of  Jacob  would  regain  its  possessions.  Originally  v.  "^  spoke 
of  Judah's  conquest  over  her  dispossessors  (see  text.  n).  That 
there  existed  this  difference  of  interpretation  of  v,  ^^^  is  clear  from  M 
and  ^  respectively.  If  this  point  is  pressed  we  must  probably 
conclude  that  w.  ^^"^^  are  by  a  different  author  who  understood 
V.  "^  not  as  its  writer  had  meant  it  but  of  the  reconquest  of  Israel's 
territories,  and  who  connected  his  list  of  such  territories  very  in- 
geniously with  his  comment  on  v.  ^*,  by  explaining  that  this  proph- 
ecy will  be  fulfilled  by  what  is  still  left  of  the  house  of  Jacob  and 
of  the  house  of  Joseph,  i.  e.,  the  Israelitish  and  the  Judean  exiles. 
They  will  regain  the  land,  the  Israelites  as  far  north  as  Sarephath, 
the  Judeans  including  all  the  cities  of  the  Southland.  But  the 
thoughts  of  the  driving  out  of  the  dispossessors  and  of  the  regaining 
of  the  territories  are  closely  enough  related  that  the  same  writer 
may  naturally  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other,  esp.  when  it  is  possi- 
ble to  express  both  by  the  same  Heb.  word.  And  we  need  not 
wonder  that  v.  ^*  thinks  not  only  of  the  Edomites  as  to  be  driven 
out  as  in  v.  "  but  of  others  also,  when  the  setting  which  the 
writer  gives  to  the  punishment  of  Edom  is  the  day  of  Yahweh's 
judgment  on  all  the  nations. 

That  v.  '^  looks  like  a  conclusion  is  due  to  the  final  formula 


THE  COMPOSITION   OF  THE  BOOK  5 

for  Yahweh  hath  spoken.  But  this  is  really  a  quotation-formula. 
For  contents  and  metre  alike  show  that  v.  ^^  is  an  older  prophecy 
which  our  author  incorporated  in  order  to  establish  the  hope 
which  he  entertained  concerning  the  future  victory  of  Israel 
over  Edom. 

History  of  the  literary  criticism  of  Obadiah.  Eichhorn  (Einl.*,  1824, 
iv,  320  ff.,  not  yet  in  ^,  1803)  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  doubt 
the  unity  of  Ob.  He  dated  Ob.  after  586  B.C.  and  regarded  w.  "'*'  as 
an  appendix  from  the  time  of  Alexander  Jannaeus.  He  entitled  the 
whole  book,  Obadjas.  A  uf  die  Unterjochung  der  Edomiter  durch  Nebu- 
kadnezar  zwischen  582-572  vor  Chr.  nach  einer  neuen  Ausgabe  des  Ge- 
sanges  unter  Alexander  Jannaeus  zwischen  106-80  vor  Chr.  {cf  also 
Hebr.  Proph.,  in,  524).  Eich.'s  view  was  not  adopted.  —  Ewald 
took  up  the  problem  afresh  and  presented  an  entirely  different  solu- 
tion. Ace.  to  him  the  book  was  the  work  of  an  exilic  prophet  who  had 
used  in  w.  ''i"  an  older  prophecy  by  Ob.,  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah, 
and  in  w.  "-'^  also  older  material  which  came  from  a  prophet  like  Zc. 
9-1 1,  who,  ace.  to  Ew.,  was  an  older  contemporary  of  Isaiah.  V.  •', 
though  also  older  material,  was  not  of  the  same  piece  as  w.  's.  n.  is.  To 
the  exilic  prophet  belong  w.  "•'<•  "■2'.  This  position,  though  with  some 
modifications  in  details,  won  the  assent  of  many.  Kautzsch  and  Driver 
limited  the  older  oracle  to  vv.  '•'  (not  ">),  G.  A.  Smith  to  w.  ••«.  Kautzsch 
was  not  quite  sure  "whether  remnants  of  the  ancient  oracle  may  not  also 
have  been  preserved  in  vv.  is-si."  But  Konig,  who  analysed  the  second 
part  of  the  oracle,  concluded  that  the  older  oracle  consisted  of  w.  *•'"• 
i6».  18.  i9»a.  20b, — A  new  phase  in  the  literary  criticism  of  Ob.  began  with 
Wellhausen,  who  regards  vv.  '•'^-  '^b  (gxc.  «•  8.  »•  12)  as  the  work  of  Ob., 
the  remaining  verses  as  a  later  appendix.  This  solution  was  adopted  in 
substance  by  Now.,  Marti,  Cor.',  Du. — The  weak  point  in  it  is  that  it 
does  not  correctly  explain  the  relation  between  Ob.  and  Je.  Barton 
perceived  this  and  presented  a  combination  of  Ew.'s  and  We.'s  theories: 
vv.  '-^  are  a  pre-exilic  oracle  of  Ob.,  which  was  quoted  by  Je.  and  re- 
adapted  with  additions  (w.  '■'=)  by  another  Ob.  in  the  early  postexilic 
days;  w.  '*■"  form  an  appendix  probably  from  Maccabean  times. — A 
small  minority  of  scholars,  among  them  Peters,  Van  H.,  Hal.,  still  main- 
tain the  unity  of  the  book.  But  even  so  conservative  and  careful  a  scholar 
as  Orelli  regards  w.  "-2'  as  a  later  appendix. 


OBADIAH 


§  2.    THE  DATE   OF  THE  BOOK. 

The  result  of  the  literary  criticism  of  Ob.  necessitates  the  de- 
termination of  the  time  of  the  various  component  parts  of  the  book. 
In  the  absence  of  all  external  data,  we  must  rely  cm  internal  evi- 
dence. 

The  two  points  that  have  always  been  used  for  the  fixing  of  the 
date  are  also  important  for  us:  the  description  of  the  fall  of  Jeru- 
salem in  vv.  "'^'j  and  Ob.'s  relation  to  Je.  49. 

Since  the  date  of  Je.  49^  "•  was  regarded  as  definitely  fixed  in  the  4th 
year  of  Jehoiakim  {cf.  25'  "■)  those  who  believed  in  the  priority  of  Ob. 
connected  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  in  spite  of  all  difBculties,  either  with 
the  raid  of  the  Philistines  and  Arabians  under  Jehoram  (2  Ch.  21I8  '•), 
or  with  the  campaign  of  Joash  of  Israel  against  Amaziah  (2  K.  14"  '•  2 
Ch.  2523  f).  They  could  not  identify  it  with  the  capture  by  the  Chaldeans 
in  586  B.C.,  though  this  was,  as  some  acknowledged,  the  most  natural 
reference.  Those  who  believed  in  the  priority  of  Je.  referred  it,  of 
course,  to  586  B.C.  For  them  it  was  merely  a  question  whether  Ob. 
was  exilic  or  postexilic.  Also  those  who  believed  that  both  Je.  and  Ob. 
had  quoted  from  an  older  oracle  could  put  Ob.  in  the  exilic  or  postexilic 
period.  And  when  the  prophecies  against  the  nations  (chs.  46  ff.)  came 
to  be  quite  generally  regarded  as  non-Jeremian,  it  was  possible  also  for 
those  who  believed  in  the  priority  of  Ob.  to  identify  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
with  that  of  586  B.C.  and  to  place  Ob.  in  or  after  the  exile. 

The  most  natural  identification  of  this  capture  of  Jerusalem  is 
the  one  in  586  B.C.  by  the  Chaldeans,  when  ace.  to  La.  4"'  ''  Ez. 
25^^"  30^  35*^*  137^  3  Esd.  4^^  Edom  acted  very  cruelly  toward 
the  Judeans.  It  is  true  that  neither  the  Chaldeans  nor  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  nor  the  deportation  of  the  whole  people  are 
explicitly  mentioned.  But  the  situation  is  well  defined,  and  criti- 
cal opinion  is  more  and  more  agreed  on  the  reference  to  586  B.C. 
Moreover,  the  fact  that  a  quotation  from  a  Jeremian  dirge  (Je. 
38^^),  which  dated  from  the  last  days  of  Jerusalem,  is  incorporated 
in  v. ''  shows  that  586  B.C.  had  passed  and  that  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
described  here  cannot  refer  to  a  pre-exilic  situation.  Nor  can  a 
reference  to  a  later  conquest  be  maintained.  Winckler  connected 
the  verses  with  a  postexilic  destruction  of  Jerusalem  about  500  B.C., 


THE   DATE   OF   THE   BOOK  7 

but  such  a  destruction  cannot  be  proved.  And  the  conquest  of 
Antiochus  IV  is  excluded,  because  the  book  of  Joel,  which  was 
not  as  late  as  the  2d  cent,  b.c,  presupposes  Ob.  (v.  i.)  Our  termi- 
nus a  quo  is  thus  586  B.C. 

The  description  of  the  calamity  which  had  befallen  Edom  is  sug- 
gestive. The  enemies  who  had  driven  them  to  the  border  of  their 
land  and  who  had  plundered  them,  had  formerly  been  good  friends 
and  allies,  and  it  was  only  by  treachery  that  they  had  succeeded. 
We  know  from  Diodorus  Siculus  (19,  94)  that  in  312  b.c.  the  Naba- 
teans  were  in  possession  of  Edom's  ancient  seats,  for  it  was  vs.  the 
Nabateans  in  Petra  that  Antigonus  fought  at  that  time.  These 
Nabateans  had  therefore  taken  Mt.  Seir  before  the  end  of  the  4th 
cent,  and  had  driven  Edom  northward  out  of  her  old  territories  into 
the  Negeb.  How  long  before  312  b.c.  they  had  succeeded  in  con- 
quering it,  we  do  not  know.  But  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  catastrophe  which  had  befallen  Edom  in  the  first  half  of 
the  5th  cent,  and  which  is  described  in  Mai.  i*  ^'  was  due  to  a  de- 
feat by  the  Nabateans.  However,  Mai.  i^  *"  does  not  imply  that 
Edom  had  been  driven  out  of  its  ancient  territory.  They  were  still 
undaunted  in  Mal.'s  time  and  confidently  expected  to  retrieve  their 
losses.  We.,  following  Vatke,  suggests  that  Ob.'s  prophetic  in- 
terpretation of  Edom's  fall  was  connected  with  Mai.  i^  ^'  and  that 
it  dealt  with  one  of  the  stages  of  the  Arabian  invasion,  though  not 
necessarily  with  the  same  as  Mai.  i.  We  have  reason  to  believe 
that  these  invasions  began  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  6th  cent. 
and  that  the  occupation  of  the  Negeb  by  Edom  shortly  after  586 
B.C.  {cf.  Ez.  35^"-  ^^  36^)  was  due  in  some  degree  to  the  pressure 
exerted  upon  Edom  by  the  influx  of  the  Arabians  from  the  desert. 
Of  course,  if  the  description  of  Ob.  is  regarded  as  fairly  accurate 
and  if  the  driving  unto  the  border  is  taken  seriously,  it  would  seem 
that  Ob.  wrote  after  Malachi  rather  than  before.  And  so  We.  and 
Now.  date  him.     Marti,  Cor.,  Du.  put  him  before  Mai. 

But  does  not  the  detailed  character  of  the  description  of  the 
events  connected  with  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  make  the  impression 
of  having  been  written  by  one  who  had  first-hand  knowledge,  and 
does  not  the  impassioned  manner  in  which  it  is  given  betray  an 
actual  participant?     If  this  objection  is  sustained  we  cannot  go 


8  OBADIAH 

beyond  the  last  quarter  of  the  6th  cent.  And  we  should  have  to 
refer  the  invasion  of  the  enemies  in  Mt.  Seir  to  one  of  the  earlier 
phases,  perhaps  during  the  exile,  and  we  should  also  have  to  as- 
sume that  the  Edomites  were  able  to  regain  their  territory  from 
which  they  had  been  driven  ace.  to  Ob.  ',  for  in  Mai.  i* ''  they  are 
in  Mt.  Seir.  This  is  not  an  easy  assumption  in  view  of  the  char- 
acter of  Mt.  Seir,  but  it  is  not  impossible.  The  detailed  and  im- 
passioned character  of  the  description  may,  however,  be  accounted 
for  in  another  way.  The  story  of  those  unforgettable  days,  when 
the  holy  city  fell,  must  have  been  told  in  Jerusalem  again  and  again 
in  all  its  details.  Who  knows  whether  in  Ob.'s  own,  or  in  a  related 
or  befriended  family,  there  was  not  a  tradition  of  ancestors  who  had 
either  been  robbed  or  betrayed  or  killed  by  the  Edomites  at  that 
time?  As  the  story  was  told  the  vivid  oriental  imagination  of  Ob. 
was  filled  with  all  those  awful  scenes,  and  made  them  so  real  that 
his  heart  burned  with  anger  and  sorrow.  And  so  when  he  thought 
of  that  day,  he  seemed  to  go  through  those  varied  scenes  himself 
and  to  witness  Edom's  barbarities.  It  is  quite  reasonable  to  ac- 
count thus  for  w.  ^^"",  and  to  assign  Ob.'s  date  after  Mai.  in  the 
5th  cent.,  to  which  the  description  in  vv.  ^^  points  so  strongly. 

This  implies  that  the  older  oracle  from  which  Ob.  quoted  ante- 
dates the  5th  cent.  It  represents  Edom  as  still  living  in  the  rocky 
fastnesses  of  Mt.  Seir,  on  whose  impregnable  character  it  relies  for 
safety,  and  there  is  no  hint  that  it  has  already  sufifered  serious 
reverses.  And  from  the  absence  of  all  reference  to  Edom's  behav- 
iour toward  Judah  in  586  B.C.  it  would  appear  that  the  exile  is 
not  yet  presupposed.  If  we  knew  which  nations  attacked  Edom, 
we  might  perhaps  be  able  to  determine  the  time  more  definitely, 
but  no  hint  about  their  identity  is  given.  The  older  oracle  may 
also  have  had  the  Arabians  in  mind,  but  we  do  not  know. 

In  the  appendix,  vv,  ^^'*-  ^''■'^,  no  historical  situation  is  indicated 
which  might  help  us  fix  its  date  more  exactly.  The  terminus  a  quo 
is,  of  course,  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  cent,  after  the  completion  of 
Ob.  ^""-  ^^^.  And  the  terminus  ad  quern  is  fixed  by  the  date  of  the 
book  Joel,  which  is  dependent  on  Ob.  The  likeness  of  passages 
in  Jo.  to  Ob.  is  limited  to  certain  phrases  (cf.  Ob.  '°  with  Jo.  4*^; 
"  with  4';  "  with  4"  i*^  4*- ';  "  with  3^  4^^).     But  the  comparison 


THE  DATE  OF  THE  BOOK  9 

shows  that  Jo.  knew  not  only  the  older  book  but  also  the  appendix. 
The  fact  that  he  states  in  3^  that  he  quotes  an  older  oracle,  which 
occurs  literally  thus  in  Ob.  ^^,  makes  it  almost  certain  that  he 
used  Ob.  And  since  the  phrase  DDPID  occurs  with  him  also  in  a 
passage  against  Edom  (4'^)  and  the  infrequent  phrase  h'\)i  IT* 
(4^)  is  found  also  in  Ob.,  and  since  Jo.  adds  to  the  phrase  nTil 
^113  (4^^)  a  comment,  the  case  is  decided  for  the  priority  of  Ob. 
If  the  date  of  Jo.  is  correctly  placed  between  400  and  350  B.C. 
this  appendix  must  have  been  added  some  time  before  or  soon 
after  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cent. 

Vv.  ^^'^^  point  in  the  same  direction.  If  the  list  in  w.  *^-  ^"were 
a  description  of  territory  which  Judah  had  already  taken,  it  would 
be  different.  The  passage  would  then  belong  to  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander Jannasus  (103-76  B.C.),  where  Eich.  actually  placed  it.  For 
then  all  this  was  practically  realised.  Edom  had  been  definitely 
conquered  by  John  Hyrcanus,  Galilee  by  Aristobulus  I,  Philistia, 
Moab  and  Gilead  by  Alexander  Jannseus.  But  if  there  were  no 
other  reasons,  the  simple  fact  that  vv.  ^^-  ^^  are  an  expression  of 
hope  and  not  a  description  of  fact  excludes  this.  Knowing  that 
these  verses  must  be  later  than  B.C.  400  we  might  think  of  the 
Maccabean  time,  when  patriotism  flamed  up  once  more  and  when 
the  hope  of  the  reconquest  of  the  old  dominion  seemed  not  un- 
justifiable (We.,  Marti,  Bart.,  Hpt.).  But  Ecclus.  49^"  is  not  fa- 
vourable to  so  late  a  date.  And  the  mention  of  the  Samaritans 
and  Ammonites,  as  well  as  of  the  Philistines  and  Edomites, 
points  to  the  age  of  Nehemiah  or  soon  after.  So  does  also  the 
manner  in  which  the  hope  of  the  reconquest  of  the  ancient  ter- 
ritory is  expressed. 

As  a  matter  of  historical  interest  Hi.'s  interpretation  deserves  to  be  re- 
corded. He  thought  the  oracle  was  written  in  312  B.C.  in  Egypt,  when 
Antigonus  ordered  the  expedition  against  Petra  and  Mt.  Seir.  The 
author  was  a  Jew  who  had  been  carried  off  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagi. 
The  difficult  nrn  hnn  in  v. '"  Hi.  referred  to  the  fortress  in  Egypt  to  which 
the  exiles  had  been  carried.  But  this  date  is  impossible  because  in  312 
B.C.  not  the  Edomites  but  the  Nabateans  occupied  Petra  and  Mt.  Seir. 


lO  OBADIAH 


§3.    THE   INTERPRETATION  OF  THE   BOOK. 

Israel  and  Edom  had  been  enemies  as  far  back  as  they  could 
remember.  From  the  earliest  time  of  their  history  the  two  nations 
had  hated  and  scorned  and  persecuted  each  other.  But  they 
never  forgot  that  they  were  brothers,  though  this  seemed  only 
to  add  to  the  intensity  of  their  hatred. 

When,  therefore,  one  day  the  news  came  that  certain  nations  were 
allying  themselves  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  Edom,  a  prophet 
in  Israel  felt  his  heart  bum  with  the  hope  that  they  would  succeed. 
Doubtless  all  his  people  shared  this  hope.  But  it  soon  became 
more  than  a  hope  with  him,  for  he  became  aware  that  Yahweh 
spoke  to  him  in  his  innermost  being  and  interpreted  to  him  the 
significance  of  these  events.  And  with  the  authority  and  power  of 
a  divine  revelation  upon  him  he  spoke  to  his  people  of  Yahweh's 
decree.  In  brief,  strong  words  uttered  with  true  literary  finish 
he  predicted  Edom's  defeat.  Yahweh  Himself  was  behind  this 
movement.    He  Himself  would  throw  Edom  down  from  its  height. 

We  do  not  know  the  outcome  of  this  campaign  or  when  it  took 
place  or  who  the  attacking  nations  were.  We  do  not  even  know 
who  the  ancient  prophet  was.  But  his  message  must  have  made 
a  profound  impression,  for  though  his  name  perished,  his  words 
were  not  forgotten.  They  were  taken  up  by  two  other  prophets 
and  incorporated  into  their  writings.     One  of  them  was  Obadiah. 

It  was  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.c,  how  long  after  we 
do  not  know,  it  may  have  been  still  during  the  exile  though  it  is 
much  more  probable  that  it  was  over  a  hundred  years  later,  when 
a  great  catastrophe  befell  Edom,  the  Nabatean  invasion,  as  a  re- 
sult of  which  she  lost  her  land  and  her  possessions. 

What  a  tumult  of  joy  the  report  of  this  disaster  excited  in  the 
hearts  of  the  Jews!  Again  there  v^^as  one  among  them  who  gave 
voice  to  their  emotions.  He  remembered  those  clear,  strong  words 
of  the  ancient  prophet  concerning  Edom's  fall.  It  was  as  if  they 
had  been  spoken  but  yesterday!  Surely  they  were  Yahweh's  ora- 
cle concerning  the  events  that  had  just  taken  place!  Yahweh  had 
said  when  some  nations  were  preparing  an  attack  upon  Edom  that 


THE   INTERPRETATION   OF   THE   BOOK  II 

she  would  go  down  in  this  war,  that  nothing  should  save  her  from 
it.  If  her  high  fortresses  were  even  more  inaccessible — yea,  Ob. 
adds,  full  of  exultation,  if  they  were  as  high  as  the  very  stars  in  the 
sky — they  would  be  of  no  avail,  for  behind  these  nations  was  Yah- 
weh  who  would  bring  Edom  down  to  the  ground. — Ha!  Ob.  ex- 
claims, the  fall  has  come,  and  how  terrible  it  has  been!  True 
enough,  as  the  old  prophet  had  said,  an  ordinary  razzia  of  robbers 
and  thieves  would  not  account  for  the  severity  of  the  visitation,  for 
oh,  how  terribly  she  had  been  plimdered,  and  that,  to  add  to  her 
humiliation,  by  her  own  friends  and  former  allies!  They  have 
driven  her  out  of  her  strong,  inaccessible  mountain  seats  to  the 
borders  of  her  land !  Shrewd  and  wary  Edom  had  not  been  shrewd 
enough  to  see  through  their  treacherous  tricks,  by  which  they  pre- 
vailed over  her.  Ah,  was  not  this  also  in  fulfilment  of  the  proph- 
ecy which  had  declared  that  on  that  day  Yahweh  would  take  away 
all  wisdom  from  Edom  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  able  to  es- 
cape complete  destruction  ?  And  surely,  they  have  richly  deserved 
this  fate  by  their  behaviour  toward  Judah  at  the  time  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  by  the  barbarians.  Oh,  that  awful  day!  As 
Ob.  thinks  of  it,  it  suddenly  stands  before  his  mind  with  all  its 
anguish  and  terror.  He  lives  again  through  its  horrors,  sees  the 
Edomites  full  of  malicious  joy  over  Judah's  calamity,  hears  their 
words  of  scorn  and  ridicule,  sees  them  coming  into  the  city  to  loot 
and  to  plunder,  sees  them  cutting  down  fugitive  Jews  at  the  cross- 
roads, and  overmastered  by  his  emotion  he  breaks  forth  into  pas- 
sionate warnings,  as  if  Edom  were  even  now  doing  these  things. 
Then  he  recovers  himself  and  with  one  brief  sentence  he  breaks 
off.  As  thou  hast  done  so  is  it  done  to  thee,  thy  reward  returns  upon 
thine  own  head!  And  with  this  note  of  satisfaction  his  words  end. 
Again  the  years  passed  on,  how  many  we  do  not  know,  perhaps  a 
hundred  years,  perhaps  more.  The  Nabatean  invaders  had  long 
driven  Edom  from  Mt.  Seir.  But  still  the  Edomites  lived  on  as  a 
nation,  closer  neighbours  of  Judah  than  before  the  exile,  for  they 
were  settled  in  ancient  Judean  territory,  in  the  South  country,  the 
Negeb,  and  they  still  cherished  their  hatred  for  their  brother  na- 
tion. The  Jews  had  lost  their  poUtical  independence  and  mili- 
tar}^  power  and  could  no  longer  expect  to  punish  foreign  insolence 


12  OBADIAH 

by  force.  But  they  had  not  lost  their  keen  sense  of  justice  and 
their  ardent  hope  that  some  day  Yahweh  would  set  all  things  right 
in  this  world  and  restore  his  nation  Israel  to  her  former  glory.  And 
again  a  man  of  patriotic  heart  and  prophetic  mind  arose  and  gave 
utteratice  to  this  hope  and  brought  the  judgment  of  Edom  into 
this  larger  connection.  Formerly  the  great  movements  of  history 
as  they  affected  the  fate  of  Israel  could  be  interpreted  by  the  proph- 
ets as  parts  of  Yahweh's  plan.  There  were  no  such  movements 
now,  no  nation  like  the  Assyrians  or  Babylonians,  no  king  like 
Cyrus  that  a  prophetic  mind  could  regard  as  Yahweh's  special  in- 
strument. Not  even  the  Nabateans  were  stirring;  that  peril  was 
over.  But  Yahweh  was  living  still  and  controlling  the  affairs  of 
this  world,  and  He  was  just,  and  He  was  still  Israel's  God.  This 
our  prophet  knows  and  believes  with  all  the  intensity  of  his  spirit. 
And  out  of  the  living  experience  of  the  reality  and  truth  of  these 
convictions  there  grows  afresh  in  his  heart  the  hope,  which  becomes 
an  assurance,  that  the  day  was  near  when  Yahweh  would  righten 
all  the  affairs  of  this  world,  when  He  would  judge  all  nations.  It 
would  be  a  terrible  day.  But  only  for  the  other  nations  not  for  the 
Jews,  for  they  had  already  received  their  punishment  at  the  hands 
of  Yahweh.  Through  this  coming  awful  crisis  those  who  were 
still  left  would  pass  unharmed  and  after  the  catastrophe  they  would 
dwell  once  more  safely  on  Mt.  Zion  never  to  be  driven  out  again 
by  foreign  invaders.  On  the  contrary,  they  themselves  will  then 
drive  out  the  nations  that  had  dispossessed  them  and  taken  their 
property.  Then  also  Edom's  turn  will  come,  then  that  cruel 
brother  Esau  also  will  receive  his  reward  at  the  hands  of  Jacob, 
who  will  exterminate  him. 

That  our  author  proceeded  to  give  a  further  explanation  of  how 
w.  "^-  ^*  were  to  be  understood,  has  seemed  to  us  more  likely 
than  that  he  stopped  here  at  the  end  of  v.  '^  and  that  somebody 
else  wrote  the  continuation,  when  in  that  great  time  of  the  Mac- 
cabean  uprising  the  national  feeling  ran  high  and  the  reconquest 
of  all  the  territory  was  hoped  for,  and  when  Edom  again  was  be- 
having cruelly  toward  Judah,  however  appropriate  then  the  whole 
prophecy  might  have  been.  Doubtless  it  cheered  the  Jews  then! 
All  the  former  territory  with  its  ideal  limits  would  be  retaken  by 


THE  PROPHET  AND  HIS  BOOK  13 

Israel.  That  meant,  of  course,  the  exiles  of  Israel  and  of  Judah. 
They  will  come  back  and  reconquer  all  of  Palestine  E.  andW.  of  the 
Jordan  and  in  the  N.  as  far  as  Zarepta  and  in  the  S.  including  the 
cities  of  the  Negeb.  And  they  will  march  to  Mt.  Zion  in  order  to 
help  their  brethren  in  their  expedition  vs.  Edom.  And  after  that 
the  glorious  day  will  break,  when  Yahweh's  kingdom  will  be 
established  and  when  He  will  reign  alone. 

There  are  three  modes  of  interpreting  the  book  of  Ob.  The  first  in- 
terprets it  as  a  prediction  ot  future  events.  This  has  been  the  usual  in- 
terpretation up  to  recent  years.  The  second  interprets  it  as  a  poetic  nar- 
rative of  past  events  (We.) ;  the  third  as  a  prophetic  estimate  of  present, 
just  transpiring,  events  (Marti).  In  the  preceding  paragraphs  justice 
has  been  done  to  all  these  interpretations.  The  older  prophet  who  is 
quoted,  and  the  authors  of  the  appendix  spoke  of  the  future.  '  Ob.  gave 
a  prophetic  estimate  of  events  that  had  taken  or  were  just  taking  place 
in  his  own  time. 

§  4.    THE  PROPHET  AND   HIS  BOOK. 

It  seems  most  reasonable  to  identify  Ob.  with  the  prophetic 
writer  of  the  5th  cent,  and  not  with  the  author  of  the  older  oracle 
from  whom  he  quoted.  The  various  identifications  of  Ob.,  e.  g., 
with  the  officer  of  Ahab,  i  K.  18^  ^•,  or  with  the  teacher  of  the 
law  under  Joshaphat,  2  Ch.  if,  or  with  the  overseer  under  Josiah, 
2  Ch.  34^^,  or  with  the  anonymous  prophet  under  Amaziah,  2  Ch. 
25',  are  all  without  historical  basis.  We  know  nothing  of  Ob. 
aside  from  his  book.  Tradition  varies  even  in  regard  to  the  pro- 
nunciation of  his  name.  The  Heb.  pronounces  it  Obadiah,  wor- 
shipper of  Yahweh,  the  Gk.  Abdiah,  servant  of  Yahweh.  It  has 
even  been  suggested  that  it  is  a  symbolic  name  for  prophet  of  Yah- 
weh. But  its  frequent  occurrence  as  a  common  personal  name 
makes  it  unsuitable  for  such  a  use.  It  is  obvious  that  we  cannot 
characterise  him  from  the  few  verses  that  he  wrote.  But  we  are 
aware  that  his  strong  way  of  putting  things,  his  graphic  descrip- 
tions, his  love  for  striking  pictures,  his  quick  exclamations,  his 
impassioned  warnings  throbbing  with  anger  and  sorrow,  made  all 
aglow  by  a  wonderfully  vivid  imagination,  reveal  a  strong,  passion- 
ate nature  uncurbed  by  prophetic  discipline  and  experience. 


14  OBADIAH 

He  heard  Yahweh  in  the  voice  of  older  prophecy  and  of  history, 
and  on  the  basis  of  his  profound  belief  in  the  consistency  and  jus- 
tice of  Yahweh  he  interpreted  the  stirring  events  of  his  time. 

His  vision  was  narrow  and  the  conviction  that  justice  must  tri- 
umph was  expressed  in  particularistic  form.  Yet  it  voiced  the 
feelings  of  his  own  day  and  the  passionate  hopes  of  succeeding 
days!  No  wonder  that  a  later  writer  readapted  the  little  book  to 
his  time  by  bringing  the  judgment  of  Edom  into  the  larger  scheme 
of  universal  judgment,  and  that  this  later  writer  saw  in  it  an  ex- 
pression of  the  great  national  hope  and  added  his  brief  interpreta- 
tion, so  that  it  became  a  book  for  all  times  and  could  pass  on  from 
age  to  age  with  its  burning  message,  ever  setting  hearts  on  fire. 
Small  though  it  was,  it  came  to  be  thought  worthy  of  a  place  in  the 
canon.  fAnd  again  and  again  when  their  enemies  oppressed  them, 
the  Jews  would  turn  to  it  for  consolation.  After  Edom  had  per- 
ished, it  became  the  type  of  Israel's  foes.  The  name  of  the  enemies 
changed;  first  the  Romans,  then  the  Christians  became  the  Edom- 
ites  for  the  Jews!  And  ever  through  the  long  centuries  did  this 
little  book,  which  contained  no  wonderful  vision  and  no  great  word, 
voice  the  stifled  cry  for  vengeance  as  it  rose  from  the  heart  of  the 
oppressed  people,  and,  Jewish  to  its  core,  it  fed  the  himgry  soul  of 
the  sufifering  people  again  and  again  with  the  hope  that  the  day  of 
vengeance  was  coming  and  that  the  day  of  triumph  was  at  hand! 
The  voice  was  so  eager,  so  insistent,  so  full  of  throbbing  passion 
that  it  compelled  them  to  listen.  And  though  the  hope  it  inspired 
was  selfish  and  far  below  Israel's  highest  vision,  it  made  it  possible 
for  many  Jews  to  go  on  believing  in  the  moral  government  of  the 
world,  in  the  justice  of  their  God.  Ay,  the  pathos  of  the  little 
book! 

Ob.  follows  directly  upon  Amos  in  the  Heb.  Canon.  But  this  posi- 
tion is  not  due  to  historical  considerations  but  to  the  reference  to  Edom 
in  the  conclusion  of  Am.  The  book  of  Ob.  appeared  to  the  editor  to  be 
an  expansion  of  Am.  9"  and  so  he  put  it  after  Am.  Schnurrer  showed 
this  already  in  1787  (Dissertatio  philologica  in  Obadiam).  It  is  there- 
fore surprising  that  Ew.  should  regard  the  position  in  the  canon  impor- 
tant for  fixing  the  date  of  the  older  oracle  (Urobadja).  Bu.  suggests  that 
Ob.  may  have  been  inserted  into  the  proph.  canon  not  only  because 
Edom  could  not  be  passed  over  but  in  order  to  fill  up  the  number  twelve. 


THE   TEXT.      THE   METRE  15 


§  s.    THE  TEXT. 

The  text  of  Ob.  is,  on  the  whole,  in  good  condition.  About  the 
textcritical  aid  of  the  Vrss.  nothing  special  for  Ob.  need  be  said. 
But  in  connection  with  the  use  of  the  parall.  passage  in  Je.  49  it 
must  constantly  be  kept  in  mind  that  our  aim  is  to  restore  the  text 
of  Ob.;  not  the  text  of  the  orig.  oracle  from  which  Ob.  quoted,  but 
the  form  of  the  text  which  Ob.  wrote  down.  Just  as  in  an  OT. 
quotation  in  Paul's  letters  we  do  not  restore  the  reading  of  (B,  if  he 
does  not  quote  exactly,  because  we  want  Paul's  way  of  quoting  it, 
so  in  Ob.  we  may  note  his  variations  from  the  quoted  oracle  but 
must  not  substitute  such  readings  imless  we  are  certain  that  the 
variants  in  Ob.  are  not  due  to  Ob.  himself  but  to  corruption.  The 
restoration  of  the  original  oracle  underlying  Ob.  and  Je.  is  an  en- 
tirely different  task. 

An  interesting,  though  unconvincing,  reconstruction  of  this  older 
source  by  the  aid  of  the  metre  was  presented  in  ThStK.,  1907,  pp.  315- 
43,  by  H.  Bekel,  Ein  vorexilisches  Orakel  iiber  Edom  in  der  Klagelieder- 
strophe — die  gemeinsame  Quelle  von  Obadja  1-9  und  Jeremia  49,  7-22. 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Losung  des  Verwandtschafts problems  in  beiden  Texten. 


§6.    THE  METRE. 

The  prophets  wrote  their  messages  in  rhythmic  form  and  the 
recognition  of  their  metrical  scheme  is  of  great  importance  for 
textual  and  literary  criticism.  This  holds  true  of  the  book  of 
Ob.  also.  And  we  observe  that  an  arrangement  of  its  rhythmic 
structure,  which  suggests  itself  naturally  and  which  requires  no  ar- 
tificial reconstruction,  corroborates  our  literary  results.  It  shows 
that  Ob.  did  quote  from  an  older  oracle  in  the  first  section,  that  he 
himself  preferred  the  pentameter  movement  and  that  he  used  it 
wherever  he  did  not  feel  himself  botmd  to  the  metrical  structure  of 
the  older  oracle,  as  is  clear  from  those  verses  in  which  he  gives  his 
own  interpretation,  as  in  vv.  '•  '•  ^^".  Indeed,  even  in  his  quota- 
tion from  the  older  oracle,  vv.  ^^^-  *  are  a  tetrastich  of  pentameters 


l6  OBADIAH 

owing  to  his  modifications.  Notice  also  the  pentameter  which 
introduces  the  quotation  in  v.  ^. — The  different  metrical  structure 
of  the  appendix  points  to  its  secondariness,  and  the  irregularity 
of  vv.  '^*-  **'^*  to  the  fact  that  the  author  has  collected  several 
originally  not  connected  elements  into  this  section. 

The  metrical  and  strophical  form  of  Ob.  has  only  in  recent  years  re- 
ceived close  attention.  Eich.  had  indeed  printed  his  transl.  in  metre  as 
early  as  1819,  being  convinced  that  the  addresses  of  the  prophets  were 
always  rhythmic,  and  Bu,  had  shown  {ZAW.,  1882,  p.  34)  that  w.  ••  ' 
and  "-'S  and  also  {ZAW..  1883,  pp.  305  /.)  v.  ">  are  in  kinah-mea.suTe. 
But  Con.  was  the  first  to  take  up  the  problem  as  a  whole  in  1900. 
His  main  interest  was  to  prove  the  unity  of  Ob.  by  the  strophical 
arrangement  of  the  oracle.  He  used  Zenner's  artificial  chorus-theory 
with  its  strophes  and  antistrophes  and  presented  a  very  regular  scheme, 
with  natural  and  effective  divisions.  But  that  these  were  intended  as 
strophes  and  antistrophes  he  did  not  show.  And  even  if  it  could  be 
shown,  how  can  the  strophical  arrangement  alone  be  sufiScient  to  prove 
the  unity  of  the  book,  when  other  arguments  are  opposed  to  it?  In 
contrast  to  Con.,  Siev.  (1901)  treated  not  the  strophic  structure  but  the 
rhythmic  form  which  Con.  had  neglected.  He  showed  in  a  careful  con- 
tribution that  the  oracle  is  rhythmic  throughout,  but  with  little  regular- 
ity.— JMPS.  (1906)  used  both  metr.  and  stroph.  considerations  as  means 
for  textual  and  literary  criticism.  While  Con.  had  tried  to  prove  the 
unity,  Smith  tried  to  show  by  the  use  of  the  metr.  and  stroph.  structure 
that  the  book  is  composite.  According  to  him  it  consists  of  three  ele- 
ments which  are  "not  vitally  related  to  one  another"  and  which  "differ 
in  form,  in  thought,  in  point  of  view  and  in  spirit."  They  are:  A,  vv. 
i-7e.  10.  II.  i6b^  composed  of  five  six-line  trimeter  strophes,  B,  w.  '^-'S  one 
six-line  kinah  or  pentameter  movement,  C,  vv.  •'»•  '«■",  composed  of 
three  strophes  of  4,  8  and  8  lines  respectively,  with  broken  rhythm,  vary- 
ing between  trimeter  and  tetrameter.  And  besides  these  "  the  fragment, 
w. '-',"  a  five-line  strophe.  Smith's  stroph.  arrangement  is  less  natural 
than  Con.'s,  and  in  his  endeavour  to  get  strophes  of  uniform  length  he 
has  to  reconstruct  the  text  quite  freely.  On  vv. «-'«,  v.  i.  In  the  same 
year  (1906)  Now.  published  a  careful  metr.  and  textcrit.  edition  which 
forms  the  best  basis  for  further  investigation  along  these  lines.  In  1907 
Siev.  tried  to  show  with  the  aid  of  the  metre  that  the  book  is  composed  of 
four  originally  unrelated  sections:  I,  w.  "•■  *■  "*  '••  *'■  '•  '••  **>  '  '  in 
pentameter  form,  II,  vv.  ">^<»-  '••  ">«•  '"•■'*•  '">  in  heptameter  form,  III, 
vv.  "•  "•  18  in  heptameters  followed  by  trimeters,  IV,  w.  '»='  in  hepta- 
meters.  I  is  most  likely  the  orig.  oracle.  II  and  III  were  probably  two 
originally  independent  pieces  which  originated  under  similar  circum- 


MODERN   LITERATURE  1 7 

stances,  III  being  more  likely  a  fragment  of  a  larger  piece  than  an  ap- 
pendix to  II.  IV  is  a  later  appendix.  In  the  deletion  of  secondary 
elements  Siev.  follows  We.,  Now.  and  Marti,  but  wherever  his  metr.  re- 
construction requires  it  he  goes  beyond  them.  Thus  he  omits,  e.  g.,  all 
the  negatives  in  vv.  '^-k^  which  is  textcritically  unjustifiable.  In  order  to 
get  a  regular  scheme  he  resorts  to  transpositions  (in  I  and  II)  which  can- 
not be  naturally  explained,  and  ignores  the  one  principle  of  Heb.  metre, 
the  parall.  of  the  lines,  which  has  so  long  been  regarded  as  fundamental 
(^•>  ^-  g-,  vv.  i"").  Nevertheless,  Siev.'s  contribution  is  of  great  value  for 
the  rhythm.  In  1909  Marti  published  a  transl.  in  which  he  expressed 
the  textcrit.,  literary  and  metr.  results  of  his  commentary.  It  occupies 
essentially  the  same  position  as  Now.^,  but  treats  w.  "-2'  also  as  met- 
rical.— Kent's  metr.  translation  of  1910  is  somewhat  marred  by  the  rep- 
resentation of  w.  '2-14. — The  most  recent  metr.  transl.  is  that  by  Du. 
(1910)  in  which  he  represents  vv.  '-'s  (without  the  add.  of  vv.  ">•  ''^'P-  ^■ 
».  13. p.  15 «)  in  i^  stanzas  of  two  distichs  each,  apparently,  in  pentameter 
movement.  The  appendix  he  prints  as  prose.  The  metrical  scheme  of 
Ob.  is,  however,  not  as  regular  as  Du.  would  lead  one  to  believe  and  in 
so  far  his  transl.  does  not  represent  the  metre  of  the  original. 


§  7.    MODERN  LITERATURE. 

(i)  Commentators  dealing  with  all  the  Minor  Prophets. — Eich- 
horn,  1819;  Ewald,  2  1868  (Engl,  1875);  Hitzig,  ^  1843;  Hitzig- 
Steiner,  *  1881;  Pusey,  1861;  Keil,  ^  1873  (Engl.,  1880),^  1888; 
von  Orelli,  1888  (Engl.,  1893), '  1908;  Wellhausen,  1892,  ^  1898; 
G.  A.  Smith,  1897-98;  Nowack,  1898,  ^  1903;  Marti,  1903,  van 
Hoonacker,  1908. 

(2)  Special  commentaries  on  Ohadiah. — P.  C.  Caspari,  Der 
Prophet  Obadja,  1842.  Kleinert,  in  Lange's  Bibelwerk,  1868 
(Engl.,  1875).  Norbert  Peters,  Die  Prophetie  Obadjahs,  1892. 
T.  T.  Perowne,  Obadiah  and  Jonah,  in  the  Cambridge  Bible,  1889. 
Wynkoop,  in  Abr.  Kahana's  Biblia  Hebraica,  1906  (Hebrew). 
Halevy,  Le  Livre  d'Obadia,  in  his  Recherches  Bibliques,  IV,  1907, 
pp.  452-70.  Marti,  in  Kautzsch's  Die  Heilige  Schrift  des  Alien 
Testaments,  '  1909.  Kent,  Students'  Old  Testament,  III,  19 10. 
The  last  two  give  a  translation  and  brief  notes. 

(3)  Special  articles. — Winckler,  AOF,  Zweite  Reihe,  Band  III, 
Heft  I,  1900,  pp.  425-32,  Heft  2,  1901,  p.  455.     Selbie,  in  DB., 


1 8  OBADIAH 

III,  1900.  Cheyne,  in  EB.,  Ill,  1902.  Barton,  in  JE.,  IX,  1905. 
Bruston,  Les  plus  anciens  ProphHes.  Etude  Critique,  1907.  G. 
B.  Gray,  in  Hastings's  one  vol.  ed.,  1909.  G.  A.  Peckham,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  ofObadiah,  19 10.  See  also  the  Introductions, 
esp.  those  by  Driver,  ®  1909;  Konig,  1893;  Comill,  ^  1905;  and 
Budde,  Geschichte  der  althehraischen  Litteratur,  1906,  and  Das 
Prophetische  Schrifttum,  1906. 

(4)  The  text  and  metre. — Vollers,  Das  Dodekapropheton  der  Al- 
exandriner,  ZAW.,  IV,  1884,  pp.  16/.  Sebok,  Die  Syrische  Uber- 
setzung  der  zw'olf  kleinen  Propheten,  1887.  Graetz,  Emendationes 
in  plerosque  sacra  Scripturce  Veteris  Testamenti  libros,  II,  1893. 
Ehrlich,  Mikrd  ki-Pheschuto,  III,  1901.  Cheyne,  Critica  Biblica, 
II,  1903,  Oesterley,  Codex  Taurinensis  (Y),  JTS.,  VII,  1906, 
pp.  518^.  Nowack,  in  Kittel's  Biblia  Hebraica,  1906.  Con- 
damin,  L'Unite  d'Abdias,  RB.,  IX,  1900,  pp.  261-68.  Sievers, 
Metrische  Studien,  I,  1901,  pp.  479-82,  and  Alttestamentliche  Mis- 
cellen,  VII,  pp.  38-49,  in  Berichte  iiber  d.  Verhandl.  d.  Kgl.  Sachs. 
Ges.  d.  Wissensch.,  59  Band,  1907.  J.  M.  P.  Smith,  The  Structure 
ofObadiah,  AJSL.,  XXII,  1906,  pp.  131-38.  Duhm,  Die  Zwolf 
Propheten  in  den  Versmassen  der  Urschrijt  iiber setzt,  19 10. 

(5)  Edom. — Buhl,  Die  Geschichte  der  Edomiter,  1893.  C.  C. 
Torrey,  The  Edomites  in  Southern  Judah,  JBL.,  XVII,  1898,  pp. 
16-20.  F.  H.  Vincent,  Les  Nabateens,  RB.,  VII,  1898,  pp.  567- 
88.  Baudissin,  in  PRE.^  V,  1898.  Sayce,  DB.,  II,  1899.  Nol- 
deke,  EB.,  II,  1910.  Briinnow  und  v.  Domaszewski,  Die  Pro- 
vincia  Arabia,  I,  1904.  Libbey  and  Hoskins,  The  Jordan  Val- 
ley and  Petra,  2  vols.,  1905.  Musil,  Arabia  Petraea,  II,  1908. 
Dalman,  Petra  und  seine  Felsenheiligtumer,  1908.  G.  A.  Smith, 
The  Land  of  Edom,  Exp.,  beginning  Oct.,  1908  Jf. 


COMMENTARY  ON  OBADIAH. 

The  title,  the  Vision  of  Obadiah,  does  not  give  time,  home  or 
father's  name  of  the  prophet.  Vision  is  a  technical  name  for 
prophecy,  referring  to  the  divine  communication  received  in  the 
ecstatic  state.  Later  it  referred  esp.  to  the  eschatological  drama 
which  formed  its  contents.  Here,  as  in  Is.  i^  Na.  i\  it  is  used  as 
the  title  of  a  book.  The  introd.,  thus  saith  the  Lord  Yahweh  con- 
cerning Edom,  with  its  emphasis  on  the  sovereignty  of  Yahweh 
(cf.  Am.  7^  8*)  may  be  intended  either  for  the  whole  oracle  or, 
better,  only  for  the  older  oracle  which  is  quoted  in  w.  *  ^•. 

Vv.  1-4.  An  older  oracle  had  declared  when  certain  nations  were 
allying  themselves  for  war  against  Edom  that  the  outcome  would  be 
Edam's  downfall.  Nothing  would  save  her;  even  if  her  impregna- 
ble fortresses  were  still  stronger,  they  would  be  of  no  avail,  because 
Yahweh  Himself  would  bring  Edom  down. 

On  the  older  oracle  and  Ob.'s  relation  to  Je.  see  Intro.  Since  Ob. 
quotes  here  we  may  take  the  impf.  in  v.  ^,  I  will  bring  her  down,  as  refer- 
ring to  the  fut.  and  the  pfs.  in  vv.  ''•  ^  as  proph.  pfs.,  even  though  in  later 
verses  Ob.  speaks  of  the  past.  Those  who  do  not  perceive  that  Ob.  is 
quoting  see  in  w.  '-*  a  description  of  past  (We.)  or  of  just  transpiring 
events  (Marti). 

1.  We  have  heard  an  audition,  or  oracle,  may  also  be  translated, 
We  have  heard  a  report  or  tidings  (RV.).  But  then  the  phrase/row 
Yahweh  is  without  point,  for  it  is  not  the  news  of  the  formation  of 
an  alliance  that  has  been  received  from  Yahweh,  but  the  oracle  in 
w.  ^"^  which  interprets  the  significance  of  this  historic  movement. 
And  so  the  foil,  sentence,  and  a  messenger  was  sent  among  the  na- 
tions, is  neither  grammatically  or  logically  dependent  on  we  have 
heard,  but  marks  the  circumstance,  and  should  therefore  be  trans- 
lated by  when  or  while  a  messenger  was  being  sent  among  the  na- 
tions. Only  thus  is  v.  *  a  natural  introduction  to  v.  ^.  A  messenger, 
or  messengers  (coll.  sg.),  is  going  from  country  to  country  trying 

19 


20  OBADIAH 

to  persuade  the  various  nations  to  join  an  alliance  against  Edom. 
This  is  still  going  on — for  the  parall.  in  Je.  49  gives  the  more  force- 
ful and  better  interpretation  by  reading  sent  as  a  prtc. — when  Yah- 
weh  suddenly  reveals  to  his  prophet  that  He  is  behind  the  move- 
ment (vv.  ^'*).  Ace.  to  the  better  text  of  Je.  49  this  was  revealed  to 
the  proph.  alone  in  an  audition:  I  have  heard.  It  is  the  prophets 
and  not  the  people  in  general  that  are  the  recipients  of  the  divine 
revelation  and  interpretation  of  historic  events  (r/.  Am.  3^  Is.  5"). 
In  the  Heb.  text  of  Ob.  it  is,  however,  not  the  proph.  alone  but  also 
the  people,  for  it  reads  we  have  heard.  Since  they  cannot  all  have 
had  an  audition  we  seem  forced  to  translate  hearing  by  rumor,  but 
if  we  do  this,  v.  ^  stands  in  no  immediate  connection  with  v.  ^.  The 
reading  we  have  heard  is  therefore  inferior,  as  not  only  Je.  49  but 
also  (^  in  our  text  shows.  When  the  proph.  received  the  revela- 
tion he  did  not  see  in  his  ecstatic  state  the  messenger,  one  of  the 
heavenly  beings,  who  was  to  go  to  the  nations,  nor  did  he  hear  the 
message  which  Yahweh  commanded  him  to  give.  For  the  mes- 
senger was  no  angel,  nor  are  we  told  that  he  was  sent  by  Yahweh, 
though  <g  interprets  thus.  He  was  human  and  sent  by  some  na- 
tion, for  he  identifies  himself  with  the  nations  to  which  he  goes. 
All  this  is  clear  when  the  circumstantial  character  of  the  clause 
when  a  messenger  was  being  sent  among  the  nations  is  recognised. 
Who  these  na/fow5  were  is  left  unsaid.  C/.  onv. '.  Nor  do  we  know 
which  nation  was  the  soul  of  the  confederacy.  The  purport  of  the 
message  is  summarised  in  direct  speech.  It  is  due  to  the  excite- 
ment or  rather  to  the  rhythmic  movement  of  the  sentences  in  the 
orig.  that  it  is  not  introduced  by  saying;  similarly,  e.  g.,  Is.  3^-  ". 
The  messenger's  call  to  a  military  alliance  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
throwing Edom,  Rise  ye,  and  let  us  rise  up  against  her  for  war! 
reads  somewhat  differently  and  more  nearly  as  the  older  oracle  in 
Je.  49",  Gather  yourselves  together,  and  come  against  her,  and  rise 
up  for  war!  The  dramatic  element  in  this  brief,  graphic  descrip- 
tion should  not  be  overlooked.  The  name  of  the  nation  against 
which  the  alliance  is  formed  is  not  given.  The  people  to  whom  the 
messenger  spoke  knew,  of  course,  who  was  meant.  And  we  know 
it  from  the  heading  both  in  Ob.  and  in  Je.,  and  also  from  the  de- 
scription of  the  mountain  people  in  the  foil,  verses  which  can  only 


1-4  21 

refer  to  Edom.  It  is  strange  that  the  messenger  says  against  her, 
when  all  through  the  rest  of  the  book  Edom  is  masc.  We  should 
probably  restore  the  masc,  but  he  may  have  thought  of  the  land 
(fern.)  rather  than  of  the  people  (masc). — So  far  all  is  introd., 
giving  the  hist,  circumstances.  Novi^  the  oracle  begins.  Yahweh 
explains  the  underlying  significance  of  this  alliance.  It  is  in  line 
with  his  purpose  concerning  Edom.  He  Himself  is  behind  the 
movement.     The  nations  are  but  His  instruments. 

2.  Behold,  I  will  make  thee  small  among  the  nations.  The  pf. 
is  to  be  translated  by  the  fut.,  because  it  is  the  proph.  pf.  It  is 
so  certain  that  he  points  to  it,  behold!  as  if  it  were  already  accom- 
plished. The  nations  are  here  all  the  nations,  not  merely  the  ones 
referred  to  in  v.  ^.  Thus  the  parall.  in  Je.  49^^  reads  among  men 
for  Ob.'s  more  orig.  exceedingly.  Scorn  is  added  to  humiliation, 
making  the  misfortime  more  bitter. — 3.  But  Edom  is  full  of  de- 
fiance. She  thinks  her  mountain  fortresses  invincible  and  makes 
light  of  the  threatening  danger.  But  this  time  she  is  mistaken. 
The  pride  of  thy  heart  has  deceived  thee.  The  subj.  stands  in  an 
emphatic  position  and  the  term  used  is  very  forcible.  O  thou  that 
dwellest  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock!  The  rock  (selah)  may  be  either 
the  rocks  of  Mt.  Seir  in  general  (sg.  coll.)  or  it  may  have  special 
reference  to  the  capital  Selah,  the  later  Petra.  That  makest  high 
thy  habitation.  A  slight  change  in  the  vocalisation  of  the  text  has 
been  adopted  on  the  authority  of  the  Vrss.  M  reads  the  height 
of  his  habitation,  v.  i.  The  natural  strongholds  of  the  high  cliffs  of 
Mt.  Seir  and  esp.  of  Petra  have  been  frequently  described  by  trav- 
ellers. Nature  itself  appeared  to  justify  Edom's  proud  self-re- 
liance. No  wonder  that  he  thinks  or,  as  the  Heb.  puts  it,  says  in 
his  heart  (for  to  the  Heb.  the  heart  is  the  seat  of  the  intellect  as  well 
as  of  emotion  and  volition),  Who  shall  bring  me  down  to  the  ground  ? 
A  proud,  defiant  question!  Je.  49  does  not  have  this  graphic 
sentence,  but  it  must  not,  therefore,  be  omitted  in  Ob. — 4.  What 
an  unexpected  reply  there  comes!  Though  thou  mount  high  as  the 
eagle,  higher  than  any  other  bird  (Jb.  39^^  ^-  Pr.  23^),  yea,  though 
thou  set  thy  nest  among  the  stars,  even  thence  will  I  bring  thee  down, 
saith  Yahweh.  Cf.  Am.  9'  ^-  Is.  14'^  ^•.  The  parall.  in  Je.  49  omits 
yea,  though  thou  set  thy  nest  among  the  stars  and  reads  though  thou 


22  OBADIAH 

htiildest  thy  Jiest  as  high  as  the  eagle,  I  will  bring  thee  down  thence. 
Ob.  makes  this  more  forcible.  Edom's  seats  are  even  now  on  the 
high  cliffs  where  the  eagles  build  their  nests,  and  they  may  well 
seem  inaccessible,  but  if  Edom  should  soar  as  high  as  the  eagle  and 
build  her  nest  in  the  very  sky,  where  the  eagle  only  flies  but  does 
not  nest,  even  there  she  would  not  be  safe,  even  thence  will  I  bring 
thee  down,  says  Yahweh.  The  additions  in  vv.  ^-  *  show  the  vivid 
imagination  and  intense  feeling  of  Ob. 

5-7.  This  older  oracle  has  been  fulfilled.  The  fall  from  the  height 
has  come.  Ha  I  how  completely  Edom  has  just  been  cleaned  out ! 
How  thoroughly  her  rich  treasure-stores  have  just  been  rifled!  And 
she  herself  has  been  driven  from  her  impregnable  seats  to  the  border 
of  her  country.  Former  allies  have  done  it  by  treachery  which  Edom 
was  too  stupid  to  see  through! 

Clearly  a  fresh  beginning  is  made  here.  This  is  no  longer  merely  a 
quotation  from  an  older  oracle.  The  vividness  of  the  exclamations,  the 
use  of  the  past  tenses  and  esp.  the  detailed  description  in  v.  '  show  that 
Ob.  describes  now  with  some  of  the  terms  of  the  old  oracle  its  fulfilment 
in  the  ruin  of  Edom  which  had  taken  place  in  his  own  time.  Edom,  in 
vv.  '■■',  still  proud  and  defiant  in  her  ancient  seats  on  Mt.  Seir,  has  been 
driven  from  these  strongholds  and  has  lost  all  her  great  riches  (w.  '•  "). 

Grammatically  the  pfs.  in  these  verses  may,  of  course,  be  either  hist., 
describing  past  or  present  events,  or  proph.,  describing  the  future  with 
an  assurance  as  if  it  were  already  past.  The  use  of  one  impf.  at  the 
end  of  v.  ',  they  lay,  or  shall  lay,  snares  under  thee,  might  seem  to  point 
to  the  latter  cstr.,  if  it  could  not  just  as  well  be  transl.  they  kept  setting 
traps  (GASm.).  It  does,  therefore,  not  decide  the  question  in  favour  of 
the  predictive  interpretation.  The  material  for  a  decision  is  given  by  the 
relation  of  the  verses  to  the  orig.  oracle.  The  comparison  with  the 
parall.  in  Je.  49  (cf.  p.  35/.),  shows  that  Ob.  utilises  portions  of  the  old 
oracle  but  modifies  the  prediction  to  a  hist,  retrospect  and  finally  de- 
scribes the  fulfilment  in  words  of  his  own.  In  Je.  the  prediction  is  still 
preserved,  in  Ob.  the  prediction  has  become  history. 

The  details  of  the  description  of  the  hist,  situation  are  not  quite  cer- 
tain. Who  the  enemies  are,  we  are  not  told.  They  are  not  necessarily 
the  same  enemies  in  w.  °"'  that  the  older  proph.,  from  whom  Ob.  quoted, 
was  speaking  of  in  v.  ',  for  Ob.  lived,  of  course,  later.  We  do  not  know 
w-hom  the  older  proph.  referred  to,  nor  are  we  sure  whom  Ob.  meant, 
though  he  defines  them  as  former  friends  and  allies.  This  might  refer 
to  Moab  and  Ammon,  but  no  hist,  tradition  has  been  preserved  that  they 
defeated  Edom  in  postcxilic  times.     It  is  much  rather  the  Arabians,  as 


5-7  23 

We.  has  shown,  who  pressed  upon  the  Edomites  from  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  cent,  on  and  who  eventually  drove  them  out  of  their  territory 
toward  the  north,  so  that  we  find  in  312  B.C.  the  ancient  seat  of  Edom, 
Mt.  Seir,  in  the  hands  of  the  Nabateans — while  the  Edomites  were  dwell- 
ing in  the  Negeb,  into  which  they  had  poured  after  the  Bab.  exile  had  de- 
populated Jerusalem  and  the  Judean  cities  and  left  them  at  the  mercy  of 
their  neighbours. 

Note  that  Ob.,  in  harmony  with  the  hist,  situation  just  outlined,  speaks 
of  the  thorough  plundering  and  dispossession  of  Edom,  not  of  its  ab- 
solute extermination.  The  terms  of  the  older  oracle,  preserved  in  Je. 
49""',  were  too  strong  for  him. 

5-7.  The  thought  of  v.  ^  gets  its  full  significance  from  the  foU. 
Thieves  would  steal  only  as  much  as  they  want  and  vintagers  would 
leave  gleanings,  but  how  fearfully  has  Edom  been  plundered! 
Thieves  or  robbers  can  never  have  done  that!  The  orig.  con- 
tinuation of  the  thought  is  preserved  in  Je.,  where  we  read  that 
Yahweh  was  the  author  of  the  catastrophe.  Ob.'s  continuation  in 
V.  ^  is  in  the  nature  of  a  hist,  commentary.  Not  thieves  or  robbers 
by  night  but  the  treachery  of  former  friends  and  allies  has  brought 
on  this  calamity. — 5.  The  phrase  robbers  by  night  was  added  by 
Ob.  in  his  free  quotation,  and  shovdd  not  be  omitted  from  the  Ob. 
text.  The  exclamation  how  art  thou  destroyed,  however,  comes  in 
so  abruptly,  tearing  apart  the  closely  connected  clauses  of  the  sen- 
tence, that  some  have  regarded  it  as  a  gloss,  others  as  misplaced. 
It  is  not  in  Je.  49^  and  forms  no  part  of  the  older  oracle.  If  it  voices 
Ob.'s  own  strong  emotion,  as  is  most  likely,  it  prob.  stood  orig. 
at  the  beginning  of  v.  ^,  and  was  Ob.'s  introd.  exclamation  to  his 
hist,  commentary.  The  fall  from  the  height  has  indeed  come, 
How  art  thou  destroyed!  or,  how  art  thou  thrown  down!  C^.  The 
comparison  of  Edom's  spoilers  with  vintagers  must  have  suggested 
itself  almost  inevitably,  because  of  the  many  fine  vineyards  on  Mt. 
Seir.  Vintagers  were  not  only  in  the  habit  of  leaving  gleanings, 
but  were  even  forbidden  by  law,  in  the  interest  of  the  poor  (Dt. 
24^*),  to  go  through  the  vines  a  second  time.  Thus  the  glean- 
ings are  repeatedly  used  as  an  apt  comparison  for  the  remnant. 

6.  How  is  Esau  searched  out  I  Again  one  of  those  exclamations 
of  Ob.  over  the  magnitude  of  the  disaster!  The  Obadian  char- 
acter of  it  is  brought  out  not  only  by  a  reference  to  the  other  in  v.  ^ 


24  OBADIAH 

but  also  by  a  comparison  with  Je.  49,  where  the  calmer  and  more 
logical  reading  of  the  orig.  oracle  is  preserved.  Esau  is  used  for 
Edom,  as  Jacob  for  Israel.  The  Edomites,  who  were  very  wealthy 
as  a  result  of  their  trade,  had  hidden  their  treasures  ace.  to  the  old 
custom  (Is.  45^  Pr.  2^  Jb.  3-^)  in  secret  and  inaccessible  places,  in 
safes  hewn  in  the  rocks  (Diodorus  Siculus  19"^-  "').  Now  all  these 
are  rifled! — 7.  Ob.  interprets  the  catastrophe  as  the  fulfilment  of 
the  old  oracle  and  he  gives  the  explanation  which  complements 
vv.  ^  ^•.  The  catastrophe  is  due  to  former  friends  and  allies,  most 
probably  the  Nabateans,  v.  s.  They  have  driven  the  Edomites  to 
the  border  of  their  country,  and  cast  them  out  of  their  ancient  seats 
of  which  they  themselves  took  possession.*  The  allies  are  called  in 
Heb.  the  men  of  thy  covenant,  who  were  bound  to  the  Edomites  by 
the  sacred  bonds  of  a  treaty  or  covenant,  also  the  men  of  thy  peace, 
i.  e.,  friends.  The  sentence  Thy  friends  have  deceived  thee,  pre- 
vailed over  thee,  is  an  almost  exact,  though  not  necessarily  conscious, 
quotation  from  one  of  Jeremiah's  own  dirges  ( Je.  38^) ;  only  a  syno- 
nym for  deceived  is  used  there.  The  exact  significance  of  prevailed 
over  thee  is  gained  from  the  context,  they  prevailed  not  so  much  by 
force  as  by  trickery.  The  bracketed  words  in  [They  that  eat]  thy 
bread,  AV.,  RV.,  and  [the  men  of}  thy  bread,  AV."",  are  not  in  the 
Heb.  If  correctly  supplied  the  meaning  is  clear  from  Ps.  41^°, 
where  the  man  of  thy  covenant  is  parall.  to  he  that  eats  thy  bread. 
Eating  bread  with  a  Semite  meant  entering  into  fellowship  with 
him,  a  custom  still  prevalent  in  the  bread  and  salt  covenant.  But 
the  text  is  not  certain.  The  word  translated  thy  bread  is  not  (&,  and 
may  therefore  be  a  variant  of  thy  peace;  men  of  thy  peace  =  men  of 
thy  bread.     But  it  is  more  probable  that  it  should  be  emended  very 

♦  The  first  three  words  of  v. '  are  capable  of  several  interpretations.  Lit.,  they  read  unlo  the 
border  have  ihey  sent  thee.  This  may  mean  (i)  they  have  brought  thee  on  thy  way,  even  to  the 
border,  RV.,  which  has  been  variously  explained  as  meaning  either  that  the  allies  accompanied 
the  Edomites  to  the  border  to  leave  them  there  at  the  mercy  of  their  enemies,  or  to  attack  and 
plunder  them  there;  or  that  they  escorted  the  ambassadors  of  Edom  politely  to  the  border  with- 
out, however,  giving  them  aid.  Or  it  may  mean  (2)  they  have  sent  thee  away,  i.  e.,  the  Edom- 
itish  fugitives  who  came  to  find  refuge  with  their  friends.  Or  it  may  mean  (3)  they  have  driven 
thee  out,  ei'en  to  the  border,  RV.",  ».  «.,  the  Edomites  have  been  driven  to  the  border  of  their 
land  by  their  former  friends  and  allies.  On  the  whole  this  last  interpretation  is  the  best.  It 
is  true  that  the  Heb.  word  for  drhnng  out  is  not  as  strong  as  we  should  expect,  but  the  weaker 
word  was  prob.  used  with  intention,  because  the  foil,  shows  that  Edom's  fall  was  not  so  much 
due  to  force  as  to  treachery. 


8-1 I  25 

slightly  so  as  to  read,  to  discomfit  thee  they  have  kept  laying  snares, 
tripping  thee  up  and  bringing  thee  to  fall.  The  tense  expresses  the 
continued  or  reiterated  action  in  the  past.  The  translation  snare 
(RV.),  though  not  altogether  certain,  is  after  all  the  most  probable. 
See  text.  n.  Under  thee  is  not  idiomatic  and  therefore  the  conso- 
nants should  be  differently  pointed  and  divided,  and  thou  wast  dis- 
mayed, for  there  was  no  understanding  in  thee.  The  text  reads  in 
him,  but  it  must  have  orig.  been  in  thee,  because  the  2d  pers.  is  used 
throughout  the  verse.  This  clause  is  omitted  by  some  as  a  marg. 
note,  and  transposed  into  v.  *  by  others.  Details  of  the  trickery 
are  not  given. 

Vv.  8-9.  Is  not  this  in  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  which  had 
declared  that  Yahweh  would  take  away  Edam's  wisdom  in  order 
to  destroy  her  utterly  ? 

The  last  clause,  because  there  was  no  understanding  in  thee,  has  re- 
minded Ob.  of  the  older  oracle.  Had  it  not  said  just  this,  that  Yahweh 
would  stultify,  at  the  time  of  the  impending  catastrophe,  all  the  wise  men 
of  Edom,  so  that  none  would  be  able  to  devise  a  means  of  deliverance 
and  every  single  Edomite  should  perish?  Yes,  they  were  to  be  de- 
stroyed completely  and,  indeed,  they  ought  to  be  because  of  their  cruel 
behaviour  toward  their  brother  nation  Judah  at  the  time  of  her  dis- 
tress.    On  the  authenticity  of  these  verses,  see  p.  36. 

8.  The  decree  of  Yahweh  is  introduced  in  a  rhetorical  fashion, 
lit..  Was  it  not  in  that  day? — said  the  old  oracle — that  I  would  de- 
stroy wisdom  from  Edom.  The  Heb.  has  wise  men  but  the  parall. 
and  understanding  from  Alt.  Esau  suggests  the  reading  wisdom. 
This  presupposes  a  slighter  change  than  the  alternate  sug- 
gestion which  changes  under statiding  to  men  of  understanding, 
though  the  meaning  is  the  same.  Similar  phraseology  is  applied 
to  Judah  in  Is.  29^*  so  that  it  is  not  permissible  to  argue  only  from 
this  that  Edom  was  famous  for  her  wise  men.  That  day  is  here  not 
the  day  of  universal  judgment,  as  in  v.  ^^,  but  of  Edom's  judgment. 
Mt.  Esau  is  used  only  in  Ob.  ^-  ^-  ^^-  ^,  usually  it  is  Mt.  Seir. — 
9.  So  that  thy  heroes,  O  Teman,  should  he  dismayed.  If  not  merely 
a  scribal  error,  the  sudden  change  to  the  direct  address  is  due  to 
Ob.'s  manner  of  quoting.  The  older  oracle  seems  to  have  used 
the  3d  pers.,  cf.  Je.  49^.    But  Ob.  had  addressed  Edom  throughout 


26  OBADIAH 

and  so  he  naturally  falls  into  the  direct  address  here,  where  he  does 
not  quote  very  literally.  On  Teman,  cf.  Am.  i".  It  was  a  northern 
district  of  Edom  (Ez.  25^^).  But  nothing  can  be  deduced  from  its 
northerly  situation  in  regard  to  the  direction  from  which  the  attack- 
ing enemies  came,  for  it  stands  here  for  Edom  in  general  (cf.  Je. 
49"),  the  heroes  of  Edom,  and  is  used  here  because  it  was  contained 
in  the  old  oracle  {cf.  Je.  49').  Nobody  will  defend  the  country  and 
the  result  will  be  the  total  destruction  of  Edom.  This  is  described 
as  Yahweh's  purpose  in  robbing  them  of  their  wisdom  and  valour, 
in  order  that  everybody  might  be  cut  off  from  Mt.  Esau.  By  slaughter 
is  joined  by  ^,  IE  and  many  scholars  to  the  next  verse.  But  this 
gives  an  inferior  combination,  the  stronger  word  preceding  the 
weaker.     It  goes  well  with  v.  ®,  and  the  metre  favours  this. 

10-11.  They  have  richly  deserved  this  terrible  punishment,  be- 
cause of  their  brutal  behaviour  toward  their  brother  nation  Judah 
(v.  ^")  at  the  tim£  when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  barbarians  (v.  "). 

10.  Because  of  the  violence  done  to  thy  brother  Jacob.  Edom  and 
Israel  were  brother  nations  and  never  forgot  their  kinship.  Cf.  Dt. 
23'.  Yet  they  often  fought  each  other  with  hot,  relentless  hatred. 
Cf.  Am.  i".  The  name  Jacob  refers  here,  as  Jo.  4^^  correctly  in- 
terprets, to  Judah;  it  is  used  to  set  into  sharp  relief  the  heinous 
character  of  Edom's  guilt;  he  inflicted  violence  on  his  brother  1  For 
this  reason  shame  covers  thee  and  thou  shall  be  cut  off  forever!  All 
hope  of  a  final  restoration  is  excluded. — ^11.  Edom's  acts  of  vio- 
lence were  committed  at  the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chaldeans  in  586  B.C.,  when  thou  stoodest  by,  or  aloof,  without  help- 
ing thy  brother,  when  (so  M,  reads)  strangers  carried  away  his  (i.  e., 
his  brother  Jacob's) /orces  or  substance.  The  Heb.  word  may  mean 
either /orce^  (sg.  coll.,  AV.,  RV.™)  or  substance,  wealth  (RV.). 
The  former  is  favoured  by  the  usage  of  the  vb.  which  is  employed 
with  it,  for  it  means  to  take  or  carry  away,  captive,  and  is  used  of 
living  beings,  men  or  animals.  The  latter  is  favoured  by  v.  ^^.  But 
the  continuation  and  foreigners  entered  his  gates  and  cast  the  lot 
over  Jerusalem  to  apportion  among  themselves  the  captives  and  the 
booty,  makes  the  clause  in  either  translation  appear  premature. 
We  read,  therefore,  with  a  slight  emendation,  when  strangers  broke 
down  his  bar,  and — so  he  coniinwts— foreigners  entered  his  gate  and 


i2-i6  27 

cast  lots  over  Jerusalem  (v.  i.).     The  casting  of  the  lot  was  a  relig- 
ious function,  the  deity  being  supposed  to  direct  the  outcome. 

12-14.  15b.  How  malicious  and  cruel  Edom  was  at  that  time 
toward  his  brother/  Ah,  but  now  vengeance  has  come,  he  has  re- 
ceived his  due  recompense/ 

Ob.'s  intense  feeling  throws  the  description  of  Edom's  behaviour  into 
the  form  of  imvs.  They  do  not  refer  to  the  fut.  but  to  the  past  which 
the  vivid  imagination  of  the  prophet  conjures  up.  QI  perceived  this,  for 
it  joined  vv.  i^-"  directly  to  v.  "  as  additional  description  by  omitting 
the  negatives.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake  10  infer,  as,  e.  g.,  Siev.  does,  that 
the  orig.  Heb.  did  not  contain  them.  There  is  no  explanation  for  their 
later  introduction,  while  their  omission  can  easily  be  accounted  for. 
Moreover,  while  the  omission  produces  an  easier  text  and  in  general 
gives  the  correct  meaning,  it  does  away  with  the  personal,  anxious  ele- 
ment which  is  so  clearly  genuine. 

12.  M  reads  gloat  not  over  the  day  of  thy  brother,  the  day  of  his 
misfortune,  but  it  is  better  to  read  with  a  slight  emendation  as  a 
barbarian  instead  of  the  day  of  his  misfortune.  This  brings  it  in 
direct  relation  with  the  preceding  {v.  i.).  The  brief  sentences  and 
the  slightly  varied  repetition  of  the  day  of  his  calamity  (cf.  Ez.  35^) 
are  very  effective.  The  short  warnings  give  a  vivid  picture  of 
Edom's  behaviour  at  the  time  of  Jerusalem's  fall.  They  gloated 
over  their  own  brother,  rejoiced  with  malicious  joy  over  his  dis- 
aster, nuide  their  mouths  large  with  laughter  and  taunts  (Ez.  35^^-  ^^). 
— 13.  They  entered  into  the  gate  of  Jerusalem,  behaved  wickedly 
(cf.  text,  n.)  and  stretched  out  their  liand  to  its  wealth,  looting  and 
plundering. — 14.  They  stood  at  the  breaches,  or,  better,  at  the  part- 
ings oftJie  ways,  which  they  knew  much  better  than  the  Babyloni- 
ans (Cal.),  to  cut  down  the  fugitives  or  treacherously  to  deliver  them 
up  to  their  merciless  enemies.  But  nobody  can  do  such  things 
with  impunity,  for  to  the  Jewish  proph.  the  world  is  controlled  by 
a  righteous  God. — 15b.  The  requital  has  come  as  thou  hast  done,  is 
it  done  to  thee,  thy  recompense  returns  on  thine  own  head/  The 
impf.  refers  to  what  has  just  been  happening.  Cf.  Je.  50^^-  ^^  with 
V.  ''^;  Jo.  4'-  '  (La.  3^")  with  v.  ''^^. 

The  Appendix  (w.  ^^*-  ^^^^)  brings  the  message  of  Ob.  into  the 
larger  connection  of  the  day  of  Yahweh,  which  will  be  a  day  of 


28  OBADIAH 

judgment  for  the  nations  and  esp.  for  Edom,  but  of  triumph  for 
the  Jews. 

It  has  grown  out  of  an  entirely  different  historical  situation.  Edom, 
closer  neighbour  to  Judah  than  ever,  had  not  ceased  hating  or  annoying 
Judah.  But  there  was  no  sign  of  redress.  The  Nabatean  invasion  had 
long  been  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  at  the  time  of  the  writer  there  was  no- 
where a  movement  that  might  seem  to  be  directed  against  Edom.  And 
so  he  could  only  hope  for  the  day  of  Yahweh's  judgment  on  all  nations, 
of  which  the  judgment  of  Edom  was  to  be  a  part.  And  as  he  longed  with 
yearning  passion  the  great  hope  became  a  certainty  in  him  that  Yahweh's 
day  was  near  at  hand. 

Vv.  15a  16-18.  The  day  of  Yahweh  is  at  hand  when  all  the  na- 
tions must  drink  the  cup  of  his  fury.  The  Jews  indeed  need  not  be 
afraid,  for  they  have  already  received  their  punishment,  and  those 
of  them  that  have  escaped  shall  dwell  on  Mt.  Zion  without  fear  of 
ever  again  being  driven  out  by  foreign  invaders.  On  the  contrary, 
they  will  drive  out  those  nations  that  had  dispossessed  them  and 
more  esp.  Edom,  which  Jacob  and  Joseph,  ace.  to  Yahweh's  decree, 
will  completely  destroy. 

15a.  As  the  text  now  stands  the  thought  of  the  nearness  of  the 
day  of  Yahweh  with  its  swift  requital  of  wickedness  {cf  Jo.  i^^  2*) 
should  have  restrained  Edom  from  its  cruel  behaviour  at  the  time 
of  Jerusalem's  fall.  But  this  connection  is  secondary.  V.  ^^^  does 
not  belong  with  the  preceding  but  with  vv.  "^^  it  appears  to  be 
an  ed.  link  between  w.^'"-  ^^^  and  w.  ^^^\ — ^16.  The  Jews  are 
now  addressed,  no  longer  the  Edomites.  For  as  ye  have  drunk 
upon  my  holy  mountain.  The  speaker  is  Yahweh.  The  change 
of  address  is  indicated  only  by  the  use  of  the  2d  pers.  pi.  and  is  so 
abrupt  that  many,  from  the  earliest  times  on,  have  overlooked  or 
denied  the  change  altogether,  cf.  (^.  They  interpret  the  drinking 
on  Mt.  Zion  by  the  carousing  and  revelling  of  the  Edomites  in 
Jerusalem  after  the  plundering  of  the  holy  city.  But  that  this  can- 
not be  the  meaning  is  clear  from  the  foil,  where  so  shall  all  the  na- 
tions drink  can  only  refer  to  the  drinking  of  the  cup  of  Yahweh's 
wrath.  It  is  the  striking  figure  derived  from  the  vision  of  Jere- 
miah (ch.  25),  which  symbolises  the  terrible  punishment  inflicted 
by  Yahweh.   Cf.  also  Je.  49".  The  abrupt  change  of  address  would 


i6-i9  29 

be  obviated,  if  we  translated  with  a  very  slight  change,  For  as  my 
people  have  drunk  upon  my  holy  mountain.  But  perhaps  this  is 
not  necessary.  The  Jews  have  already  drunk  the  cup  of  Yahweh's 
fury,  on  the  great  judgment  day  all  the  nations  slmll  drink.  It  is 
strange  that  they  are  to  drink  continually,  for  there  must  be  an  end 
of  the  drinking,  when  they  have  fallen  into  a  heavy  stupor  and 
are  as  though  they  had  not  been.  If  orig.,  the  writer  intended  prob- 
ably to  express  the  continued  punishment  of  the  nations  with  the 
implication  "  that  the  turn  never  passes  from  the  heathen  to  Judah 
(Is.  51^^-  ^)"  (Hi.),  or,  better,  that  all  the  nations  m/^ow/  exception 
shall  drink  (Ehr.).  But  the  word  is  textcritically  not  quite  certain, 
^ xQSLdswine,  many  Heb.  mss.  read  round  about  {cf.  Zc.  12");  and 
many  scholars  have  followed  the  one  or  the  other.  But  it  is  per- 
haps more  likely  that  the  text  read  originally  either  my  fury  (cf.  Jb. 
6^)  or  the  cup  from  my  Jmnd.  See  crit.  n.  And  they  shall  be  swal- 
lowed tip,  perish  or  (ace.  to  We.'s  emendation)  reel,  stagger  (cf. 
La.  4^*),  and  they  shall  be  as  though  they  had  not  been,  disappearing 
completely. — 17.  For  Judah  the  day  of  Yahweh  has  no  terrors, 
for  she  has  already  passed  through  the  purifying  judgment  as  a 
result  of  which  only  a  remnant  is  left  who  shall  dwell  in  Mt.  Zion. 
Cf.  Is.  4^  37^^.  This  is  the  escape  technically  so  called  in  connec- 
tion with  the  day  of  Yahweh,  the  abstr.  noun  is  used  for  the  concr. 
escaped  ones.  And  it  (Mt.  Zion)  shall  be  holiness,  or  a  sanctuary, 
i.  e.,  inviolable,  as  Jo.  4"  correctly  interprets,  and  strangers  shall 
not  again  pass  through  her.  See  also  Is.  52^  Zc.  9^.  The  clause  is 
grammatically  a  little  awkward,  but  this  slight  unevenness  in  a 
passage  like  this  is  not  enough  to  justify  the  rejection  of  the 
clause  as  secondary.  And  they  of  the  house  of  Jacob  shall  possess 
(again)  their  possessions,  their  former  territory.  This  is  the  read- 
ing of  M  which  is  commented  on  in  w.  ^^-  ^^.  But  it  does  not 
lead  over  to  v.  ^*  as  the  writer  of  v.  ^^  evidently  intended,  for  he 
would  hardly  leave  v.  ^^  unrelated  in  the  context.  This  is  done 
by  the  slightly  different  vocalisation  of  the  Vrss.  which  read  and 
they  of  the  house  of  Jacob  sJiall  dispossess  their  dispossessors  and 
mean  by  the  dispossessors  esp.  the  Edomites  who  took  the  Negeb 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Cf.  Ez.  35^",  where  the  Edomites  say, 
These  two  nations  and  these  two  countries  sliall  be  mine  and  we 


30  OBADIAH 

will  possess  it  (the  same  vb.  as  here).  This  reading  connects  v. " 
with  vv.  ^^-  ^^,  while  the  reading  tJieir  possessions  leaves  v.  ^*  so 
entirely  unrelated  that  it  interrupts  the  connection  between  v.  "^ 
and  V.  ^'. — 18.  Then  shall  Israel,  not  another,  so  utterly  destroy 
Edom  that  not  a  single  Edomite  shall  escape.  Cf.  w,  ^-  ".  It 
seemed  only  just  that  Israel  should  be  the  avenger.  This  was  also 
Ezekiel's  hope  (25").  That  our  proph.  thought  of  the  N.  and  S. 
kingdoms  respectively  is  certain  from  w.  ^®-  ^'',  if  they  are  by  him, 
for  there  he  interprets  the  house  of  Jacob  and  the  house  of  Joseph 
by  the  exiles  of  Judah  and  of  Israel.  For  the  figurative  expression 
of  swift  and  total  destruction,  see  also  Is.  5^^  10"  47"  Zc.  12"  Mai. 
3*^.  The  rhythmic  ease  and  beauty  as  well  as  the  whole  tone  of 
these  lines  indicate  that  they  were  adopted  from  some  earlier 
prophet.  The  quotation-phrase  for  Yahweh  has  spoken  points 
in  the  same  direction.  In  any  case  this  final  clause  expresses  that 
the  prediction  is  not  only  the  writer's  own  passionate  wish  but 
Yahweh's  own  decree,  and  as  such  certain  to  be  fulfilled. 

19-21.  The  second  section  of  the  appendix  gives  a  historical 
explanation  of  w.  ^'-  ^*.  V.  *^  had  said  that  the  house  of  Jacob 
would  dispossess  all  its  dispossessors.  This  means,  so  these  verses 
explain,  that  all  the  old  territory  in  its  ideal  boimdary  lines  will 
again  come  back  to  Israel.  The  Negeb,  now  in  the  Jmnds  of 
the  Edomites,  the  Shephelah,  now  occupied  by  the  Philistines,  Mt. 
Ephraim,  now  the  territory  of  the  Samaritans,  and  Gilead  which  is 
now  Ammonitish,  all  shall  belong  once  more  to  Israel  (v.  *®).  For 
the  exiles  will  come  back  and  reconquer  the  land.  The  Israelitish 
exiles  will  occupy  their  territory  as  far  north  as  Sa/'pJiath  and  the 
Judean  exiles  theirs  in  the  south  including  the  cities  of  the  Negeb 
(v.  ^°).  They  will  come  and  march  to  Mt.  Zion  to  help  their  breth- 
ren punish  Edom.  Then  the  golden  time  of  Yahweh^s  reign  will 
begin  (v.  ^^). 

19-20  are  a  commentary  on  w.  "''•  ^^.  They  give  a  list  of  the 
territories  which  shall  be  reconquered  by  what  is  left  of  the  house  of 
Jacob  and  the  house  of  Joseph  of  v.  ^*,  i.  e.,  the  exiles  of  the  N.  and 
S.  kingdoms. — 19.  Owing  to  a  grammatical  peculiarity  v.  *®  has 
been  variously  explained.  As  the  text  now  stands  the  Negeb,  Mt. 
Seir,  the  Shephelah,  Philistia,  the  territory  of  Ephraim  including 


19-21  31 

Samaria  and  Gilead  are  mentioned.  The  Edomites  had  taken  ad- 
vantage of  the  deportation  of  the  Jews  after  586  B.C.  to  seize  the 
S.  part  of  Judah,  the  Negeb  (Ez.  35*°-  ^^  36^),  which  adjoined  their 
own  territory  in  the  N.,  and  they  continued  to  occupy  it  for  cen- 
turies. Hebron  was  still  Edomitish  in  Maccabean  times  (i  Mac. 
5^).  So  the  writer  (others  think  a  glossator)  added  the  explana- 
tory statement  Mount  Esau,  to  the  Negeb.  The  Shephelah  was 
the  W.  and  SW.  tract  of  Judah,  the  low  hills  between  the  high 
central  range  and  the  maritime  plain.  The  boundary  line  between 
Judah  and  Philistia  was  not  always  clearly  defined.  After  586 
B.C.  the  Philistines  occupied  more  or  less  of  the  Shephelah.  Cf. 
I  Mac.  5^^.  The  writer  added  therefore  to  the  Sliephelah  the  ex- 
planation the  Philistines.  Such  explanatory  statements  are  not 
unusual.  Cf.  Ez.  4*  36^^.  The  fields  of  Ephraim,  usually  called 
Mount  Ephraim,  represented  the  heart  of  the  N.  kingdom.  It 
was  the  northern  part  of  the  high  central  range,  of  which 
Mount  Judah  was  the  southern.  It  extended  N.  to  the  plain  of 
Megiddo;  its  S.  border  was  not  closely  defined.  Later  Mount 
Ephraim  became  the  province  of  Samaria,  and  so  the  writer  or  the 
glossator  added  the  fields  of  Samaria.  Gilead  must  stand  here  for 
the  whole  east  Jordan  country.  That  Benjamin  should  be  singled 
out  as  taking  Gilead  and  that  he  should  be  in  the  transjordanic 
country  where  he  did  not  live  before  the  exile  is  strange.  The 
reading  Benjamin  is  a  corruption  of  B^ne  'Amnion.  The  Ammon- 
ites had  come  westward  after  the  fall  of  Samaria  and  had  occupied 
the  territory  of  Gad,  extending  north  to  the  river  Jabbok  ( Je.  49^-  ^). 
The  country  of  the  Ammonites,  therefore,  which  lay  between  the 
Amon  and  the  Jabbok, — so  the  writer  explains, — was  Gilead. 
The  text  of  v.  ^^  reads  thus,  and  they  shall  possess  the  Negeb,  i.  e., 
Mount  Esau,  and  the  Shephelah,  i.  e.,  the  Philistines,  and  they 
shall  possess  Mount  Ephraim,  i.  e.,  the  fields  of  Samaria,  and 
the  Ammonites,  i.  e.,  Gilead. — 20.  The  text  is  very  uncertain. 
The  general  tenor  appears  to  be  that  the  exiles  of  northern 
Israel  shall  reconquer  the  northern  and  the  exiles  of  Judah  the 
southern  part  of  the  ancient  dominion.  The  northern  limit 
is  Sar'phath  or  Sarepta  (Lk.  4^*),  the  Phoenician  town  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  between  Tyre  and  Sidon  (i  K.  17^^), 


32  OBADIAH 

the  modem  $arafend  and  the  Sariptu  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians.  The  first  three  words  are  generally  translated 
either  atid  the  exiles  of  this  fortress  or  of  this  army.  But  nothing  in 
the  context  explains  which  army  or  fortress  can  be  meant.  It  has 
sometimes  been  suggested  that  this  indicates  the  company  of  ex- 
iles to  which  Ob.  himself  belonged.  But  this  is  not  likely.  Then 
it  goes  on  of  Israelites  who  (?)  Canaanites  to  Sar^phath.  Evidently 
the  relative  clause  is  corrupt  and  the  best  suggestion  reads  for  the 
rel.  part,  a  vb.  which  in  the  Heb.  is  graphically  very  similar,  they 
shall  possess.  This  corresponds  to  the  second  part  of  the  verse. 
And  since  the  second  half  defines  the  exiles  of  Jerusalem  as  living 
in  S^pharad,  it  would  seem  that  the  name  of  a  place  was  also  men- 
tioned with  the  Israelitish  exiles;  and  it  is  most  natural  and  for 
graphic  reasons  easiest  to  think  of  Halah,  one  of  the  places  in  As- 
syria whither  Israel  had  been  carried  (2  K.  17^  18"  i  Ch.  5^^),  the 
Halahu  in  Mesopotamia.  The  text  would  then  read,  TJie  exiles  of 
the  Israelites  who  are  in  Halah  shall  possess  Phoenicia  as  far  as 
Sar^phath,  and  the  exiles  of  Jerusalem  who  are  in  S^pJmrad  shall 
possess  tJte  cities  oftlie  Negeb.  By  the  Canaanites  the  Phoenicians 
are  meant.  The  author  was  one  of  those  who  believed  in  the  re- 
turn of  the  northern  tribes,  a  belief  which  was  shared,  e.  g.,  by  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel,  but  which  later  on  became  a  matter  of  dispute 
among  the  rabbis.  Cf  Schiirer,'  ii,  538.  That  there  was  still  in 
his  time  a  well-defined  body  of  Israelitish  exiles  at  Halah  is  unnec- 
essary to  assume.  The  writer  knew  from  the  study  of  sacred  lit- 
erature that  Halah  was  one  of  the  places  whither  the  Israelites  had 
been  carried.  S^pJtarad,  where  the  Judean  captivity  lived,  was 
most  likely  either  a  region  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  vicinity  of  Bithynia 
and  Galatia  or  a  name  for  Asia  Minor  as  a  whole  (v.  i.) .  The  Bab. 
exiles  had  long  since  returned.  At  the  time  of  the  writer  the  prov- 
ince of  Judea  was  occupied  by  the  Jews.  Its  reoccupation  is  not 
mentioned  because  it  was  an  accomplished  fact. — 21.  And  they 
shall  go  up  as  saviours  to  Mt.  Zion  to  punish  Mt.  Esau.  It  is, 
of  course,  the  exiles  of  v.  ^°  who  will  march  to  Jerusalem  to  help 
their  brethren  in  the  overthrow  of  Edom,  which  the  Jerusalemites 
alone  could  evidently  not  accomplish,  an  indication  of  their  lack 
of  military  strength  at  the  time  of  this  writer.     We.,  et  al.,  have 


COMPARISON   WITH   JE.    49  33 

thought  of  the  Maccabees  who  came  up  from  the  country  to  help 
Jerusalem  and  who  defeated  Edom.  It  has  seemed  strange  to 
some,  from  the  time  of  CS  on  to  our  own  day,  that  they  should  go 
up  to  Mt.  Zion,  when  they  intended  to  punish  Mt.  Esau  which 
was  not  on  Mt.  Zion.  And  so  they  have  preferred  to  read  they 
shall  go  up  from  Mt.  Zion.  But  the  usual  combination  of  going 
up  instead  of  down  from  Mt.  Zion,  even  if  the  vb.  is  taken  in  the 
sense  of  making  a  military  expedition  renders  the  emendation  im- 
probable. And  was  it  not,  after  all,  natural  for  those  armies  to 
march  to  Jerusalem  and  join  forces  with  the  men  of  Jerusalem  for 
a  imited  attack  upon  Edom?  This  renders  Marti's  proposal  to 
omit  either  to  Mt.  Zion  or  preferably  to  judge  Mt.  Esau  unnecessary. 
The  Vrss.  read  the  saved  for  saviours;  and  the  translation  would 
be  either  and  those  who  are  saved  shall  go  up  to  Mt.  Zion  or,  those 
who  are  saved  in  Mt.  Zion  shall  go  up.  But  this  reading  which  is 
connected  with  v.  "'^  is  not  so  good  as  the  other. — Then,  after  the 
judgment  of  nations  in  general  and  of  Edom  in  particular,  the 
golden  time  of  Yahweh's  kingdom  will  come,  when  He  alone 
shall  reign.  This  is  the  bright  side  of  the  day  of  Yahweh,  the 
consummation  of  human  history,  in  glad  anticipation  of  which  the 
psalmists  raised  the  jubilant  shout  Yahweh  reigneth! 

DETAILED   COMPARISON   OF   OB.   WITH  JE.   49 

At  the  outset  we  should  observe  that  Je.  49'""  is  composed  of  two  dif- 
ferent elements  (w.  8-  n  and  w.  '■'•">),  as  difference  both  in  thought  and 
metre  shows.  For  w.  *•  "  are  addressed  to  Dedan  and  have  the  rhyth- 
mic form  4:2;  while  w,  '•  a- 10  are  addressed  to  Edom  and  have  the 
rhythm  (3  :3)  +  (3  :2).  To  these  latter  Ob.  is  parall.  Gie.  and  Cor. 
maintain  that  there  must  be  a  Jeremian  nucleus  and  they  regard  w. 
7.  8.  10.  n  as  such.  For  our  purpose  we  may  disregard  w.  "  (Gie.)  '* 
(Cor.)  about  which  they  are  not  sure.  But  v.  •"»  belongs  with  v. '  which 
is  incomplete  without  it.  And  v.  '  should,  on  their  own  reasoning,  not 
be  regarded  as  Jeremian  because  of  its  relation  to  Ob.  '.  Vv.  '•  "  be- 
long together  and  had  orig.  nothing  to  do  with  v. '.  In  v. '  the  Dedan- 
ites  are  exhorted  to  flee  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  involved  in  the 
awful  catastrophe  which  will  overtake  Edom.  Let  them  flee  precipi- 
tously, without  waiting  to  take  their  orphans  and  widows ;  Yahweh  will 
look  after  them  (v.  >') .  Dedan,  not  Edom,  is  addressed  in  v.  ",  the  change 
from  the  pi.  to  the  sg.  is  editorial. 

It  is  striking  that  in  the  passages  where  Je.  49  is  parall.  to  Ob.  the 


34  OBADIAH 

metre  is  quite  regular,  while  in  the  rest  of  the  prophecy  it  is  not.  The 
prevailing  rhythm  is  a  double  trimeter  followed  by  a  pentameter.  Thus 
saith  Yakweh  of  Hosts  in  v.  '  belongs  to  the  oracle.  Its  use  in  Ez.  2* 
3"  as  an  equivalent  of  prophecy  shows  that  it  may  form  a  part  of  an  ora- 
cle. And  he  cannot  hide  himself  in  v. '"  is  an  edit,  link  between  w.  »•  '*• 
and  V.  ""'.  It  interprets  v.  '<•»  as  referring  to  the  detection  of  fugitives, 
while  v.  '  shows  that  the  plundering  of  the  treasures  was  in  the  mind  of 
the  author  of  the  orig.  oracle.  Ob.  expresses  this  distinctly.  The  metre 
is  vs.  the  originality  of  the  phrase.  Moreover,  the  metre  is  so  regular 
throughout  that  v.  ''  must  also  have  had  the  double  trimeter  form  and 
have  read  for  behold  I  have  made  thee  small,  greatly  despised  among  the 
nations.  A  copyist  disregarded  the  metre  and,  solely  intent  on  the 
parall.,  put  among  the  nations  into  the  first  half  of  the  verse  and  changed 
iND  greatly,  which  is  still  preserved  in  Ob.,  to  din3  among  men.  Ora- 
cle of  Yahweh  in  v.  >«  stands  outside  of  the  metre.     It  is  omitted  by  (&. 

In  Ob.  the  metre  is  not  so  regular,  indeed  several  times  it  seems  to  be 
disregarded.  But  also  here  the  rhythm  indicates  that  the  orig.  oracle 
must  have  been  metrical.  This  being  so,  the  presumption  is  that  its 
metr.  form  is  on  the  whole  more  correctly  preserved  in  Je.  If  the  metr. 
form  of  Je.  49  were  due  to  an  editor,  it  would  be  singular  that  he  did  not 
cast  the  whole  oracle  in  this  form. 

We  may  now  compare  the  texts  in  detail: 

V.  1 .  Ob.  We  have  heard,  Je.  /  have  heard.  Since  the  phrase  from 
Yahweh  has  its  full  force  only  if  a  proph.  audition  is  intended,  the  sg. 
must  be  orig.  The  pi.  in  Ob.  may  be  due  to  text,  corruption  since  (& 
has  the  sg.  here  also. — The  words  of  the  messenger  are  metr.  better 
in  Je.  The  meaning  is  the  same  in  both. — Though  Je.'s  being  sent  (prtc. 
pass.  Qal)  and  Ob.'s  was  sent  (pf.  Pu.)  presuppose  no  difference  in  the 
cons,  text,  Je.'s  pointing  is  exegetically  preferable,  v.  ?*.  V.  2.  Je.'s /or 
which  connects  w.  '•  *  was  added  by  one  who  overlooked  that  the  sen- 
tence and  a  messenger  .  .  .  baftle  is  a  parenthesis.  The  connective  is 
wanting  in  <S»,  where,  however,  behold  is  also  omitted. — Ob.  changes  the 
constr.  by  adding  thou  after  despised;  in  Je.  despised  is  dependent  on  / 
have  made  thee,  in  Ob.  it  begins  a  new  clause. — Ob.  exceedingly,  Je. 
among  men.  The  parallel  among  the  nations  favours  Je.'s  among  men, 
but  Ob.'s  exceedingly  was  the  orig.  text  which  was  changed  by  a  scribe 
who  neglected  the  metre  and  only  observed  the  parall.,  v.  s.  V.  3.  Metr. 
Je.  is  in  perfect  order,  while  Ob.  lacks  a  hemistich  in  the  first  1.  Je.  has 
at  the  beginning  an  add.  word  transl.  by  RV.  as  for  thy  terribleness,  but 
which  orig.  read  thy  folly,*  and  for  the  verbal  sf.  in  hath  deceived  thee 

♦  The  difficulty  of  inxScH  appears  to  be  satisfactorily  solved  by  reading  with  Pet.  rin^on 
(<:/.  Je.  23"),  following  <8, 17  itaiyvLa  aov  and  H,  arrogantia  lua.  Du.'s  ingenious  explanation  of 
inx'7Dn  as  a  marg.  n.  on  aTN3,  through  Edom  aiN3,  thine  abomination,  i.  e.,idol  (cf.  nxSoD 
I  K.  1 5"  and  Obed-Edom  for  the  divine  name)  destroys  the  metr.  symmetry.  It  helps,  how- 
ever, to  explain  the  origin  of  the  corruption  of  inSon  to  "^n  jSdh. 


COMPARISON   WITH   JE.    49  35 

he  has  an  independent  pron.  It  seems  more  natural  that  Ob.  omitted 
thy  folly,  which  had  already  been  expressed  by  the  pride  of  thy  heart, 
and  joined  the  sf.  to  the  vb.  than  that  Je.  should  have  added  the  noun 
and  made  the  other  necessary  changes  in  order  to  produce  the  strictly 
metr.  line  required  at  this  point. — Je.  the  rock,  Ob.  rock. — In  the  next  1. 
Je.  has  the  regular  double  trimeter,  while  Ob.  has  a  pentameter.  Je. 
that  holdest  the  height  of  the  hill,  Ob.  the  height  of  his  habitation.  If  this 
were  Ob.'s  orig.  text  it  would  be  easy  to  show  from  gram,  considerations 
{cf.  text,  n.)  that  Je.'s  is  better,  but  in  Ob.  the  pointing  was  orig.  different, 
as  the  Vrss.  show,  that  maketh  high  his  habitation,  on.:;  for  onn.  The 
decision  rests  thus  simply  on  the  metre  which  favours  Je.  V.  4.  Ob. 
has  an  add.  pentameter  that  saith  in  his  heart,  Who  shall  bring  me  down 
to  the  ground  ?  It  is  so  expressive  that  it  seems  impossible  that  Je.  should 
have  omitted  it,  if  he  had  quoted  from  Ob.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
striking  add.  and  though  among  the  stars  were  set.  If  the  claim  were 
well  founded  that  without  this  phrase  the  foil,  thence  in  Je.  "hangs  alto- 
gether in  the  air"  (Cor.),  we  should  have  a  conclusive  argument  for 
Ob.'s  priority.  But  thence  is  altogether  in  place  in  Je.,  for  it  refers  to  the 
high  cliffs  on  which  Edom  dwells.  Metr.  the  add.  in  Ob.  does  not  fit 
into  the  general  scheme  which  here  also  is  preserved  in  Je.  The  differ- 
ence of  the  condit.  part,  is  unimportant. 

Vv.  5,  6  correspond  to  Je.  49'-  '"*;  they  precede,  therefore,  in  Je.  the 
verses  corresponding  to  Ob.  •■■•.  This  diff.  of  order  appears  to  have  no 
important  bearing  on  the  question  of  originality.  V.  5 .  In  Ob.  how  art 
thou  destroyed  I  is  added.  It  interrupts  the  natural  flow  of  the  sentence 
and  can  hardly  have  belonged  to  the  orig.  oracle.  The  further  add.  in 
Ob.  if  robbers  by  night  is  not  necessary  to  the  thought  and  spoils  the  metr. 
scheme.  It  also  was  not  a  part  of  the  orig.  oracle.  The  order  of  the 
two  similes  in  Je.  retains  thieves  and  by  night  and  is  therefore  preferable. 
Besides,  the  transition  from  the  vintagers  to  the  thieves  is  better  than  vice 
versa.  The  metre  also  favours  Je.'s  order.  However,  Ob.'s  steal  is 
more  orig.  than  Je.'s  have  destroyed,  which,  by  the  way,  must  have  orig. 
been  in  the  impf.  tense,  cf.  ®.  Je.'s  reading  originated  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Je.  49""».  Again,  the  rhetorical  question  in  Ob.  is  not  only  more 
lively  and  forcible  than  Je.'s  simple  statement  of  fact,  but  is  required  at 
least  in  the  first  1.  by  the  sense,  for  we  need  the  thought  that  vintagers  do 
leave  gleanings  and  that  thieves  steal  only  as  much  as  they  need,  while 
the  disaster  of  Edom  cannot  be  explained  by  an  ordinary  visitation  of 
thieves  and  plunderers.  This  must  be  the  meaning  both  of  Je.  and  of 
Ob.  V.  6.  Though  not  strictly  like  Je.  49'",  it  is  similar  enough  to  show 
that  they  are  related.  The  strong  exclamation  in  Ob.  is  again  more  lively 
and  forcible  than  the  simple  statement  in  Je.  But  the  constr.  in  Je.  with 
its  explanation  of  the  author  of  the  calamity,  setting  the  /  of  Yahweh  over 
against  the  imaginary  thieves  and  vintagers, — not  they  but  /  / — is  clearer 


36  OBADIAH 

and  more  logical  than  the  abrupt  exclamation  in  Ob.  whose  form  re- 
minds one  of  the  exclamation  in  v.  s.  Whether  the  terms  in  Je.  aside 
from  the  constr.  are  more  original  than  the  synonyms  in  Ob.  cannot  be  de- 
termined, unless  the  orig.  be  pre-exilic  and  the  Aram,  influence  seen  in 
nj?3  (Ob.)  be  allowed  to  decide  the  question  in  favour  of  Je.  as  the  earlier 
reading.  V.  7.  The  continuation  is  difl.  from  Je.  49'°''.*  It  is  evident 
that  Je.  49""'  belongs  with  49'°".  Not  only  the  metre  but  also  the  round- 
ing out  of  the  thought  require  it.  Je.  49'"^  must  therefore  have  been  a 
part  of  the  orig.  oracle.  Ob.  could  not  make  use  of  it,  he  goes  his  own 
way.  He  does  no  longer  quote  a  prophecy,  but  gives  a  specific  descrip- 
tion of  the  events  which  have  taken  place  in  his  own  day  and  in  which 
he  perceives  the  fulfilment  of  the  older  prophecy. f 

Vv.  8,  9  are  so  much  alike  in  thought  to  Je.  49'  that  some  kind  of 
relation  must  exist  betw.  them,  even  though  the  phraseology  is  not  so 
strikingly  similar.  Again  Je.'s  metre  is  correct,  while  Ob.'s  is  irregular. 
It  certainly  looks  as  if  Ob.  had  quoted  this  also  in  his  free  manner.  But 
We.,  el  al.,  object,  and  insist  that  vv.  *■  ^  are  a  later  insertion,  because 
they  predict  the  catastrophe  of  Edom  as  still  to  come,  while  the  preced- 
ing verses  have  already  described  it  as  past  or  as  just  taking  place.  This 
appears  to  be  a  cogent  reason  for  rejecting  these  verses,  not  to  mention 
the  use  of  the  3d  pers.  for  the  2d  and  the  difference  of  metre.  If  they  clash 
with  the  rest  of  the  oracle  they  cannot  be  orig.  But  so  would  the  predic- 
tion of  the  fut.  in  v.  '  clash!  We  have  here  the  same  literary  relation. 
For  when  the  connection  with  Je.  49  is  taken  into  account  it  is  most 
plausible  that  Ob.  himself  should  revert  here  once  more  to  the  older  oracle 
from  which  he  had  quoted.  He  sees  this  oracle  fulfilled.  Yahweh  had 
blinded  Edom's  wise  men.  Usually  so  wary,  they  had  not  seen  the  traps 
which  had  been  set  for  them.  It  was  a  divinely  wrought  folly  intended 
to  destroy  them  all!  Why  should  Ob.  himself  not  have  seen  the  appro- 
priateness of  the  other  part  of  the  oracle  from  which  he  was  quoting  just 


*  <5  in  Je.  49"  relates  the  two  texts  more  closely  by  reading  6ia  x^'P"-  JI'.''"''^  for  ^>?I-  But 
this  does  not  represent  the  orig.  text.  It  is  due  partly  to  the  desire  to  avoid  the  condict  be- 
tween this  verse  and  the  next.  For  v.  '"  speaks  of  the  utter  extinction  of  the  offspring,  brothers 
and  neighbours  of  Edom,  while  v.  "  says,  that  Yahweh  will  take  care  of  their  widows  and  or- 
phans. Partly  it  is  due  to  the  other  proph.  hope  that  the  Judeans  will  be  the  agents  of  Edom's 
destruction.  Cj.  Ob.  ".  Du.  thinks  <&  contains  the  orig.,  and  so  reconstructs  he  is  destroyed  l>y 
the  arm  of  his  brethren  atui  neighbours,  so  that  he  is  no  more. — Cor.  restores  Je.  49'°  so  as  to 
read  For  I  myself  <search  out>  Edom,  Lay  bare  his  secret  places.  He  cannot  hide  himselj.  He 
is  destroyed  and  is  no  more.     The  rest  he  regards  as  secondary. 

t  \Vc.,  Now.,  Marti  regard  v.  '  as  secondary  because  it  interrupts  for  them  the  connection 
between  v. '  and  v. ',  because  of  the  use  of  the  3d  instead  of  the  2d  pers.,  and  because  it  represents 
the  catastrophe  as  a  plundering  of  Edom  and  not  as  an  expulsion  from  their  land.  Now.,  Marti, 
Cor.  assume  that  it  was  introduced  from  Je.  into  Ob.,  though  ace.  to  them  Je.  quoted  the  rest 
of  the  oracle  from  Ob.  But  v.  •  is  really  so  closely  woven  into  the  structure  of  the  passage  that 
it  cannot  be  om.  as  secondary.  In  reality  the  impression  of  sccondariness  is  caused  by  Ob.'s 
modification  of  the  orig.  oracle  which  is  still  preserved  in  Je. 


TEXTUAL  NOTES    I-5  37 

as  well  as  the  alleged  interpolator?     This  favours  the  retention  of  there 
was  no  understanding  in  thee  in  Ob.  '  as  orig.,  v.  i. 

Our  conclusion  is  that  Oh.  quoted  in  w.  '-'  an  older  oracle,  the  ortg.  of 
which  is  better  preserved  in  Je.  49.  This  conclusion  does  not  carry  with 
it  the  further  conclusion  that  Je.  was  the  author.  It  is  reasonable  to 
look  for  a  Jeremian  nucleus  in  the  oracle  vs.  Edom  (Gie.,  Cor.,  Bu.),  and 
a  priori  it  is  not  impossible  that  either  vv.  «•  >'  or  vv.  '•  »•  •»  might  form 
this  nucleus.  With  the  latter  vv.  •^-"'  are  held  together  by  the  same  meue 
and  by  the  parall.  in  Ob.  But  while  it  is  not  impossible  that  Je.  gave 
such  a  brief  oracle  as  vv.  «•  >•  in  connection  with  his  announcement  of 
Nebuchadrezzar's  conquest  of  W.  Asia -the  danger  will  come  from  the 
north  sweeping  on  southward  to  Dedan  (cf.  Ez.  25) -there  is  nothmg  m 
vv  7.  9.  10.  14-16  to  warrant  our  ascribing  them  to  Je.,  except  that  they 
now  form  part  of  his  book.  The  manner  in  which  the  nations  who  are 
allied  against  Edom  are  spoken  of  excludes  the  Babylonians  under  Neb- 
uchadrezzar. But  if  the  attack  on  Edom  did  not  fall  under  the  general 
sweep  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  conquests,  was  Je.  likely  to  turn  aside  to 
threaten  Edom?  It  is  true  the  time  came  when  Je.,  however  much  ab- 
sorbed in  the  affairs  of  his  own  country,  must  have  thought  of  Edom- 
after  586  B.C.!  But  would  he  then  not  have  referred  to  Edom's  be- 
haviour toward  Judah  at  the  time  of  Jerusalem's  fall? 

TEXTUAL    NOTES. 

1  Thus  saith  the  Lord  Yahweh  to  Edom,  or  concerning  Edom,  is  re- 
garded as  secondary  by  Eich.,  et  al.,  because  Yahweh  does  not  speak  the 
words  which  immediately  follow,  and  because  it  seems  superfluous  after 
the  Vision  ofObadiah.  Besides,  the  parall.  in  Je.  49'  bas  a  difi.  order.  Con- 
cerning Edom:  Thus  saith  Yahweh  of  Hosts.  But  this  is  due  to  the  editor 
of  the  prophecies  vs.  the  nations  (cf.  49') ,  where  concerning  the  A  mmomtes 
is  also  placed  at  the  beginning.  If  the  phrase  is  om.,  there  is  no  hint  up 
to  v  6  to  whom  the  oracle  is  addressed,  and  the  pron.  in  against  htm  (v. ') 
has  no  antecedent.  Marti  retains,  therefore,  at  least  concerning  Edom 
(cp.  Je.  462  481 491  •  '■  "• ").  Du.  connects  it  with  the  oracle  itself,  of  Edom 
1  heard  a  report.  But  the  parall.  in  Je.  49  is  against  this.  Since  Ob. 
quotes  here  from  an  earlier  oracle,  the  whole  introd.  phrase  comes  most 
prob.  from  him.— nin^  >oi>s  <&  K^ptos  6  Oeis  shows  the  influence  of  the  Jew- 
ish mode  of  reading  the  divine  name,  uynu^  (S  i^Kovaa  ^nyoc-  as  in  Je. 
4914  _mn>  PND  shows  that  the  njjicr  proceeds  from  Yahweh  as  its  au- 
thor. nStr  DMJ3  n>xi  may  be  variously  construed,  as  logically  the  ob- 
ject of  n^jinrGes.^'^o  f-,as  an  independent  clause  parall.  to  ^iVDiff  n;icB?, 
or  as  a  circumstantial  clause.-nSr  <g  rhv  ita^4<rrec\e;  Je.  49"  "i^f  • 
Since  the  oracle  was  given  while  the  messenger  was  making  his  tour,  it  is 


38  OBADIAH 

better  to  read  also  in  Ob.  the  prtc.  pass.,  so  also  21  n^Sr.  Siev.  regards 
DMJ3  as  a  later  add.  -fx  <&  irepiox-fiv,  #  #"  N'f nn  B  munitio,  but 
S  d77e\fay.  Jer.  notes  "quod  ipse  'legatus'  sit,  et  ipse  'munitio'" 
(Rahmer).  Vol.  thought  (gread  iixc,  but  the  vb.  iiaTriareiKe  does  not 
agree  with  this.  More  likely  irepiox'fiv  was  orig.  ireploxov,  one  who  rides 
around.  Cf.  the  similar  Gk.  corruption  in  ivvpb<popos  v.  •«.  Cappellus, 
et  al.j  already  explained  irepioxvf  as  "a  document  given  to  an  ambassador, 
then  the  ambassador  himself"  (Vol.). — n^^^j;  is  read  vSy  both  here  and 
in  Je.  by  many,  because  the  masc.  is  used  throughout.  This  is  reasona- 
ble, but  since  the  variation  occurs  also  Mai.  i»- 1  (-ickh)  with  Edom,  not 
absolutely  necessary.  The  land  (fem.)  may  be  referred  to  here,  not  the 
people  as  in  the  oracle. — ncipj  imp  cf.  n^'^ji  -loS  Is.  2'.  The  cohort, 
with  the  imv.  adds  an  element  of  encouragement  to  the  command,  thus 
making  the  summons  more  urgent  (Je.  4^). — 2.  r>ir}  with  proph.  pf.  as 
]n  Nu.  17".  Du.  takes  -ind  with  v. '. — 3.  jni  from  mr  to  boil,  bubble 
over,  an  expressive  word  for  arrogance  which  scorns  all  limits  (Or.), 
TlN^B^n  (g  itrripev,  &«  ^.^.a-.?],  H  extulit,  all  mistaking  t'  for  t'. — 
>jpty  with  the  old  nominal  ending,  so  called  Yodh  conipaginis,  frequent 
with  cstr.st.,  Ges.  ^"^ '. — Min,  also  Ct.  2»,  presupposes  DMin  as  abs.  st.,  sg. 
•un  Ges.  593 ».     (^dirah,  holes,  clefts,  Je.  49'?  Tpvp.a\ids,  Ct.  2'<  a-Kiirji,  cf. 

]«— 1»,  cavern.     BDB.  compares  Ar.  L^  conceal,  L^ ,    ^^  place  of 

refuge,  protection,  and  transl.  places  of  concealment,  retreats.     Buhl  com- 

pares  .fl^  the  rugged  valley  side,  and  transl.  Felsenklufte,  Schluchten. — 

Dnip,  if  orig.,  would  be  an  ace,  depending  on  'jdc*,  which  may  be  con- 
strued with  the  ace.  or  with  3.  But  the  juxtaposition  of  both  constrs.  is 
harsh.  Ew.,  et  al.,  read  therefore  onra  in  accordance  with  01  scna,  & 
{iacoiJSo.  Hi.,  et  al.,  regard  the  force  of  3  in  Mjna  as  holding  over  to  ona 
which  is  in  apposition  to  it.  Or.,  Ehr.  read  onp,  Gr.  onpc.  Siev., 
JMPS.  insert  itr-on  from  Je.  49.  But  the  Vrss.  show  that  the  orig.  read 
D'-iD,  CS  v\pu)v,  &"  >o-ijio,  U  exaltens.  Pet.,  Du.,  Con.,  Marti,  Now. 
— ■'nar  and  i3'7a  with  sf.  3d  sg.  for  2d  pers.  frequently  in  rel.  and  prtc. 
clauses,  Mi.  i^.  Is.  2215  478  541  63". — 4.  n>2)n  here  abs.,  soar  aloft,  as 
in  Jb.  39*',  (S  fiertupiffdiji.  In  Je.  49  it  has  an  object  qip. — D^t'  prtc. 
pass.,  Nu.  24".  Ki.,  Houb.,  We.,  et  al.,  read  o^t'n,  a  simple  and  natural 
correction,  (S  6^s. 

5.  nn''D-ij  ri>N  (g  ciir€^()l<pr}s  =  nn^nij.  So  Wkl.  who  compares  Assyr. 
ramU.  It  is  no  serious  objection  that  the  Ni.  of  noi  does  not  occur  in 
OT.  Wkl.  places  the  exclamation  after  ib'.j?  v.  *.  But  if  orig.  it  stood 
rather  at  the  beginning  of  v. '.  Van  H.  puts  it  after  v.  '.  Du.  regards  it 
as  orig.  in  its  present  place.  Jer.  read  quomodo  conlicuisses  nnbi),  which 
was  regarded  by  older  commentators  as  the  orig.  reading  (cf.  Pet.)    We., 


5-8  39 

Now.,  Marti  om.  the  phrase.  Che.  om.  nn^mj  i>n  nS^S  as  "an  editor's 
transformation  of  a  corruptly  written  ininu'2  ahn  (cp.  Jer,  499)."— miB- 
destroyers,  despoilers,  here  robbers,  as  D^'2n  shows,  dn  condit.  part,,  not 
interrog.,  for  that  would  make  the  constr.  artificial,  n^h^];  (B  iirupvWlSas, 
in  Je.  KardXiixixa.  an  (g  rd  Uavd.  airoTs,  in  Je.  X"P*  avTuv  (d->''). 
®  interprets  onsa  by  rc'^tSi^?  j^fliBn  robbers  like  vintagers.  —  6.  iu'dhj 
221  B^Sant*,  though  lu'y.  may  be  coll.,  Ges.  ^  '«•  *,  the  pi.  is  prob.  a  scribal 
error,  so  also  Ehr.,  Hal.  n'-J  Aram.  \ii^.  Cf.  Is.  21".  (g  KaTek-fi{p.)- 
<pOi]  and  KaTe\{e)l<pdrj,  which  sounded  alike,  seems  to  have  read 
'''^.'.??..  i®  is  correct,  cf.  parallel  ton. — i^jisxa  ($  tA  KeKpv/xfiiva,  Wkl. 
thinks  of  mines,  but  this  was  hardly  intended  by  Ob.,  though  there  were 
mines  in  Edom.  He  transl.  the  whole,  "How  is  Edom  searched  out  as 
far  as  Cebal"  [transposing  Snjn  ly  thus  emended  from  v. '  and  com- 
paring ^  838  for  Gebal],  "how  are  his  mifies  sought  out,  so  that  they 
bring  no  yield!"  [transposing  n  njian  px  with  emended  nxian  from 
V. '].  He  thinks  that  these  are  the  words  of  the  disappointed  thieves. 
Che.  emends  T'njian  njjaj  rT>ni:r'na  ■na^'j  T'N  "  How  are  thy  purposes 
broken,  thy  wise  thoughts  become  foolish!" — 7,  Siajn  t;,  Gr.  h'll  for 
n>'.  Wkl.,  van  H.  join  Sujn  ny  to  v.  »  and  transl.  How  is  Edom 
searched  through,  his  treasures  sought  out  to  the  very  border/  (van  H.)  as 
far  as  Gebal/  (Wkl.),  i.  e.,  the  Edomitish  territory  toward  the  North,  t/'  838^ 
later  called  Gebalene.  Then  they  begin  a  new  sentence  with  TinSu', 
Thine  allies  have  sent  thee  away,  given  thee  over,  abandoned  thee.  But 
this  proposal  spoils  the  kinah  metre,  and  though  Ob.  is  not  over  par- 
ticular with  the  metre,  it  is  not  likely  that  he  should  have  spoiled  this 
effective  kinah  line.  For  •\^^h^  Che.  reads  qiSrp  they  have  befooled  thee. 
•^sSk*  >r:x  iS  ^h3^'  iiN^rn  =  Je.  38*2,  only  Je.  has  -iin'On  for  ^^^•^t:•^. 
We.,  etc.,  divide  the  clauses  differently  from  M,  Unto  the  border  have 
they  sent  thee.  All  the  men  of  thy  covenant  have  deceived  thee,  the  men  of 
thy  peace  have  prevailed  over  thee.  But  Je.  38^2  as  well  as  the  metre  favour 
M.  (&  dvT^<TT7j<Tav,  &H  o^i£  mistook  v  for  v,  the  same  mistake  v. '; 
B  here  correctly  illuserunt  tibi.  icnS  has  been  variously  explained 
(i)  by  taking  it  with  the  following  thy  bread  tliey  make  a  snare  under  thee  ; 
(2)  by  supplying  or  understanding  irjx  or  ^Sps,  cf.  1/' 41'°  (■'Di'^rr''N 
parall.  ''cn'?  Sax),  ©  '\-)'^r^Q  •'(?3n,  many  Gk.  mss.  add  ol  iffdlovres,  or  ol 
ffvveadlomis  aot(ffe);  (3)  by  translating  it  thy  flesh  =  thy  blood  relations 
cp.  Ar.  x,-c\j,  Bo.,  Neue  Ahrenlese,  ii,  201;  or  reading  iivrh  thine 

associates  cp.  Syr.  >->*t\,  van  H.;  (4)  by  pointing  it  T^rfj  they  who 
war  against  thee,  Cappellus,  Seydel;  they  who  eat  thy  bread,  Hal.;  (5)  by 
omitting  it  with  05,  Hi.,  We.,  et  al.  But  then  it  should  not  be  taken  as 
due  to  dittog.  but  as  a  variant  of  idW  {cf.  ^  41'");  (6)  by  emending  it 
to  ^cnS  to  scare,  discomfit  thee,  Du.  See  further  below.  The  meaning 
of  inn  is  disputed.     We.,  Now.  leave  the  whole  clause  untranslated. 


40  OBADIAH 

"<v^  has  nothing  to  do  with  iv-:  -wound,  Ho.  51',  though  it  has  fre- 
quently been  translated  thus.  Cal.,  e.  g.,  transl.  '  Otey  have  fixed  under 
thee  a  wound,  as  when  one  hides  a  dagger  between  the  bed  and  the  sheet 
when  a  person  intends  to  go  to  sleep.'  Also  AV.,  RV.".  Similarly 
Hal.  transl.  ceux  qui  mangeaient  ton  pain  t'ont  infligc  des  plaies  a  V ab- 
domen, cp.  Hb.  3>6  for  this  use  of  i\-inp.  <&  ivebpa,  Jjl  N^pn,  ft  |  i|C^^ 
181  insidice.,  Aq.  iirlSeffiv,  9  Seff/xiv,  S  dWorpluaiv.  All  presuppose  the  same 
Heb.  text.  Aq.  0  appear  to  have  connected  it  with  iDi::.  S  connects  it  with 
nir  to  be  a  stranger.  The  root  itd  should  be  compared  with  NH.  iic  to 
twist,  weave,  spin,  and  Aram,  iy^  to  bind  from  which  the  meaning  cord, 
rope,  snare,  is  naturally  derived.    Cf.  21  Aq.  9.    BDB.  cp.  "Aram.  iy^oZ] 

stretch  oneself,  cf.  At.  «yo  cequaliter  distendit  utrem"  and  transl.  "perh. 

net  (as  something  extended)."  Cf.  i  Mac.  5^  6i  ^aav  ry  Xay  e/i  7ro7/5a 
Kal  els  (TKavboKov  iv  t^  ive^ptieiv  avroii's  iv  rats  bSais.  The  various  emen- 
dations of  niirj  are  unnecessary.  Vol.  tixd  or  mixp  net;  Gr.  ib^c  or 
icDC  snare;  Prince,  JBL.,  xvi,  1897,  p.  177,  iixij  siege,  this  would  ne- 
cessitate, however,  the  further  change  of  nnn  into  Sj:  with  nixa  O'i:'. 
Wkl.  i\in.-i  mxo  m^^v  icnS  iS  -h^n^  they  shall  eat  thy  flesh,  shall  take 
away  from  thee  thy  food.  Marti  nni?  dwelling  {cf.  Dn.  422. 29  ^ji)  ;  for  the 
phrase  inn  a^r  to  make  one's  dwelling,  settle  down,  he  compares  ]p_  D>ir 
V.  ^  He  might  also  have  referred  to  S's  translation,  Tjnp,  of  tij"» 
V.  *.     But  Heb.  idiom  usually   requires  the  sf.  D^ni?  or  ann  (cf.  Is. 

38'2),  Ar.  Jt>.  Marti's  emendation  might  be  adopted,  for  it  is  most  at- 
tractive esp.  from  a  hist,  point  of  view,  if  the  usage  of  inn  did  not  make 
it  somewhat  doubtful.  If  we  retain  -\mc  in  the  sense  of  snare,  we  must 
obviate  the  difficulty  of  the  unhebraic  t^nnn  with  iitd  ic'ii'\  The  text 
most  prob.  read  for  T«nnn  orig.  ^?  rnni;  this  connects  closely  with  the 
preceding  and  the  foil.  {cf.  v.  ^),  and  the  whole  clause  then  reads,  with 
emended  ^^^''7,  to  discomfit  thee  they  had  kept  setting  traps  and  thou  wast 
dismayed  {destroyed),  because  there  was  no  understanding  in  thee  (la).  In 
13  njnn  px  the  sf.  must  refer  to  Edom,  <&  avrols,  but  this  is  strange 
because  of  the  2d  pers.  throughout  the  verse.  Many  refer  the  sf.  to  iira 
and  transl.  they  have  placed  snares  under  thee  which  thou  didst  not 
notice.  But  grammatically  this  is  not  probable.  Others  have  regarded 
it  as  an  independent  sentence.  But  the  3d  pers.  is  then  not  adequately 
explained.  Con.  transposes  it  after  nin>  a.xj  v.  ',  Now."*  after  ara 
Ninn  V.  8.  But  then  njian,  unless  emended,  occurs  twice  in  too  close 
succession.  We.,  Marti,  Du.  om.  the  phrase  as  a  marg.  comment  of  a 
reader  or  as  a  variant  of  v.  '.  The  best  proposal  is  Gr.'s  who  emends  13 
to  "|2.     Similarly  21  ijnSaiD  ti3  niSin. 

8.  BDB.  suggests  that  r^N  was  om.  by  a  scribal  error  before  njian; 


9-i6  41 

why  not  rather  >^js  ?  Others  change  njian  to  a^ran  to  make  it  more 
closely  parall.  with  O'Djn.  It  is  easier  to  change  aiDDn  to  nasn,  the 
D  is  due  to  dittog.  Cf.  Je.  49^ — 9.  innj,  Marti,  Now.^  nuj,  but  this 
is  not  necessary.  SopD  hy  slaughter,  not  without  slaughter ;  a  late  word 
in  Heb.  Gr.'s  interesting  conjecture  SNrpj:;  from  Jokieel,  i.  e.,  Petra 
{cf.  2  K.  14'),  has  found  no  approval.  It  is  dub.  whether  the  Selah  which 
Amaziah  called  Jokteel  was  Petra.  Though  (S  &  H  join  Sapn  to  v.  ■", 
the  metre  as  well  as  Jo.  420  favour  iH.  Now.,  et  al.,  om.  it  as  a  variant 
of  Dcns. 

10.  Cf.  Jo.  420.  Siev.,  JMPS.,  Du.  om.  apy  for  metr.  reasons.  Van 
H.  suggests  as  orig.  ap^''  Dcnn  ynn  Sopo.  But  this  is  not  likely. — 11 . 
0V2  C5  ai»::;  Du.  appears  to  om.  ov,  reading  T'cyn,  but  the  constr. 
favours  UJ.  njjD  icj?  to  stand  aloof,  BDB.  Cf.  2  S.  i8'3.  (3  '^?p,?. 
Buhl  transl.,  to  stand  there  as  an  indifferent,  hostile  spectator;  Wkl.,  to 
stand  in  the  way;  We.,  Now.,  Marti,  to  be  present,  4'  38".  1'^'n  3 
viiDpj;  Du.  transl.  his  wall  and  emends  mac  to  "i>ar,  which  governs 
both  I'^'n  and  ny;:',  for  he  om.  also  is-a.  Du.  has  correctly  seen  that  M 
is  wrong,  for  the  carrying  off  into  captivity  should  not  precede  the  cap- 
ture of  the  city.  But  it  is  dub.  whether  lac  can  be  used  with  ^''n,  wall. 
It  seems  to  me  more  likely  that  instead  of  )h^n  the  orig.  had  ^S  n^'^a,  when 
they  broke  for  him  the  gate-bar  and  entered  his  gate.  Cf.  Am.  i'.  iNa 
should  not  be  om.  njJ8',  Qr.  ^  ^"B  T^J-^r,  but  unnecessary,  sg.  also 
V. ".  Snu  ni,  the  vb.  tt"  occurs  only  here  and  Na.  ^^°  Jo.  4'.  BDB. 
suggests  that  it  may  be  a  wrongly  pointed  pf.  of  n-\i  Pi.  in  all  cases.  Gr. 
proposed  n;,  which  occurs  with  Snu  (Jos.  i8«).  On  the  Metheg  in  Itij?, 
cf.  Sta.,  Grammatik  52a.  Du.  inserts  before  hpn-dj  latest  gross  nSijn,  ac- 
counting presumably  for  its  omission  by  haplo.,  cf.  the  preceding  Siu. 

12-14.  JMPS.  regards  w.  "-"  as  secondary,  chiefly  because  they  are 
written  in  kinah  metre,  "while  the  preceding  and  following  context  is  in 
ordinary  trimeter."  He  is  also  impressed  by  the  abruptness  in  the  tran- 
sition from  the  past  to  the  present  in  these  verses.  But  the  abruptness 
must  not  be  exaggerated.  See  ad  loc.  Smith's  principal  argument  is 
ineffective,  because  the  metr.  structure  is  not  regular,  and  besides,  the 
kinah  lines  in  vv.  12-14  are  by  no  means  the  only  ones  in  Ob.,  cf.,  e.  g., 
w.  «■  ^.  Peckham  follows  Smith  in  athetizing  w.  "•  u.  nb^  bQt  regards 
v. »»,  without  the  negative,  as  the  continuation  of  v.". — Vv.  12,  13 
are  so  similar  that  We.,  Now.  om.  v.  "  as  secondary,  while  Wkl.  regards 
them  as  variants  of  the  same  text,  Marti  combines  these  two  positions, 
regards  v.  "  as  orig.  and  corrects  v.  '">  by  v.  i^*  so  as  to  read  do  not  gloat 
over  thy  brother  on  the  day  of  his  misfortune.  The  reason  for  preferring 
V.  "  is  that  it  connects  better  with  v.  >'  and  that  it  does  not  presuppose  a 
preceding  imv.  which  v.  12  with  its  and  does.  Wkl.  prefers  v.  '^  omitting 
the  copula.  Du.  also;  he  om.  v.  "be.  JMPS.  om.  w.  '">.  ub  and  rear- 
ranges the  order,  >'••  "»•  "«■  '".     But  though  the  similarit>'  is  close,  it  is 


42  OBADIAH 

really  only  v.  '">  that  can  be  regarded  as  a  variant  of  v.  ",  for  it  alone 
expresses  the  same  thought.  And  as  it  stands,  it  is  not  in  its  right  place 
between  v.  "•  and  v.  "".  It  would  seem  to  belong  with  v.  ",  as  also  the 
nns  DJ,  which  was  taken  from  v.  ",  might  indicate.  Since  v.  "•  and 
V.  '"»  cannot  have  stood  together  in  the  same  sentence,  v.  "">  would  seem 
to  be  a  variant  of  v.  "».  It  appears,  however,  more  likely  to  me  that 
Nin  in  V. "  was  orig.  viPf,  and  that  injnj  was  an  abbreviated  iny-\  dvj. 
The  abbreviation  was  overlooked  and  a  scribe  put  ns  ova  after  it. 
Orig.  V.  "i"  therefore  read  Do  not  thou  also  (sc.  as  the  barbarians)  be- 
have wickedly  in  the  day  of  his  distress.  But  v.  "»  is  not  quite  in  order 
either.  Now.,  Marti,  et  at.,  read  "jinNa  for  ynn  DV3  in  the  interest  of 
a  smoother  text,  but  it  is  preferable  to  retain  iinN  ova  and  to  emend 
naj  ava  to  't^j  ic?  like  a  barbarian,  cf.  (S.  Or,  with  Ehr.,  np:  a^'';  as 
if  it  were  the  day  of  a  stranger.  This  connects  better  with  the  preced- 
ing, makes  it  easier  to  account  for  the  present  text  and  disposes  of 
njj  which  in  spite  of  Jb.  31'  is  not  certainly  =  w/ts/or^Mne.  Wkl.,  JMPS. 
read  im3J,  but  that  is  grammatically  impossible. — 13.  Now.,  Marti 
read  it's  for  d^n  in  v. ''»,  and  in  v.  ""  noN  for  niN  to  avoid  the  repeti- 
tion of  TIN.  (&  apparently  supports  this,  for  it  transl.  the  words  by  three 
synonyms  and  uses  dTrwXe/a  in  v.  '''>  for  a^aN,  and  so  presumably  here 
also. — ipy-\2  CS  Ty]v  (rvvaywyr]v  airuv  =  ^nnj??  (!).  The  pi.  in  njn'7'j'P  is 
impossible,  it  may  be  =  N:-n'^rn,  Ges.  ^ "  ^.  Cf.  Ju.  19''  for  attaching 
Kj  to  the  vb.  instead  of  to  Sn,  and  2  S.  6'  22"  (parall.  f  18")  for  the 
omission  of  nj  with  nSr.  Or  we  may  read  with  Ols.,  Ew.,  et  al.,  rhvr\ 
1;,  or,  better,  nn\  Gr.  reads  q^;  for  nx  ara,  but  this  disturbs  the 
rhythmic  balance  which  was  evidently  intended. — 14.  p"if5  only  here  and 
Na.  3'.  In  Na.  3'  it  means  plunder,  parall.  i^jp,  but  it  cannot  mean  this 
here.     The  root  i"ns  seems  to  mean  to  tear  apart,  to  rend.     Cf.  Ar.  OV^ 

to  split,  divide.  There  is  difference  of  opinion  whether  it  refers  to  a 
breach  in  the  wall  or  to  the  parting  of  the  ways.  (S  SicK/SoXij,  B  exitihus 
favour  the  former,  2J  (xpio)  the  latter.     S  (pvyadelai  is  non-committal. 

The  Ar.  ^'^AX  bifurcation  (van  H.)  and  the  observation  that  vo^'^d 

most  prob.  refers  to  persons  who  have  already  escaped  from  the  city 
favour  the  transl.  parting  of  the  ways ;  so  BDB.,  Marti,  van  H. — "^.^pn 
is  used  here  abs.  in  the  sense  of  delivering  up,  betraying,  Dt.  32", 
Am.  6«. 

16.  The  reading  <J5  &"  n^ne'  for  an^nB*  is  an  exegetical  emendation. 
Perhaps  we  should  read  ii?k  •""^V'»  ^  '^^  '^ere  necessary.  Du.  on  inr. 
Some,  in  order  to  minimise  the  abruptness  in  the  change  of  address, 
transl.,  somewhat  artificially,  as  ye,  who  are,  or  live,  upon  my  holy  moun- 
tain {i.  e.,  the  Judeans)  have  drunk.     For  n>cn  many  Heb.  mss.  read 


i6-20  43 

2^3p,  which  has  been  favoured  by  some  ever  since  de  R.  <S*«=^Q"^ 
have  ohov,  &"  Ij^**  Rosenm.  emended,  therefore,  ■T'on  to  ncn  (cf. 
Dt.  32K),  and  this  is  still  adopted  by  many,  though  the  NH.  -iipn,  wine,  is 
preferred  by  some.  But  tkey  shall  drink  wine,  without  any  qualification 
of  the  character  of  the  wine,  can  only  mean  that  they  shall  carouse  and 
revel.  It  is  altogether  unwarranted  to  interpret  it  as  referring  to  the  cup 
of  wrath.  We  should  either  transl.  tdp,  with  Ehr.,  without  exception, 
or  emend  it.  In  the  latter  case  we  may  read  either  ■>Dvn,  my  fury  {cf. 
Jb.6^),Gr.:ncn,  or  we  may  assume  that  the  reading  ohov  was  a  transl. 
of  NiD  as  in  Is.  i*'  and  that  both  i^nn  and  n3D  belonged  orig.  to  the 
text  n«c  Din  ns  D^un-So  ie\W\,  all  the  nations  shall  drink  the  cup  at 
my  hand.  See  Bewer,  in  Harper  Memorial  Volumes,  ii,  207-10. — The 
meaning  of  yyV  or  yiS  is  not  quite  certain.  It  is  transl.  either  swallow, 
swallow  down,  cf.  };h  throat,  NH.,  Aram. :  jaw,  cheek,  B DB. ;  or  talk  wildly, 

^  X  ^        ^ 

cf.  Ar,  UlI,    jJ,  make  mistakes  in  talking.  Hi.,  Del.;  van  H.  compares 

Syr.  '<5^  C^*-^)'  ^"^  transl.  lick.  The  readings  KaraTrlovrai  (Kara- 
vluvrai)  by  a  number  of  Gk.  mss.,  KaTairodrjaovrat  by  Compl.,  and 
absorbebunt  by  U  favour  swallow  down.  The  most  important  Gk.  mss. 
read  dva^i^ffovTat  or  Kdra^^aovrai.  ' Ava^T^ffovrai  witnesses  to  lySi,  for  it 
read  iSyi  for  r;W  Gressmann,  Der  Ursprung  d.  isr.  jUd.  Eschalologie, 
132,  reads  iSyi,  but  transl.  and  shall  drink  again,  comparing  Ar.  <Xc 
That  Kara^-fjaovrai  does  not  presuppose  an  original  itt'I  (van  H.)  is 
obvious.  It  is  much  rather  a  corruption  of  KaTanod-fiffovrai,  or  as  Vol. 
thought  a  correction  of  ava§-f]<TovTai.  Usually,  however,  ]h2  is  translated 
by  Karairivo},  Ho.  8^,  Jon.  2',  Hb.  i'',  and  in  view  of  this  Gr.'s  emenda- 
tion r;h2i  (cf.  Is.  28^  has  force  esp.  also  in  connection  with  vn  t<i':'3  vm. 
Pu.  lyV?,  is,  however,  preferable.  We.,  et  al.,  read  lyji  and  they  shall  reel, 
totter,  cf.  Is.  242"  299,  t/'  107".  This  gives  excellent  sense,  but  v;)2i  seems 
to  me  better.  Wkl.  needlessly  reads  for  the  three  forms  of  nnr,  three 
forms  of  nsr,  destroy,  and  interprets  lySi  by  this,  and  shall  be  destroyed 
and  devastated.  Siev.  om.  y;\  JMPS.  inri  for  metr.  reasons.— Ni'7r= 
><''  ">?'!<?,  note  the  plene  writing  of  n^S,  also  in  v.  '. — 17.  The  subj.  in 
rip  nim  is  r'S  "^n.  Cf  Jo.  4*^  Marti  (Com.),  Now.,  et  al.,  regard  the 
phrase  as  secondary.  But  Marti  in  his  transl.  of  1909  leaves  it  in  the  text. 
Siev.  supplies  ohm-\>  from  Jo.  4'^  on^B'n^D  is  pointed  by  the  Vrss. 
Dn''tt'''i;D.  JMPS.  om.  app'  no  for  metr.  reasons. — 18.  nnu'  is  transl. 
idiomatically  irvptpSpos  by  (^^  {wvpocpopos  is  corrupt)  5j  ignifer.  &" 
9qJ  \^ .  It  has  reference  to  the  custom  of  the  priest's  marching  be- 
fore the  army  with  a  torch  kindled  at  the  sacred  altar  fire.  His  person 
was  regarded  as  inviolable.  Therefore  the  proverbial  expression  for 
absolute  destruction  was  ov5k  -irvpipbpoi  iXelcpdrj.  Vol.  quotes  Hesychius, 
irvp<p.     6  irvp  cpipwv  Kal  6  fibvoi  Staffwdds  iv  woXefxQ. 


44  OBADIAH 

19.  <S  ft"  B  take  3Jjn  and  n'^DU-n  as  subj.  But  v.  "^  shows  that 
the  subj.  of  lifi'i  is  apy^  no.  The  very  constr.,  3Jjn  and  hSd^'h  ace. 
wthout  HN  but  wj,'  -\n  PN  and  d^pitSd  pn  with  pn,  indicates  that  the 
latter  are  explanatory.  Cf.  the  same  constr.  in  Ez.  4'  oStt'n^  nn  n^p,  also 
Ez.  36".  The  transl.  of  pn  by  together  vnth  is  improbable.  Similarly 
inot?  mi?  DN  is  explanatory  of  oncN,  and  pc£  ■'j?  of  lySjn.  Orig. 
the  text  read  pep  'ja  which  was  corrupted  to  |D''J3.  So  now  also 
Du.  Gr.  suggests  pTinc  for  |d>j3,  van  H.  p^^^  i3yi  ond  /Ac  <rawj- 
jordanic  region,  i.  e.,  Cilead.  But  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  either  of 
these  could  be  corrupted  to  p''j3.  The  explanatory  words  are  by  the 
writer  himself  {cf.  Ez.  4')  rather  than  by  a  glossator,  as  We.,  et  al.,  think. 
DnoN  nir  occurs  only  here,  (5  has  the  usual  onoN  in  rh  6pos.  Or., 
following  Ew.,  emends  to  anoN  ps  "^nn)  and  {those  of)  the  mountain 
\i.  e.,  the  inhabitants  of  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  in  distinction  from  those 
of  the  Negeb  and  the  Shephelah]  shall  possess  Ephraim  and  the  field  of 
Samaria.  So  also  GASm.  Briggs,  Mess.  Proph.,  316  f.,  et  al.,  om.  pn 
mr  before  o^dn  and  transl.  and  Ephraim  will  possess  the  field  0/ Samaria 
and  Benjamin,  Cilead.  Van  H.  combining  this  with  We.'s  observation, 
transl.  and  they  shall  possess  Ephraim,  i.  e.,  thefiM  of  Samaria.  Ace.  to 
Hal.  the  subj.  of  'an  mtf  pn  ic-c-i  is  Joseph,  which  holds  over  from  v.  ". 
But  a  whole  sentence  intervenes  in  which  two  other  parties  are  the  subj. 
also  ace.  to  Hal.  irj;  •>n  occurs  only  in  Ob.  ».  «.  19.  si. — 20.  nrn  Snn 
(i  Tj  dpxv  o-iiTod,  connects  Sn  with  SSn.  Aq.  eivoplas  avrdv,  S  0  t9j% 
Swd/ieui  TaiTris,  ft  |^,*Sn,  n  \!\  t  n  fc.o,  U  exercitus  huius.  Usually 
Snn  has  been  transl.  army  or  fortress.  Ew.'s  reading  coast  (from  Sin 
sand)  has  not  been  followed  by  any  one.  Wkl.  thinks  that  a  vb.,  per- 
haps nSy,  was  orig.  contained  in  it.  Che.,  EB.,  suggests  tSnji,  without, 
however,  adopting  it  himself. — aiji'ja  tj-n:  The  readings  of  some 
Heb.  mss.  '33  -HfN,  51  ^J,nN3^,  ft  r;^:^^  ^^?  B  omnia  loca  Chanance- 
orum  are  interpretations.  nti'N  is  emended  by  most  to  iB?-\>  or  y^s  or 
both.*  Adopting  irn'.  and  combining  an  earlier  suggestion  of  Che.f 
with  van  H.'s  \  we  may  restore  itr-ii  [':'Nit'>  ijaS  ni]  nSna  pSji  the  brack- 
eted phrase  would  be  a  gloss.  Or  still  better  we  may  follow  more  closely 
♦  If  only  ■p"i}<  is  read,  VJ'"\M  of  v.  ^^  must  hold  over.  Briggs,  I.  c,  316  /.,  without  chang- 
ing M  transl.,  arid  ilie  capthily  0}  this  host  of  the  children  of  Israel  {will  possess)  that  which 
belongeth  to  the  Canaaniles.  But  the  Heb.  of  this  would  be  D'JyjaS  ■^l^'^<,  Stei.  emends  thus, 
but  even  then  the  reading  is  awkward.  Keil  transl.  and  the  captives  of  this  army  oj  llie  sons 
of  Israel  (will  take  possession)  of  what  Canaaniles  there  are. 

t  Che.,  Exp.,  xxxv,  1897,  p.  367,  suggested  that  nin  Snn  was  perhaps  a  fragment  of  n^na 
JTU  "\nj  -iianai  and  the  exiles  of  the  Israelites  who  are  in  Halah  and  by  Habor,  the  river  of 
Gozan,  will  conquer  Phoenicia  as  far  as  Zarephalh.  Similarly  now  also  Du.,  the  exiles  of 
Chalach  and  Chahor  will  take  thelandof  the  Phoenicians.  He  regards  "^Nlf^  'ja  as  a  better 
variant  of  oStr'n'  v.  2ob_ 

X  Van  H.  reads  SnTw"  <:aS  HI  n'^nn  pSji  (prtc.  of  Sin),  assumes  a  lacuna  after  IC'N  which 
he  fills  out  in  part  and  transl.  the  whole  et  les  caplifs  'qui  son'  dans  l'a!'rnle,'  cevx  des  cnfants 
d' Israel  qui  [sonl  d  .  .  .,  occuperont  le  pays  des]  Cananicns  jusqu'  a  Sarpa:h. 


20-2I  45 

the  order  of  v.  •>  and  read  with  a  necessarj'  transposition  Sn-)^",  'J3  dSji 

TiaD,  (S  ?ws  'E(/>pa^a,  S  Sa^apd,  O&Aid. '  A,(f,ap6.0.  (g's  reading  originated 
prob.  from  ev  a-e<papaS.  So  Rahmer,  who  also  mentions  a  marg.  n.  of  Jer. 
on  ^apeTTTQv  in  exemplario  Eusebiano  'Ecppadd  erat,  ace.  to  which  ?wi 
''E,(ppa6d  would  not  be  a  transl.  of  nsD3  but  another,  marg.  transl.  of  i>" 
P'B-y-i,  which  came  into  the  text  at  the  wrong  place.  Jer.'s  translation  in 
Bosphoro  was  due  to  his  mistaking  the  prep,  for  a  part  of  the  word. 
21  .VCDDN,  &  ]  1 1  q  m] ,  Spain  ;  this  became  the  prevailing  Jewish  interpre- 
tation, Ra.,  AE.,  Ki.,  Abar.  The  Spaniards  are  the  onifjo. — Schrader, 
Zyir.2,  445/.  {COT.,  ii,  145),  also  in  Ri.,  HWB.,  s.  v.,  identified 
Sepharad  with  Saparda  of  the  inscriptions  of  Sargon,  in  SW.  Media 
toward  Babylonia.  So  also  Dl.,  Lenormant,  GASm.  But  Bart,  rightly 
observes,  "If  there  was  a  Jewish  colony  of  captives  here,  however, 
nothing  is  otherwise  known  of  it;  nor  are  any  circumstances  evident 
which  would  render  probable  the  existence  at  this  point  of  a  colony  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  referrred  to  in  the  terms  used  by  Obadiah." 
De  Sacy  identified  it  with  Cparda  of  the  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
a  region  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bithynia  and  Galatia. 
So  also,  e.  g.,  Ges.,  Hi.,  Kue.,  WRS.,  Say.,  Bart.  WRS.  and  Say.  observed 
that  it  is  "  again  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of  the  32d  year  of  Kings  An- 
tiochus  and  Seleucus,  i.  e.,  275  B.C."  Since  the  Persian  period  it  was  used 
as  a  name  for  Asia  Minor  as  a  whole  (Wkl.,  AOF.,  ii,  430;  KAT.^, 
301).  See  also  Che.,  EB.,  Marti.  Jo.  3"  shows  that  Jews  were  sold 
to  Gk.  traders,  and  WRS.  reminds  us  that  "Lydia  was  a  great  slave- 
market,  and  Asia  Minor  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  Diaspora  at  an  early 
date."  There  is  a  tradition  of  a  Jewish  captivity  in  Asia  Minor  under 
Artaxerxes  Ochus  (Eus.,  Chron.,  ed.  Schoene,  ii,  112,  113;  Solinus, 
35,  4;  Orosius,  iii,  7,  6/.),  but  some  doubt  its  historicity.  Again,  ace. 
to  Jos.,  Ant.,  xii,  3,  4,  a  colony  of  2,000  Jewish  families  was  transported 
from  Mesopotamia  to  Lydia  and  Phrygia  by  Antiochus  the  Great  (224- 
187  B.C.).  The  historicity  of  this  is  denied  by  Willrich,  Juden  und  Grie- 
chen,  39  ff.,  suspected  by  Guthe,  EB.,  but  accepted  by  Schiirer.  Wkl. 
believes  that  the  Jewish  captives  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (168  B.C.)  are 

§  Hal.  suggests  rrrn  ?nn  n?J1  and  Ike  captivity  oj  this  lei,  i.  e.,  3>3X  70  where  Ez.  lived,  the 
pron.  this  being  chosen  because  Ob.  himself  lived  there.  For  ntt'X  he  reads  •13tt'V  they  shrill  oc- 
cupy, or  people,  cj.  Ez.  36^.  He  compares  Ez.  4'*  where  JU'.vi  (Qr.)  is  corrupted  to  ns'XI 
(Kt.)- — A  trace  of  the  Isr.  exiles  in  Halah  has  been  found  in  an  inscription,  .ADD.,  H,  No.  755 
(K.  123),  published  and  commented  on  by  S.  Schiffer,  Keilinschrijtliche  Spuren  der  in  der 
zweiten  Halite  des  8.  Jahrh.  von  den  Assyrem  nach  Mesopotamien  deportierlcn  Samarier  (lo 
Stdmme).  The  passage  reads.  A-hi-ia-ka-a-mu  ina  (mat)  Qa-lali-f}i  e-rib,  Ahi-iaUamu  (Bib. 
Dp''nN  Ahikam)  has  come  to  Halah  (p.  29).  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  a  Hebrew.  II  R 
53  Ha-lah-hu  is  mentioned  with  Ra-sa-ap-pa,  Biblical  Reseph,  modern  Rusafe  between  Pal- 
myra and  the  Euphrates.  K.  10922  it  is  mentioned  with  Harran  (Schiffer),  WW.  places  it, 
therefore,  near  Harran,  KAT.\  269. 


46  OBADIAH 

referred  to.  Bo.,  Gr.  emended  ijin  or  "'snN,  cf.  Aid.  'AtftapdO.  Van  H. 
has  revived  Schrader's  older  view  that  dm^dd  (2  K.  17**  iS'^)  was  meant. 
He  reads  nso  (•■'">dd),  the  sg.  form  of  dmidd,  «=  Sipar.  Similarly  Hal. 
n-\DD3  in  Sippara  or  Sippar,  near  Tel  Abib  where  Ez.  lived. — 21 .  O'^ywyv, 
act,  so  31  joityD,  S  ffitxrovei,  "B  salvatores.  But  (8  Aq.  G  &  pass., 
either  o^yriD  or  D'^jC'ij,  so  also  Gr.,  Now,,  Hal. — jvs  nna,  <S  ft",  Hi., 
Gr.,  Du.:  -inn,  but  nSy  is  not  used  with  ]a  in  connection  with  Mt. 
Zion.  Hal.  takes  jvs  nna  d''>.'C'ij  =  'tna  icn  cjiiinj.  "  Des  (guerriers), 
sauves  au  Mont  Sion,  partiront  Pour  exercer  le  jugement  sur  le  mon- 
tagne  d'Esaii."  This  is  the  best  interpretation,  if  the  pass,  is  adopted. 
nSp,  to  make  an  expedition  {cf.  Ho.  8°  Je.  49"  50').  nSj?  with  a,  cf. 
Ju.  I',  2  S.  2',  ip  24',  I  Ch.  14".  'CBvh  (8  correctly  ^K5t/c^<rai.  Ke., 
Perowne,  van  H.  think  of  government.  But  such  a  use  of  oor  for 
Judah's  rule  over  other  nations  is  quite  improbable.  Marti  om.  either 
ji'S  -\n2  or  preferably  ri'y  in  ns  taDcS  as  a  gloss.  Che.  reads  ry-\^ry<h  for 
nin^S.    Ace.  to  Zim.,  KA  T.\  647,  odb'  is  an  old  Bab.  loan  word. 


COMMENTARY    ON  JOEL. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  JOEL. 

§  I.    THE   COMPOSITION   OF  THE  BOOK. 

The  book  of  Joel  has  usually  been  regarded  as  the  work  of  one 
author  and  is  still  treated  as  such  by  all  recent  commentators.  And 
this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  M.  Vemes  as  early  as  1872  maintained 
that  chs.  3,  4  were  not  written  by  the  author  of  chs.  i,  2.*  He 
restated  his  position  in  1874  and  in  a  less  dogmatic  form  in  1880, 
when  he  did  not  insist  on  difference  of  authorship,  though  he  still 
maintained  the  difference  and  irreconcilability  of  the  two  sections. 
Vemes'  thesis  remained  unnoticed  until,  independently  of  him, 
J.  W.  Rothstein  in  1896  argued  for  difference  of  authorship  for 
chs.  I,  2  and  chs.  3,  4.  Then  Nowack  called  attention  to  Vemes 
and  interpreted  in  his  counter-arguments  Vemes'  non-insistence  on 
duality  of  authorship  as  a  practical  abandonment  of  his  position. 
G.  A.  Smith  and  Marti  followed  Nowack's  lead  in  opposing  Roth- 
stein's  position,  G.  A.  Smith  not  without  reserve.  But  more  re- 
cently Ryssel,  Sievers,  Duhm  and  P.  Haupt  have  agreed  that  the 
book  is  no  unity.  Ryssel  adopted  Rothstein's  literary  position,  re- 
garding chs.  I,  2  from  one  author,  chs.  3,  4  from  another.  Sievers 
considers  2^"-  ^^-"  3^^  4'-'-  "-'\  Duhm  2^«-4''  as  later  and  both 
point  out  insertions  in  chs.  i,  2. 

It  is  clear  that  there  is  a  decided  difference  of  interest  and 
subject-matter  iii  both  sections.  Chs.  i,  2  treat  of  a  locust  plague 
and  a  drought  as  disciplinary  punishment  of  the  Jews;  chs.  3,  4 
treat  of  the  final  judgment  of  the  nations  and  of  the  protection 
and  glory  of  the  Jews,  without  mentioning  the  locust  plague.  But 
though  the  day  of  Yahweh  dominates  chs.  3,  4  the  locust  plague 
in  chs.  I,  2  is  also  brought  into  connection  with  it  in  a  number  of 
passages.     And  it  is  due  to  this  fact,  more  than  to  any  other,  that 

*  The  Hebrew  text  has  four  chapters,  the  English  \'ersion  only  three;  English  2^*^  =  He- 
brew 3'-^;  ch.  3  Engl.  =  ch.  4  Heb. 

49 


50  JOEL 

the  unity  of  authorship  has  oeen  maintained  so  strongly  even  by 
critics  like  Nowack  and  Marti.  But  these  references  to  the  day  of 
Yahiveh  in  chs.  i,  2  turn  out  to  be  interpolations. 

i'^  Nothing  whatever  in  the  context  indicates  that  the  prophet  had 
in  mind  the  day  of  Yahweh,  on  the  contrary  vv.  ^  3  exclude  it.  So  does 
the  fact  that  we  have  here  a  quotation  from  Is.  13 «,  when  all  through  the 
address  we  have  the  words  of  an  original  poet  and  writer,  i"  is  a  foreign 
element  in  the  context.     So  also  Siev.,  Du. 

2">-  *.  Again  the  phrases  are  taken  aXmosi  verbatim  from  other  proph- 
ets, Zp.  I"  I'-  "  Mai.  3'-  *'.  Moreover,  the  day  of  Yahweh  and  the  day 
of  the  locusts  are  connected  here  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  not  clear 
whether  they  are  the  same,  or  whether  the  locusts  are  merely  the  pre- 
cursors of  the  day  of  Yahweh.  The  alarm  is  to  be  sounded,  we  are  told, 
first  because  of  the  approach  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  and  then,  all  of  a 
sudden,  because  a  huge  locust  swarm  is  coming.  Then  the  description 
of  the  locust  swarm  is  continued  until  we  come  to  vv.  '"•  "  where  we  again 
meet  most  unexpectedly  a  description  of  an  eschatological  army.  Duhm 
also  believes  that  2"".  2  js  an  interpolation. 

oio.  ii_  While  the  locusts  in  2'  "■  might  perhaps  be  interpreted  as 
precursors  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  this  is  not  possible  in  2"'  ".  "In 
ch.  ii.  10,"  says  Davidson,  "the  plague  and  the  day  of  the  Lord  seem 
brought  immediately  together  .  .  .  this  darkening  of  the  sun  and  moon 
is  not  to  be  rationalised  into  the  effects  upon  daylight  produced  by 
swarms  of  locusts  in  the  sky,  it  is  a  sign  of  the  near  approach  of  the  day 
of  the  Lord,  though  not  identical  with  that  day  (ii.  31,  Engl.)  .  .  . 
these  hosts  of  locusts  were  the  army  of  the  Lord  .  .  .  (ii.  25)  and  He 
was  at  the  head  of  the  army  giving  it  command;  and  thus  there  was  vir- 
tually that  presence  and  manifestation  of  the  Lord,  at  least  in  its  begin- 
nings, in  which  the  day  of  the  Lord  was  verified  "  (pp.  202/.).  These 
verses  do  not  describe  an  actual  locust  flight,  as  the  preceding  had  done, 
but  the  day  of  Yahweh;  and  the  locusts  are  the  agents  of  His  judgment. 
And  yet  in  spite  of  this  much  more  terrible  danger  of  the  day  of  Yahweh 
the  appeal  to  repentance  in  vv.  '--'<  contains  as  little  reference  to  it  as  do 
the  prayer  of  the  priests  and  Yahweh's  answer  in  2'5  "•.  It  is  the  locust 
plague  and  the  drought  that  constitute  the  whole  of  these  passages,  the 
day  of  Yahweh  is  not  mentioned  at  all.  Rothstein  already  attributed 
210.  11  to  the  editor  who  combined  chs.  i,  2  with  chs.  3,  4.  Siev.  and  Du. 
retain  them,  strangely  enough. 

2«.  There  are  two  further  traces  of  this  interpolator  of  the  day  of 
Yahweh  who  tried  to  connect  chs.  i,  2  with  chs.  3,  4.  The  first  of  these 
is  in  2'.  This  verse,  though  not  absolutely  incompatible  with  the  context, 
interrupts  the  description  of  the  advance  of  the  locust  swarm.  It  has 
more  than  once  been  pointed  out  that  D>cv,  nations  or  peoples,  is  rather 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BOOK  5I 

peculiar  in  this  connection.  Hi.'s  transl.  Leute,  people,  and  his  refer- 
ence to  I  K.  22^8  in  justification  of  this  do  not  hold  good,  because  y;r2& 
D'DV,  hear  ye  peoples,  in  i  K.  22^8  is  a  gloss  by  a  reader  who  wrote  the 
beginning  of  the  book  of  the  prophet  Micah,  with  whom  he  identified 
Micaiah,  in  the  margin. 

Why  should  the  nations  be  introduced  at  this  point,  when  Joel  con- 
centrates his  attention  upon  his  own  people?  It  is  significant  that  this 
verse  shows  contact  with  Is.  13  (v.  »),  i.  e.  with  the  same  chapter  from 
which  the  interpolator  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  had  drawn  his  material  in 
I"  (=  Is.  13"),  2'"  also  is  similar  to  Is.  i3"'-  ".  The  inference  is  there- 
fore natural  that  2*  belongs  also  to  the  day  of  Yahweh  interpolations. 
— On  2"  see  com. 

2*0.  Another  trace  is  in  the  name  my  northerner  in  2^".  This  is 
such  an  unusual  and  improbable  term  for  a  real  locust  swarm  that  we 
must  interpret  it  as  an  eschatological  term  for  the  enemy  from  the  north 
that  had  so  long  been  prophesied.  The  whole  context  here  again  shows 
that  Joel  had  in  mind  a  real  locust  swarm,  for  he  describes  its  destruc- 
tion in  terms  which  are  not  applicable  to  human  forces.  The  expres- 
sion is  therefore  due  to  the  interpolator  of  the  day  of  Yahweh.  Rothstein 
attributed  2^"  as  a  whole  to  the  editor,  W.  R.  Smith  also  regarded  2*« 
as  a  gloss. 

After  the  removal  of  these  interpolations  the  difference  of  inter- 
est and  subject-matter  between  chs.  i,  2  and  chs.  3,  4  becomes  even 
clearer.  Chs.  i,  2  treat  of  a  locust  plague  and  drought,  and  con- 
tained originally  no  reference  to  the  day  of  Yahweh.  Chs.  3,  4 
treat  of  the  day  of  Yahweh,  and  contain  no  reference  to  the  locust 
plague  and  the  drought.  The  series  of  interpolations  has  been  de- 
liberately inserted  in  order  to  connect  chs.  i,  2  with  chs.  3,  4. 
Originally  they  were  distinct  and  not  connected. 

But  does  this  conclusion  necessarily  involve  difference  of  author- 
ship for  the  two  sections?  May  not  Joel  be  the  author  of  both, 
different  though  they  are?  Surely,  the  same  writer  may  write  on 
two  different  subjects  at  different  times!  Yet  even  if  we  assume 
this,  we  cannot  hold  him  responsible  for  the  day  of  Yahweh  inter- 
polations in  chs.  1,2.  For  it  is  most  improbable  that  a  man  of  such 
fine  literary  style,  who  knows  so  well  how  to  express  his  thoughts 
in  a  manner  all  his  own,  should  in  every  instance  have  inserted 
common,  well-known  phrases  from  other  prophets  into  poems  of 
such  high  literary  beauty  and  finish.  For  it  should  be  noticed 
that  the  literary  parallels  in  chs.  i,  2,  which  have  been  pointed 


$2  JOEL 

out  so  frequently,  are  all  found  in  these  interpolations.  The 
genuine  Joel  is  original  in  his  expressions. 

This  is  our  difficulty  with  chs.  3,  4  also.  As  a  whole  they  cannot 
be  said  to  be  stylistically  on  a  level  with  chs.  i,  2.  Their  style  is  so 
inferior  that  it  argues  against  unity  of  authorship.  From  this  must, 
however,  be  excepted  4'*'",  which  are  equal  in  strength  and  origi- 
nality of  expression  as  well  as  rhythmic  beauty  and  effectiveness  to 
chs.  1,2.  Indeed,  as  soon  as  it  is  admitted  that  a  single  author  may 
write  on  two  such  diverse  themes  as  the  locust  plague  with  its  ac- 
companying drought  and  the  judgment  of  the  nations  in  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  there  is  every  reason  for  believing  that  Joel  wrote 
^9-i4a_  That  striking  description  of  the  march  and  attack  of  the 
locust  army  in  ch.  2  has  its  counterpart  in  this  description  of  the 
summoning  of  the  nations  to  war.  The  same  style  and  rhythm, 
the  staccato  movement,  are  used  in  both  passages  with  equal 
effectiveness.  There  is  thus  no  cogent  reason  for  denying  the  au- 
thorship of  4^-"^  to  Joel. 

In  regard  to  the  remainder  of  the  chapter  the  matter  is  different. 
The  author  of  4^""*  has  such  an  original  manner  in  describing  the 
preparations  for  the  final  attack  of  heathendom  on  Jerusalem  that 
it  is  most  improbable  that  he  should  have  fallen  back  upon  com- 
mon prophetic  phraseology  for  the  description  of  the  battle  itself  in 
vv.  ^•'-  *".  Indeed,  even  his  dependence  on  Ezekiel  for  the  general 
idea,  for  which  see  below,  makes  the  originality  in  which  he  ex- 
presses this  idea  all  the  more  impressive.  From  a  writer  of  such 
force  we  should  have  expected  a  very  vivid  and  striking  portrayal 
of  Yahweh's  judgment  of  the  nations  and  we  can  hardly  believe 
that  he  should  have  quoted  verbatim  from  other  prophets  and  have 
produced  a  passage  so  general  and  so  lacking  in  definiteness  that 
commentators  have  not  been  certain  whether  it  was  a  description 
of  the  battle  or  not.  Now  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  these  sentences 
correspond  almost  literally  to  the  insertions  of  the  interpolator 
of  the  day  of  Yahweh  in  2^^-  "  and  we  may  therefore  reasonably 
conclude  that  this  interpolator  who  depended  so  much  on  other 
prophets  for  his  thoughts  and  phrases  worked  over  the  second 
part  of  Joel  also.  And  with  this  clue  we  may  undertake  to  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  his  work. 


THE  COMPOSITION   OF  THE  BOOK  53 

4"'',  if  correctly  preserved,  shows  characteristic  traces  of  the  inter- 
polator's language,  cf.  i'^  2'.  And  3^''  bears  his  stamp  also,  cf.  2'»  and 
Mai.  3"  from  which  3<t,  jg  taken,  just  as  he  had  taken  the  phrase  in  2" 
from  Mai.  32. 

4"  is  also  by  the  editor,  for  the  first  half  of  the  verse  is  composed  of 
phrases  which  are  characlerislic  of  Ezekiel  and  the  Holiness  Code  and  ye 
shall  know  that  I  am  Yahweh  your  God.  And  in  the  second  half  Ob.  " 
is  quoted  and  an  interpretation  is  added  which  is  correct  enough  as  an 
interpretation  of  Obadiah's  phrase  but  out  of  accord  here  with  the  situa- 
tion of  the  preceding.  The  author  of  4''-"»,  even  if  he  had  written  w. 
'5-  'S  could  not  have  continued  as  4''  does,  and  barbarians  shall  not  pass 
through  her  again;  he  would  have  insisted  that  at  that  time,  when  all 
the  heathen  stood  before  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City  would  be  safe  because 
of  Yahweh's  presence.  Our  editor,  however,  had  the  capture  of  586 
B.C.  in  mind,  cf.  w.  »•  ',  and  explained  the  phrase  of  Obadiah  accord- 
ingly. The  sudden  change  of  address  in  v.  ''  also  would  be  strange  in 
Joel,  but  is  in  line  with  2"  which  is  very  similar  to  4".  It  exhibits  the 
editor's  quoting  style  and  is  therefore  by  him. 

In  4'8-2i  we  have  evidences  of  the  editor's  hand  in  v.  "ma  ^hich  is 
quoted  from  Am.  9".  In  4"  he  had  quoted  from  Am.  i'.  In  v.  >">  a 
significant  phrase  of  Ob.'"  is  used  and  commented  on.  421  •  belongs 
indissolubly  with  v.  "t;  and  v.  ^it  is  very  much  like  4"  and  2"  which  are 
both  by  the  editor.  4.^°  may  have  been  suggested  by  Am.  g'^,  cf.  also  the 
editor's  hope  in  2"''  and  Am.  9'^,  though  the  terms  used  in  v.  'S"  are 
favourite  terms  of  Ezekiel.  4'8b  is  based  on  Ez.  47' »•.  4>8»/3  seems  to 
look  back  to  i^".  The  difference  between  Joel's  poetic  but  accurate 
statement  of  natural  fertility  in  22'  «•  and  the  hyperbolic  description  of 
the  fertility  of  the  golden  age  in  4>8  is  instructive. — All  this  indicates  that 
the  whole  conclusion  (4'8-=')  comes  from  the  editor  whose  fondness  for 
quotations  from  other  prophets  we  have  already  noted.  We  have  also 
observed  that  the  editor  is  not  over-particular  in  his  st}'le,  and  that  he 
changes  occasionally  from  one  person  to  the  other  in  an  abrupt  way,  cf. 
2"  4' 7,  so  that  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  first  person  in  v.  2'",  which 
should  stand  directly  after  v.  '»,  need  not  surprise  us  since  it  is  in  line 
with  his  other  work.  But  even  so  it  is  not  impossible  that  v. '"'/S-  21* 
are  still  later  insertions. 

Thus  far  we  have  seen  that  4Hb-2i  are  by  the  editor.  We  must  now 
investigate  for  how  much  more  he  is  responsible. 

42»  is  so  closely  connected  in  thought  and  expression  with  w.  9-'<»  that 
it  appears  to  have  belonged  with  it  from  the  outset,  although  the  thought 
is  repeated  in  slightly  different  phraseology  in  v.  '*.  That  v.  ^a  forms 
an  appropriate  introduction  to  vv.  »-'<•'  cannot  be  denied.  The  metre 
is  different,  but  we  expect  that,  for  the  trimeter  or  hexameter  is  more 
appropriate  for  v. «» than  the  staccato  rhythm  of  w.  "•. 


54  JOEL 

It  is,  however,  not  so  evident  that  v.  ^t  (from  on  account  of  my  people 
Israel  on)  and  v.  ^  belong  to  Joel.  They  are  only  apparently  insepara- 
ble from  V.  2",  in  reality  they  are  not  in  harmony  with  it.  For  according 
to  V.  ^o  the  judgment  is  universal,  on  all  the  nations,  and  is  described 
as  such  also  in  vv.  '  "  .  But  in  vv.  ^b.  3  the  scope  is  narrower.  Not  all 
the  nations  were  guilty  of  the  cruel  treatment  of  the  Jews  here  charged 
against  them.  As  a  reason  for  the  punishment  of  all,  this  would  there- 
fore hardly  do.  It  is  true  that  in  later  literature  the  cruel  treatment  of 
Israel  is  given  as  a  reason  for  the  punishment  of  the  nations,  but  then 
not  merely  the  conquerors  and  destroyers  of  Jerusalem  are  meant  but 
all  those  nations  among  whom  the  Jews  were  scattered  and  by  whom  they 
had  been  treated  with  scorn  and  hatred.  And  those  who  had  not  known 
Israel  are  excepted  from  destruction.  Here  the  reference,  however,  is 
definitely  to  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans  in  586  B.C. 
Moreover,  the  rarely  used  phrase  they  cast  lots  in  v.  '  reminds  us  of 
Ob.  ".  And  we  remember  that  the  editor  had  used  phrases  from  Oba- 
diah  in  4"  2".  All  this  makes  it  very  probable  that  vv.  ^b.  3  are  also 
part  of  the  editor's  work. 

The  observation  that  the  editor  used  Obadiah  suggests  that  3'  with  its 
direct  quotation  from  Ob.  "  (to  authenticate  the  statement  that  every 
true  Yahweh-worshipper  would  be  safe  on  that  great  day)  is  also  from 
him.  This  is  made  probable  also  by  a  comparison  with  4"  where  the 
editor's  interest  is  also  centred  in  the  protection  of  Israel. 

The  difference  of  3>-*»  where  Yahweh  Himself  speaks  and  s*^-  ^  which 
are  by  the  editor  suggests  that  3'-**  are  not  by  the  editor  but  by  Joel. 
And  this  impression  is  strengthened  by  the  originality  of  the  thought  and 
the  effective  manner  in  which  it  introduces  the  final  judgment,  for  which 
see  the  commentary.  Taking  this  into  account  there  is  no  adequate 
reason  for  doubting  the  genuineness  of  3'-*". — The  insertion  of  3^''  ^ 
necessitated  a  new  introduction  (4')  by  the  editor,  who  is  probably  also 
responsible  for  the  editorial  link  in  3',  and  it  shall  come  to  pass  after- 
wards, and  possibly  also  for  in  those  days  in  3*,  cf.  the  same  phrase  in  4'. 

We  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  3'-^"  4'»-  '"•  are  by  Joel. 
There  remains  the  examination  of  the  digression  in  4*-^.  Though  these 
verses  are  at  once  recognised  as  a  digression  they  are  not  unconnected  with 
4'-  '.  The  sale  of  Jewish  captives  by  the  victorious  Babylonian  soldiers 
had  been  referred  to  in  v.  '.  The  slave-traders  to  whom  they  sold  them, 
so  we  may  supply,  were  the  Phoenicians  and  the  Philistines  who  had  car- 
ried on  slave-trade  for  centuries,  cf  Am.  i'-  »  Ez.  27",  also  later  i  Mac. 
3"  2  Mac.  8".  So  this  announcement  of  retribution  seemed  to  the  writer 
very  appropriate  in  this  place.  It  seemed  to  carry  on  the  thought  quite 
naturally,  for  these  verses  do  not  charge  the  Phoenicians  and  Philis- 
tines with  an  actual  attack  upon  the  Jews  but  with  taking  away  their 
treasures  and  valuables  and  with  selling  Jews  into  slavery  to  the  Greeks. 


THE  COMPOSITION   OF  THE  BOOK  55 

They  came  as  merchants  and  slave-traders  to  whom  the  soldiers  sold 
their  captives  and  for  whose  wares  they  exchanged  their  booty.  That 
they  profited  immensely  by  these  transactions  was  a  matter  of  course. 
Thus  we  must  interpret,  if  this  section  is  the  direct  continuation  of  vv. 
*■  ».  But  there  is  no  reference  elsewhere  to  such  activity  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  Philistines  in  586  B.C.  and  it  is  most  improbable  in  the  light 
of  Ezekiel's  silence  on  this  point  in  his  oracle  against  Tyre,  although  he 
speaks  of  its  slave-trade  with  Greece  (27").  We  should  doubtless  have 
had  a  mention  of  it  in  26-,  where  Tyre's  joy  over  Jerusalem's  fall,  and  in 
28*^,  where  Sidon's  relation  to  Israel  are  spoken  of,  if  the  Phoenicians  had 
made  themselves  so  obno.xious  to  the  Jews  at  that  time.  The  same  holds 
true  of  Phoenicia  in  25'^. — It  has  sometimes  been  supposed  that  the 
Phoenicians  and  Philistines  were  meant  in  vv.  ^-  ^,  but  there  is  no  refer- 
ence anywhere  in  all  the  history  of  Israel  and  Judah  to  a  conquest  of 
Israel  by  the  combined  forces  of  Phoenicia  and  Philistia  and  of  a  dis- 
persing of  Israel  by  them  among  the  nations  or  of  a  parcelling  out  of  the 
land  of  Israel  among  themselves.  The  identification  of  vv.  ^-  ^  with  the 
plundering  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Philistines  and  Arabians  in  2  Ch.  21I6  f. 
under  Jehoram  does  not  do  justice  to  the  words  of  these  verses,  even  if 
the  objection  that  the  Phoenicians  did  not  participate  in  that  raid  were 
not  conclusive.  The  direct  address,  moreover,  in  4'  mentioning  the 
Phoenicians  and  Philistines  in  addition  (aji)  and  singling  them  out 
especially  indicates  that  they  are  not  meant  in  vv.  *• '.  Their  wrong  is  de- 
fined in  vv.  5-  6  and  according  to  the  whole  tenor  of  the  passage  they  are 
not  the  conquerors  of  vv.  '•  3_  Since  they  did  not  get  the  treasures  and 
valuables  of  the  Jews  and  the  captives  from  the  Babylonian  soldiers 
who  are  quite  clearly  referred  to  in  vv.  2  3^  ^g  must  conclude  that  vv.  ■•■* 
refer  to  some  other  time  than  586  B.C.,  and  that  they  were  not  originally 
the  continuation  of  v. '  but  a  later  insertion.  And  the  literary  fact  that 
vv.''- 8  interrupt  the  connectionbetween  vv. '-'and  w.  '^-  most  awkwardly, 
points  in  the  same  direction.  The  context  has  a  much  wider  horizon, 
and  vv.  *-'  are  not  easily  harmonised  with  it.  The  universal  judgment 
in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  executed  by  Yahweh  Himself,  must  embrace 
the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  also.  But  here  in  vv.  *-^  they  are  to  re- 
ceive a  special  punishment.  And  it  is  not  that  they  are  to  be  extermi- 
nated but  that  they  are  to  be  sold  into  slavery  by  Israel!  4^-'  give  no 
indication  of  being  aware  that  the  judgment  on  all  the  nations  is  com- 
ing so  soon,  that  it  is  already  announced.  In  other  words,  w.  <-'  are 
out  of  line  with  their  context. — It  is  true,  of  course,  that  apocalyptics 
are  not  always  consistent  and  that  a  reference  to  their  own  historical  situ- 
ation frequently  comes  in  where  we  do  not  expect  it.  But  even  with  this 
clearly  in  mind  it  does  not  seem  to  me  likely  that  the  author  of  vv.  '■'■  •  "• 
was  responsible  for  vv.  *-^.  They  have  grown  out  of  a  situation  when 
the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  had  but  recently  done  to  the  Jews  the 


56  JOEL 

things  charged  against  them.  And  it  is  perhaps  possible  to  suggest  this 
situation  more  definitely.    See  com. 

We  must  turn  once  more  to  the  composition  of  ch.  2.  Sievcrs  regards 
212-14  as  belonging  to  the  secondary  material  because  he  finds  in  them  a 
mi.xture  of  external  and  religio-ethical  views  of  repentance  which  he  can- 
not attribute  to  Joel  but  only  to  a  wholly  inferior  intellect.  But  Sievers 
sees  here  contradictions  which  in  religious  practice  need  not  exist  at  all. 
Outward  form  may  well  be  filled  with  spirit.  The  verses  are  really 
quite  important  for  the  true  understanding  of  i'^-  ". 

According  to  Duhm  the  appendix  begins  at  2'*,  and  Sievers  also  re- 
gards 2 '^-2' as  secondary.  This  seems  to  me  unjustifiable.  Why  should 
the  prophet  not  have  added  the  outcome  of  the  intercession  ?  Compare 
the  similar  case  of  Haggai.  Who  else  but  Joel  should  have  added  this 
promise  which  fitted  only  that  particular  time?  What  reason  could  an- 
other have  had  for  doing  this  ?  And  why  should  this  other  have  given  it 
in  the  form  of  a  divine  oracle  ?  Are  we  to  suppose  that  a  later  writer  who 
knew  nothing  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  Joel's  time  sat  down  and 
wrote  a  promise,  which  he  put  into  Yahweh's  mouth,  simply  because 
he  knew  that  the  plague  had  passed  away,  since  the  people  were  still 
in  existence?  Moreover,  the  song  in  vv.  2i-2<  bears  the  stamp  of  origi- 
nality. Not  only  its  rhythmic  beauty  but  also  its  phraseology  are  Joel's 
own.  And  its  origin  can  be  explained  by  the  reversal  of  the  circum- 
stances of  chs.  I,  2  as  by  nothing  else.  We  would  be  glad  if  we  knew 
the  circumstances  out  of  which  the  Psalms  arose  as  well  as  we  know 
those  that  gave  rise  to  this  song. 


Our  conclusion  is  (i)  that  Joel  wrote  chs.  i,  2  (except  i^^ 
gib.  2.  6.  10.  u.  27)  ^^^  ^igQ  ^uia  ^2a.  9-Ha.  (3)  that  an  editor  wrote 

the  remainder,  connecting  chs.  i,  2  with  chs.  3,  4  by  a  series  of 
interpolations  which  are  characterised,  as  all  his  work  is,  by  de- 
pendence on  other  prophecies;  and  (3)  that  4''"^  are  a  still  later 
insertion. 

§  2.    THE  DATE   OF  THE  BOOK. 

Since  the  book  is  not  a  unity  we  must  try  to  determine  the  date 
of  Joel,  of  the  eschatological  editor  and  of  the  author  of  4^"^. 

I.  No  date  is  given  in  the  superscription,  nor  is  there  any  refer- 
ence to  Joel  in  other  books  which  would  fix  his  time.  There  is  no 
mention  of  foreign  nations  in  Joel's  own  work  which  would  suggest 
at  least  the  era,  Assyrian  or  Babylonian,  Persian  or  Greek.     And 


THE   DATE   OF   THE   BOOK  57 

the  position  of  Joel  in  the  series  of  the  minor  prophets  "does  no 
more,"  even  according  to  Kirkpatrick  (p.  58),  "than  create  a  pre- 
sumption that,  at  the  time  when  that  collection  was  made,  he  was 
thought  to  have  lived  at  an  early  period."  We  must  therefore  rely 
solely  on  internal  evidence. 

It  is  at  once  worth  noticing  that  only  Judah  and  Jerusalem  are 
in  Joel's  mind.  He  does  not  speak  of  N.  Israel  a  single  time. 
This  would  be  almost  inexplicable  if  N.  Israel  still  existed  in 
his  day,  for  the  locust  plague  and  the  drought  cannot  have  been 
confined  to  Judah.  But  the  land  that  he  deals  with  comprises 
only  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  and  it  appears  that  every  single  mem- 
ber of  the  people  can  attend  the  assembly  at  the  temple  so  that  the 
nation  can  hardly  have  been  at  the  height  of  its  power.  Joel  does 
not  speak  of  a  king  either,  or  of  royal  princes,  as  we  might  reasona- 
bly have  expected  in  connection  with  the  calling  of  the  assembly 
which  everybody  was  to  attend,  if  there  had  been  a  ruling  king  and 
royal  princes  in  Jerusalem  at  that  time.  He  mentions  only  elders 
(i")  and  priests  as  ofl&cials.     And  the  priests  are  prominent. 

With  this  goes  an  emphasis  on  the  daily  cult  and  the  value  of 
daily  sacrifices  and  on  the  importance  of  the  regularity  of  the 
temple  services  which  stands  in  striking  contrast  to  the  attitude  of 
the  pre-exilic  prophets.  And  all  this  centres  in  the  temple  of  Je- 
rusalem, no  other  sanctuaries  are  named  and  no  hint  is  given  that 
any  of  the  ancient  much  combated  sanctuaries  outside  of  Jerusa- 
lem are  still  in  existence.  Nor  is  mention  made  of  idolatry  on  the 
part  of  the  people.  It  is  true  that  Joel  does  not  rebuke  them  for 
moral  and  social  sins  either,  so  that  this  point  may  not  count  for 
much.  But  people  and  congregation  are  coextensive  terms  (2^^) 
and  the  priests  are  called  ministers  of  Yahweh,  a  name  much  in 
use  in  the  later  literature  but  not  in  the  earlier. 

All  this  points  to  the  postexilic  period.  The  non-mention  of  the 
high  priest  does  not  argue  against  this,  for  in  a  late,  strictly  parallel, 
passage  in  Mac.  7^^,  he  is  not  mentioned  either.  The  linguistic 
evidence  also  points  to  a  postexilic  date. 

nin>  'mc'D  (i'  2''),  a  common  phrase  in  later  but  not  in  pre-exilic  writ- 
ings.— n'?^'  (2  3) ,  elsewhere  only  in  late  books,  Chronicles,  Nehemiah,  Job. 
— I1D  (2'"),  an  Aram,  word,  Dn.  48-  ",  etc.,  in  Heb.  only  in  Chronicles  and 


S8  JOEL 

Ecclesiastes. — njnx  (2"),  only  here  in  OT.,  has  the  same  meaning  in  Ec. 
II",  01  and  NH. 

The  argument  based  on  the  use  of  ^c■^  (4"),  n'^s  (is)^  nnjNj  (i'»),  nnjn 
is  (4")  invalidated  by  the  observation  that  nan,  though  used  mostly  by 
Nehemiah  and  Chronicles,  occurs  also  in  Ju.  5'  i  K.  iS's,  and  that  the 
other  three  words  are  most  probably  due  to  textual  corruption. 

The  literary  relation  of  Joel  to  other  writers  also  argues  for  a 
postexilic  date.  It  will  be  remembered  from  our  discussion  of  the 
composition  of  the  book  that  all  the  direct  literary  dependencies 
are  due  to  the  editor.  Joel  himself  is  only  indirectly,  unconsciously 
influenced  by  other  writers,  but  this  makes  this  argument  quite 
valuable. 

4'"  might  be  regarded  as  directly  dependent  on  Is.  2<  (Mi.  4').  But 
this  is  hardly  likely,  even  if  Is.  2*  should  be  earlier.  The  phrase  as  used 
by  Joel  must  have  been  quite  common,  describing  as  it  did  actual  prac- 
tice, while  the  reversed  use  by  Is.  2*  is  not  so  natural.  In  Is.  2*  it  is  due 
to  the  well-known  prophetic  habit  of  painting  the  ideal  future  by  con- 
trasting it  with  the  actual  present.  Neither  Joel  nor  Isaiah  nor  Micah 
need  therefore  have  had  in  mind  the  other  when  writing  their  oracle. 
— But  the  phrases  turn  unto  Me  with  your  whole  heart  and  rend  your 
hearts  rather  than  your  garments,  in  2 '2,  show  the  influence  of  Jeremiah's 
and  Deuteronomy's  characteristic  teaching. — Similarly  the  phrase  Why 
should  they  say  among  the  nations,  Where  is  their  God?  has  exilic  and 
postexilic  affinities  (Ps.  79'"  1152  423-  ">).  "  The  dread  displayed  for  the 
taunting  attitude  of  the  nations,"  says  Dr.,  "is  characteristic  of  the  period 
which  began  with  the  exile  of  Judah  from  its  land,  and  its  diminished 
prestige,  which  continued  even  after  its  restoration  under  Cyrus."  See 
also  2". — The  phrase,  7  will  pour  out  (idc'n)  my  Spirit  (3'- 2)  shows 
affinity  to  Ez.  39",  the  only  other  instance  where  the  same  Heb.  phrase 
I  will  pour  out  occurs  with  the  personal  sf.  added  in  My  Spirit.  Cp. 
the  similar  use  in  Deutero-Isaiah,  I  will  give  My  Spirit  (42'),  7  will 
pour  out  (pxN)  My  Spirit  (44'). — Jo.  2'  may  also  have  been  influenced 
by  Ez.  36"  (cp.  Is.  51'). — The  literary  antecedent  of  the  world  judg- 
ment before  Jerusalem  is  Ez.  38/.,  and,  if  genuine,  Zp.  3',  i.  e.,  proph- 
ecies written  either  during  or  a  few  decades  before  the  exile. 

How  far  down  in  the  postexilic  period  we  may  go  is  not  easy  to 
determine.  The  temple  was  already  built  and  the  cult  had  been 
carried  on  apparently  for  a  considerable  time.  Moreover,  the  wall 
of  the  city  had  also  been  built,  if  we  interpret  2®  correctly.  This 
would  take  us  to  the  time  after  Nehemiah.     If  Joel  had  lived  in 


THE   DATE   OF   THE   BOOK  .59 

Nehemiah's  own  time  we  might  perhaps  have  expected  a  reference 
to  the  Samaritans  and  the  Ammonites.  But  neither  they  nor  any 
other  nations  are  mentioned  by  Joel  himself,  the  judgment  is  on 
all  the  nations.  This  points  to  a  time  when  there  were  no  actual 
present  enemies  of  the  nation  but  when  all  nations  were  regarded  as 
hostile.  A  terminus  ad  quern  may  perhaps  be  given  by  the  date  of 
the  editor  or  of  the  author  of  4^'^. 

2.  The  editor's  date  must,  of  course,  be  postexilic  if  the  book 
he  edited  belonged  to  that  period.  And  all  indications  are  in  line 
with  this.  H:"  also  is  only  interested  in  Judah  and  Jerusalem  and 
does  not  even  think  of  N.  Israel  in  his  picture  of  the  golden  fu- 
ture. The  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews 
are  accomplished  facts  (4^^-  ^).  He  does  not  speak  of  a  return 
from  the  exile,  because  he  evidently  presupposes  it.  The  phrase 
in  4*,  sometimes  translated  bring  back  the  captivity,  means  really 
restore  the  fortune. 

The  literary  relation  of  the  editor  to  other  prophets  agrees 
with  this.  He  is  not,  like  Joel,  an  original  writer,  but  is  given  to 
quoting.  He  knew  and  used  Amos,  Zephaniah,  Ezekiel,  Is.  13, 
Am.  9,  Deutero-Isaiah,  Malachi  and  Obadiah. 

That  the  editor  of  Joel  quoted  from  them  is  clear,  (i)  The  direct  quo- 
tation from  Ob.  "■  in  3^,  which  is  introduced  as  such,  shows  it.  This  car- 
ries with  it  the  judgment  that  in  the  other  passages  which  are  parallel  to 
Obadiah  the  dependence  is  on  the  part  of  the  editor  of  Joel.  In  4"  a 
sentence  from  Ob.  •'  is  quoted  and  commented  upon.  In  4"''  a  pregnant 
phrase  is  taken  from  Ob.  '",  in  4'"  a  phrase  from  Ob.  "  (which  is  used 
elsewhere  only  in  Na.  2^'>).  (2)  The  use  of  characteristic  phrases  of  Eze- 
kiel and  the  Holiness  Code  in  2"  4'^  argues  for  the  editor's  dependence. 
(3)  The  unrelatedness  of  the  passages  in  Joel  and  their  indispensableness 
in  the  parallels  is  another  strong  argument  of  the  same  kind.  In  Zp.  ii*  •  »s 
the  parallel  words  form  a  climax  and  are  indispensable,  while  in  Jo.  2"'-  * 
they  are  unrelated  and  secondary.  Similarly  in  i'^  and  Is.  13 ^  With  Is. 
13  also  2»  is  related,  cf.  Is.  i3'<'-  ";  and  4"  with  Is.  13". — These  considera- 
tions indicate  that  the  editor  of  Joel  was  the  quoter  also  in  other  cases. 
Thus  he  is  indebted  to  Ez.  47  for  the  thought  of  the  river  flowing  from 
the  temple,  to  Am.  9"  for  the  phrase  in  4'*,  to  Mai.  3"  in  2"  y^. 

According  to  this  literary  comparison  the  editor  of  Joel  wrote 
later  than  Malachi  and  Obadiah,  and  this  is  what  we  should 


6o  JOEL 

expect,  for  Joel's  date  was,  as  we  saw,  after  Nehemiah.  The 
relation  between  him  and  Zc.  14  is  a  little  more  difficult.  That 
there  is  a  strong  resemblance  and  affinity  cannot  be  questioned, 
cp.  Jo.  4'-  '^-  with  Zc.  142-  ^-  '^  Jo.  4"  with  Zc.  m"-  ^  Jo.  4'»  with 
Zc.  14^.  We  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  Zc.  14  is  dependent 
on  Jo.  4  in  regard  to  the  location  of  the  judgment  scene  and  the 
direction  of  the  wonderful  river.     See  com. 

The  editor  does  not  mention  the  Samaritans  and  the  Ammonites 
either.  His  reference  to  Edom,  under  the  influence  of  Obadiah 
and  Am.  9,  does  not  help  us  much  for  it  does  not  indicate  a  special 
hostile  activity  on  the  part  of  Edom  at  that  time.  Egypt  also  is 
mentioned,  though  perhaps  in  a  later  gloss,  not  as  an  important 
enemy  but  in  order  to  bring  out  the  glorious  fertility  of  Judah  by 
contrasting  it  with  Egypt's  and  Edom's  desolation.  The  matter 
is  entirely  different  with  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  in  4^'^. — 
From  the  non-mention  of  the  Persians  we  may  probably  conclude 
with  good  reason  that  the  attack  by  Artaxerxes  Ochus  had  not  yet 
taken  place.  If  this  reasoning  is  tenable  the  editor  must  have 
written  before  the  middle  of  the  4th  cent.  B.C. 

3.  Where  can  we  find  a  place  for  4^'*  in  the  postexilic  period? 
It  would  seem  that  this  passage  also  belongs  to  the  Persian 
period,  for  the  awful  fate  which  befell  Sidon  (r.  348  B.C.)  at  the 
hands  of  Artaxerxes  III,  when  more  than  40,000  people  perished 
(Diodorus  Siculus,  XIV,  45),  and  the  fate  of  Tyre  in  322  B.C.  at  the 
hands  of  Alexander  the  Great  who  sold  the  entire  surviving  popu- 
lation into  slavery  (Diodorus  Siculus,  XVII,  46;  Arrian,  II,  24), 
and  the  fate  of  Gaza  in  the  same  year,  when  Alexander  sold  the  en- 
tire population  into  slavery,  had  not  yet  occurred,  else  there  would 
have  been  some  reference  to  them,  unless  we  were  to  place  the 
section  late  in  the  Greek  period  when  these  awful  disasters  were 
no  longer  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  Maccabean  pe- 
riod, however,  is  excluded  by  the  non-mention  of  Aram. 

The  mention  of  the  Greeks  as  simple  slave-traders  and  not  as  a 
great  world  power  is  not  favourable  to  a  date  in  the  Greek  period. 
Phoenicia  and  Gaza  had  commercial  relations  with  Greece  as  early 
as  the  Persian  period,  if  not  earlier;  for  Phoenicia,  cf.  Ez.  27";  for 
Gaza,  cj.  the  use  of  coins  with  partly  Phoenician  and  partly  Greek 


THE   DATE   OF   THE   BOOK  6l 

inscriptions  during  this  era  (Schiirer,  11,^  p.  84,  with  references). 
No  objection  can  therefore  be  made  to  the  Persian  era  on  this 
ground. 

Little  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people  in  the  Persian 
period  from  the  time  of  Nehemiah  on.  But  from  the  little  we  do 
know  it  would  seem,  on  the  whole,  most  probable  that  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  Philistines  took  advantage  of  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem 
by  Artaxerxes  Ochus  to  procure  treasures  and  slaves  from  the 
Persians.  A  considerable  number  of  Jews  were  made  captive  and 
settled  in  Hyrcania,  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  cf.  p.  45.  And  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  bought  others 
from  the  Persian  soldiers  and  sold  them  into  slavery  at  that 
time. 

It  is  true,  the  Phoenicians  were  hostile  to  the  Persians  and  we 
might  think  that  they  aided  Judah,if  not  actually,  at  least  with  their 
sympathy.  But  they  had  not  yet  revolted;  not  for  a  year  or  two 
later  did  they  do  so.  And  how  little  their  commercial  instinct  al- 
lowed them  to  sympathise  with  Judah  in  the  time  of  her  distress  is 
seen  from  Ez.  26^  where  the  same  Phoenicians  who  but  a  short  time 
before  had  tried  to  persuade  Judah  to  join  them  and  others  in  a 
revolt  against  Nebuchadrezzar  (Je.  27^),  and  who  were  attacked 
by  Nebuchadrezzar  soon  after  586  B.C.,  rejoiced  over  Jerusalem's 
fall  because  they  believed  it  would  be  to  their  own  personal  ad- 
vantage. 

If  our  arguments  prove  to  be  correct,  the  singling  out  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  Philistines  as  special  foes  of  Judah  is  explained,  and 
the  non-mentioning  of  the  Persians  is  due  to  the  belief  of  the  in- 
serter of  4*'^  that  they  were  definitely  referred  to  in  vv.  ^-  ^. 

The  insertion  would  then  have  been  made  shortly  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  by  Artaxerxes  Ochus  {c.  352  B.C.),  and  before 
the  fall  of  Sidon  in  348  B.C. 

The  use  of  the  form  CiVn  ^12,  (4^)  for  the  older  form  jV  ''Ja 
is  a  literary  indication  that  ^'^  belongs  to  the  period  of  the  Chron- 
icler who  uses  such  forms,  e.  g.,  DTin^n  "»i3  for  nnp  ^12  and  ti:! 

c^nnpn  for  nnp  ^:2. 

The  book  of  Joel  was,  according  to  this,  completed  by  the  middle 
of  the  4th  cent.  B.C.     If  we  place  Joel  himself  at  about  400  B.C. 


62  JOEL 

and  the  editor  a  few  decades  later  we  shall  probably  not  be  far 
off  the  mark. 

There  has  been  a  great  variety  of  opinions  concerning  the  date  of  Joel. 
The  early  Jewish  scholars  who  put  Joel  into  the  canon  probably  thought 
he  belonged  with  the  early  pre-exilic  prophets.  Later  Jewish  scholars, 
e.  g.,  Rashi  and  Kimchi,  thought  the  date  could  not  be  fixed.  But 
scholarship  does  not  easily  rest  content  with  such  a  conclusion  though 
later  Calvin  and  Pococke  agreed  with  it.  The  position  in  the  canon  was 
held  to  be  decisive  by  Theodoret,  Jerome,  et  al.,  who  made  Joel  a  con- 
temporary of  Hosea  on  the  principle  that  a  prophet  whose  book  was  not 
dated  belongs  in  time  with  the  preceding  prophet. — Among  modern 
scholars  the  most  varied  dates  have  been  assigned  to  Joel,  ranging  from 
the  time  of  Rehoboam  through  all  the  succeeding  centuries  down  to  the 
4th  cent.  B.C.  It  was  impossible  for  scholars  to  come  to  an  agree- 
ment. Once,  indeed,  it  seemed  as  if  the  question  were  settled,  when 
Credner,  in  183 1,  had  marshalled  his  arguments  for  the  period  of 
the  minority  of  Joash.  Though  Vatke  a  few  years  later,  in  1835,  sug- 
gested a  postexilic  date,  Credner's  position  appeared  impregnable.  But 
in  1866  Hilgenfeld  argued  for  the  Persian  era,  and  then  Seinecke  and 
Duhm  (1875)  also.  But  it  was  not  till  1879  that  the  position  of  the 
postexilic  date  was  firmly  established.  The  credit  for  this  belongs  to 
Merx.  Since  then  it  has  become  the  prevailing  view  of  critics.  But  even 
to-day  some  still  prefer  a  pre-exilic  date,  e.  g.,  Kirkpatrick,  Orelli,  Konig, 
Cameron,  et  al. — The  whole  question  has  assumed  a  different  aspect  with 
the  recognition  of  the  composite  character  of  the  book.  Vernes  refused 
at  first  to  fix  a  date  for  either  chs.  i,  2  or  chs.  3,  4,  but  in  1880  he  placed 
all  in  the  4th  cent.  B.C.  Rothstein  assigned  chs.  i,  2  to  the  time  of 
Joash,  chs.  3,  4  after  the  exile.  Ryssel  inclined  to  the  time  before  Amos 
for  chs.  I,  2,  and  to  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  for  chs.  3,  4.  Duhm  thinks 
that  the  original  book  of  Joel  belongs  most  probably  to  the  4th  cent. 
B.C.,  but  the  appendix  much  later. 


§  3.    THE   INTERPRETATION   OF  THE  BOOK. 

I.  Some  time  toward  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  or  the 
end  of  the  fifth,  a  locust  swarm  visited  Judah,  greater  and  more 
ominous  it  seemed  than  any  that  had  ever  come  before.  Judah 
was  but  a  small  land  without  large  resources  and  a  disaster  like 
this  threatened  its  very  existence. 

With  great  vividness  Joel  describes  the  approach  of  the  vast 
swarm  which  he  compares  to  an  invading  army.     He  paints  the 


THE  INTERPRETATION   OF   THE   BOOK  63 

scene  with  his  forcible,  graphic  style  so  that  we  see  it  clearly  before 
us.  The  call  rings  out  to  sound  the  alarm.  Already  the  locusts 
cover  the  mountains  and  have  begun  their  work  of  destruction. 
Swiftly  the  prophet  sketches  their  appearance  and  with  the  expres- 
sive rhythmic  staccato  movement  of  his  sentences  he  pictures  their 
rapid  advance  and  their  irresistible  attack  upon  the  city  itself. 
Now  they  have  taken  it.  The  danger  is  at  its  height.  But  even 
yet  there  is  hope!  the  prophet  declares.  The  worst  may  yet  be 
averted.  Yahweh  had  sent  the  plague  as  a  discipline  and  pun- 
ishment. If  the  people  repent  with  all  their  hearts  He  will  have 
mercy  upon  them.  And  so  Joel  appeals  to  them  to  repent.  This 
is  his  first  address  which  is  contained  in  2^^-  ^'^-  ^^". 

But  the  plague  was  not  stopped,  one  swarm  after  another  in- 
vaded and  ravaged  the  country  and  left  it  waste  and  desolate.  To 
aggravate  the  calamity  a  drought  accompanied  the  locusts.  All 
hope  for  a  new  growth  had  died,  and  the  cry  of  despair  went  all 
through  the  land.  Only  one  could  help  in  this  crisis,  Yahweh! 
And  so  Joel  calls  for  a  great  penitential  assembly  where  all  the 
people  should  implore  Yahweh  for  pardon  and  help. — This  is  his 
address  in  ch.  i. — Here  his  descriptive  power  is  seen  at  its  height. 
It  is  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  poetic  description  in  the  OT.  with  its 
grim  humour  in  calling  on  the  drunkards,  its  exquisite  pathos  in 
the  comparison  of  the  young  widowed  bride,  its  lifelike  portrayal 
of  the  various  classes  and  the  quick,  keen  characterisation  of  the 
locusts,  its  touching  appeal  of  the  animals  to  Yahweh,  its  sketch  of 
the  ruin  and  desolation  made  imforgettable  by  the  concrete  touches 
of  his  pen. 

Moved  by  Joel's  appeal  the  priests  called  the  people  together  to 
an  ever  memorable  meeting.  Every  single  member  of  the  com- 
munity came,  from  the  greatest  to  the  least,  from  the  oldest  to  the 
youngest.  Then  the  priests  voiced  the  need  of  the  people  in 
prayer  (2^^^^).  The  quick,  concise  and  pregnant  manner  of  tell- 
ing this  is  very  effective.  The  language  becomes  calmer  when  Joel 
speaks  of  the  prayer,  and  of  the  answer  of  Yahweh,  as  is  fitting. 
Yahweh  heard  and  answered  with  a  promise  of  restored  fertility 
and  of  compensation  for  the  loss  caused  by  the  locusts.  And  then 
after  some  time  had  elapsed  and  the  signs  of  the  fulfilment  of 


64  JOEL 

Yahweh's  promise  had  appeared  the  prophet  sings  in  conclusion 
the  praise  of  Yahweh  in  lyrical  strains  of  joy  which  for  beauty  are 
comparable  to  Deutero-Isaiah's  lyrical  interludes  {2^^'^*-  ^sa^). 

This  interpretation  assumes  that  the  chronological  order  of  the 
sections  of  chs.  i,  2  is  2^'"  i^"^°  2^^^;  that  the  narrative  begins  in  2''' 
not  in  2*^  and  that  2^'-^*-  ^"^^  followed  originally  2''-^"-  ^-  ^'^\ 

2.  It  is  not  certain,  but  probable,  that  Joel  wrote  also  3*"^*  4'''^' 
°'"^,  not  at  the  same  time  but  perhaps  later  than  chs.  1,2.  This 
time  he  described  Yahweh's  judgment  of  the  nations.  It  was  after 
the  exile,  the  Jews  had  passed  through  much  suffering,  they  had 
been  judged  by  Yahweh;  even  in  Joel's  own  day  the  awful  locust 
plague  had  come  as  one  of  Yahweh's  judgments.  But  it  would  not 
come  again,  Yahweh  had  promised.  Now  the  judgment  would 
come  on  the  nations.  Just  why  it  was  that  Joel  thought  of  the 
judgment  of  the  nations,  whether  it  was  because  they  had  mocked 
Judah  about  her  calamity  (2*^)  or  for  some  other  reason,  we  do  not 
know.  He  speaks  of  the  future  in  prophetic  tones.  It  will  be  a 
far  more  terrible  crisis  than  men  have  ever  experienced.  Great 
excitement  will  prevail  among  all  classes  and  ages  of  society.  Peo- 
ple will  foresee  in  dreams  and  visions,  and  foretell  in  ecstatic  tones, 
the  coming  judgment.  Extraordinary  signs  in  heaven  and  on 
earth  will  appear  as  warnings  that  the  day  is  at  hand.  And  Yah- 
weh will  gather  all  nations  into  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  where 
He  will  judge  them.  In  dramatic  manner  He  gives  command  that 
they  be  summoned  in  full  force  and  heavily  armed  for  the  final  con- 
flict and  judgment  which  Yahweh  will  render  seated  in  majestic 
calmness  on  his  judgment  seat  in  the  Valley  of  Decision.  This 
time  it  is  not  the  advance  of  the  locust  army  that  Joel  describes,  but 
the  preparations  for  war  among  the  nations  and  their  summons 
to  the  judgment  valley,  but  again  his  characteristic  style  appears, 
that  graphic,  concrete  style  of  his  with  its  staccato   movement 

(■2^-*B.    .2a.  0-Ua.\ 

Joel  had  left  his  addresses  in  chs.  i,  2  and  in  chs.  3,  4  uncon- 
nected. But  soon  after  him  an  editor  brought  them  together. 
His  mind  was  full  of  eschatological  thoughts  and  phrases,  and  his 
interest  centred  in  the  future.  So  he  interpreted  chs.  i,  2  in  the 
light  of  chs.  3,  4.     To  him  the  locusts  were  not  literal  locusts  but 


THE   INTERPRETATION   OF   THE  BOOK  65 

more,  they  were  Yahweh's  agents  of  judgment  and  the  advance 
guard  of  His  day.  They  were  the  great  northern  hosts,  predicted 
by  former  prophets,  mighty  nations  who  would  come  to  execute 
Yahweh's  judgment  on  Israel.  But  they  would  overstep  the  limits 
of  their  authority  and  would  then  be  punished  themselves.  To 
the  editor's  mind  the  whole  was  still  future,  chs.  i,  2  were  also 
prediction.  By  a  series  of  interpolations  he  transformed  the  ad- 
dresses concerning  the  locust  plague  and  drought  into  eschato- 
logical  chapters. 

In  chs.  3,  4  also  he  added  explanatory  sentences  or  descriptive 
eschatological  material  taken  from  the  earlier  prophets  sometimes 
almost  verbatim.  He  laid  stress  on  the  protection  of  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  the  judgment  of  the  nations  and  fortified  his  point  by 
quotations  (3^  4^"'^).  He  supplied  the  description  of  the  conflict 
(4^''^).  And  in  beautiful,  if  not  original,  phrases  he  pictured  the 
perpetual  safety  and  wonderful  prosperity  of  Judah  after  the  judg- 
ment (4"'^')-  As  a  result  of  his  activity  we  have  a  litde  compen- 
dium of  eschatology  in  the  book  of  Joel.  It  is  due  to  him  that 
the  eschatological  interpretation  of  the  locusts  has  so  often  been 
insisted  upon.  The  book,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  indeed  an 
eschatological  work. 

3.  When  Joel  and  the  editor  lived  there  were  no  special  nations 
troubling  Judah.  The  judgment  was  to  come  on  them  all.  But 
about  half  a  century,  or  less,  later  another  writer  took  occasion  to 
insert  an  oracle  against  the  Phcenicians  and  Philistines  who  had 
made  themselves  odious  to  the  Jews,  if  we  interpret  correctly,  at 
the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Artaxerxes  Ochus.  They 
had  taken  the  gold  and  silver  and  precious  possessions  of  the  Jews 
and  had  sold  Jewish  captives  to  the  Greeks  as  slaves  far  away  from 
their  home.  Quickly  this  will  be  requited  in  accordance  with  the 
lex  talionis.  History  knows  of  the  terrible  fulfilment  of  this  pre- 
diction. 

The  history  of  interpretation  follows  in  the  main  two  lines.  The  one 
takes  the  locusts  literally  as  real  locusts,  the  other  allegorically  as  repre- 
senting invading  nations.  The  literal  interpretation  thinks  of  the  calam- 
ity as  having  taken  place  in  Joel's  own  time,  the  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion, as  a  rule,  refers  it  to  the  future.     The  allegorists  have  not  always 


66  JOEL 

agreed  on  which  nations  were  meant.  QI  explained  the  northerner  by 
that  nation  which  comes  from  the  north  and  the  four  names  of  the  locusts 
by  nations,  peoples,  tongues,  sultans  and  kingdoms,  without  committing 
itself  to  a  more  definite  identification.  But  church  fathers  as  well  as 
Jewish  rabbis  and  many  scholars  down  to  modern  times  identified  the 
locusts  with  the  four  invasions  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  under 
Tiglath-pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib,  Nebuchadrezzar  (Ephraem) 
or  simply  with  the  Babylonians  (Jerome),  or  with  (i)  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians,  (2)  the  Medes  and  Persians,  (3)  the  Macedonians  and  Diad- 
ochoi,  (4)  the  Romans  (so  Jewish  scholars  at  Jerome's  time,  later  also,  e.  g., 
Abarbanel,  and  early  Christian  scholars  like  Cyril  and  modern  scholars 
like  Hengstenberg  and  Pusey).  Hilgenfeld  identified  the  locusts  with  the 
four  Persian  invasions,  of  Cambyses,  Xerxes,  and  the  two  of  Artaxerxes 
Ochus.  Some  of  the  allegorists  {e.  g.,  Theodoret  and  the  Jews  at  the  time 
of  Jerome)  believed  that  there  had  also  been  a  real  locust  plague  in  Joel's 
time.  Merx  explained  the  locusts  as  apocalyptic  warriors,  unearthly 
beings  which  belong  to  the  wonders  of  the  time  of  the  end  (Rev.  9'-"). 

We  can  understand  why  the  allegorical  interpretation  in  spite  of  all 
its  difficulties  has  persisted  through  the  centuries.  For  after  all  the 
arguments  of  the  literalists  there  remained  certain  points  which  could 
not  be  harmonised  with  real  locusts.  A  locust  swarm  is  not  accom- 
panied by  a  thunder-storm,  an  earthquake  and  shaking  of  the  heavens, 
or  by  the  darkening  of  the  sun,  moon  and  stars;  nor  is  the  term  my 
northerner,  in  spite  of  all  that  may  be  said,  quite  suitable  for  a  locust 
swarm  in  Palestine;  and  it  can  hardly  be  said  of  locusts  that  they  have 
acted  overweeningly,  for  they  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  their  acts. 

Nevertheless  the  arguments  for  interpreting  the  locusts  literally  are 
so  strong  that  they  cannot  be  resisted.  Joel's  description  in  all  its  de- 
tails corresponds  exactly  to  the  descriptions  of  ancient  and  modern 
travellers  and  authors  and  excludes  a  devastation  caused  by  soldiers. 
They  devour  the  vines  and  strip  the  bark  of  the  trees.  There  is 
no  reference  to  shedding  of  blood,  to  plundering  and  destroying  of 
cities,  and  no  word  about  captives.  The  locusts  are  described  under 
the  figure  of  warriors  not  vice  versa,  else  horsemen  would  be  like  horse- 
men! The  description  of  the  annihilation  of  the  army  corresponds  with 
facts  actually  witnessed  in  connection  with  locusts  but  not  with  soldiers. 
And  when  the  restoration  is  described,  only  damage  done  to  the  ground 
and  restored  fertility  are  mentioned,  but  not  the  rebuilding  of  cities  and 
the  healing  of  the  ravages  of  war. 

The  elements  which  are  irreconcilable  with  real  locusts  are  explained 
by  the  literalists  as  due  to  the  feeling  of  the  prophet  that  the  locusts  are 
the  forerunners  of  the  day  of  Yahweh.  The  fear  of  its  approach  is 
awakened  by  this  awful,  unparalleled  locust  plague.  Yahweh  is  com- 
ing to  judge  His  people,  the  locusts  herald  His  advent. 


THE   PROPHET  67 

But  the  essential  unrelatedness  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  passages  in  their 
context  has  proved  them  to  be  interpolations.  And  henceforth  we  must 
carefully  distinguish  between  the  original  book  of  Joel  and  the  book 
which  has  been  worked  over. 

For  the  history  of  interpretation  see  Merx's  essay  in  his  commentary 
which  is  of  permanent  value. 


§  4.     THE  PROPHET. 

Nothing  is  known  of  Joel  outside  of  his  book.  He  was  the  son  of 
Pethuel,  or  Bethuel,  who  is  otherwise  unknown.  His  name  con- 
tains a  confession  of  faith,  Yahweh  is  God!  and  may  reflect  the  pi^ty 
of  his  parents.  But  there  is  not  the  challenge  in  the  historical  situ- 
ation that  there  is  in  the  similar  name  Elijah,  My  God  is  Yahweh! 
For  there  is  no  trace  that  the  people  of  his  day  were  idolators,  and 
our  prophet  was  not  the  first  bearer  of  this  rather  frequent  name. 

A  tradition  given  in  Pseudo-Epiphanius,  Viics  Prophetarum  and 
at  the  end  of  (S^"  says  that  Joel  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
but  his  book  argues  against  it.  According  to  the  whole  impression 
it  makes  Joel  was  a  Judean,  for  his  interest  is  exclusively  in  Judah. 
Whether  his  home  was  in  Jerusalem  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
we  do  not  know.  It  has  been  surmised  that  he  was  a  Jerusalem 
priest,  but  this  cannot  be  proved  from  his  profound  interest  in  the 
temple,  priests  and  ritual,  for  he  does  not  include  himself  among 
the  priests  in  i^^-  "  2^^. 

Joel  does  not  remind  us  of  the  great  pre-exilic  prophets.  He 
has  no  word  of  rebuke  for  his  people.  There  is  no  rousing  of  their 
consciences  by  a  sharp  reminder  of  their  sins,  social,  moral  or  re- 
ligious. Yet  he  is  not  indifferent  to  this,  he  does  not  speak  of  sin 
because  he  assumes  a  quickened  conscience  which  the  hard  blows 
of  disaster  had  stung  into  life.  He  speaks  to  people  who,  he 
believes,  know  that  they  have  sinned  and  who  realise  that  Yahweh 
has  sent  the  plague  as  a  discipline.  He  assumes  the  need  of  re- 
pentance for  all  and  summons  them  to  it. — He  believes  in  the  effi- 
cacy of  united  prayer  and  fasting,  of  the  temple  services  and  ritual, 
in  the  value  of  outward  means  and  symbols.  We  should  call  him 
to-day  a  churchman.  But  we  must  not  overestimate  his  emphasis 
on  the  external  side  of  religion.     The  heart  of  the  matter  is  also  for 


68  JOEL 

him  the  attitude  of  the  spirit.  Fasting  and  sackcloth  he  does  not 
reject,  but  they  are  not  enough.  Repentance  is  a  matter  of  the 
heart,  and  it  must  be  sincere  and  thorough-going,  if  it  is  to  avail 
at  all. 

Joel  does  not  rise  to  the  greatness  of  Job's  faith  that  communion 
with  God  does  not  depend  on  outward  blessings,  he  believes  that 
both  outward  and  inward  blessings  go  together  and  that  the  true 
condition  is  that  which  experiences  divine  grace  in  the  sacrament 
of  material  prosperity.  He  has  sometimes  been  called  the  Prophet 
of  Pentecost  because  of  his  prediction  of  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  But  the  scope  of  this  prophecy  is  not  universal  and  its 
meaning  is  not  so  profoundly  spiritual  as  has  usually  been  thought. 
It  does  not  imply  the  spiritual  and  moral  transformation  of  the 
recipients  but  is  one  of  the  preliminary  signs  of  the  day  of 
Yahweh. 

Joel  was  no  great  thinker  and  no  great  prophet.  But  he  was  a 
poet,  and  a  poet  of  no  mean  order.  His  style  is  clear,  fluent  and 
beautiful.  The  lyrical  quality  of  some  of  his  lines  places  them 
among  the  best  of  their  kind  in  the  OT.,  while  his  graphic,  terse 
descriptions  are  exceedingly  eflfective.  He  varies  the  rhythmic 
movement  of  his  sentences  with  his  changing  thought  and  mood. 
This  gives  to  his  addresses  a  beautiful  harmony  of  form  and  con- 
tent. We  do  not  wonder  that  the  people  listened  to  him  as  the 
sweet,  plaintive  cadences  of  his  beautiful  lines  or  the  swift,  gallop- 
ing staccato  utterances  of  his  unforgettable  descriptions  or  of  his 
stirring  appeals  fell  on  their  ears.  Nor  do  we  wonder  that  they 
obeyed  his  command,  voicing  as  it  did  their  own  feelings.  He 
knew  himself  to  be  one  of  them,  their  spokesman,  but  also  the 
spokesman  of  God. 

§  5.     THE  TEXT  AND   METRE. 

The  text  of  Joel  is  well  preserved  and  no  special  discussion  of  it 
is  needed  here.  The  textcritical  points  are  all  considered  in  the 
notes. 

The  book  is  written  in  metre,  as  Eichhom  showed  already  in 
1816  in  his  beautiful,  rhythmic  rendering,  but  apparently  without 


THE  TEXT  AND   METRE  69 

strophic  regularity.  There  are,  of  course,  thought  divisions  and 
these  may  be  regarded  as  strophes.  But  to  divide  these  again  into 
strophes  of  equal  length  does  not  seem  warranted,  for  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing  whether  Joel  was  as  much  interested  in  strophic 
regularity  as  we  are. 

There  is  no  uniformity  of  metre  either.  Hexameters,  pentam- 
eters, tetrameters  are  all  used  in  the  book,  the  last  is  usually  a  hex- 
ameter or  pentameter  purposely  left  uncompleted,  it  seems.  The 
most  characteristic  rhythm  of  Joel  is  the  staccato  movement  of  the 
tetrameter  which  he  uses  with  wonderful  success,  e.  g.,  in  2^-  '"^ 
where  its  quick  movement  is  beautifully  appropriate,  or  in  i*  2^^-  *' 
where  it  accentuates  the  terseness  of  the  lines,  or  in  i^^-  "  4®""* 
where  it  heightens  the  stirring  effect,  or  in  i^'^^-  ^^-  *^-  ^°  where  the 
plaintive  melody  appears  as  if  interrupted  by  sobs. — But  the  tetram- 
eter was  not  always  the  best  vehicle  of  Joel's  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings. E.  g.,  in  2^^""  after  the  rapid  movement  of  2^-  ^"^  the  stac- 
cato movement  had  to  be  given  up  as  inappropriate  to  the  pleading 
tones  of  the  prophet,  and  the  hexameter  is  used  instead.  It  is  also 
resorted  to  when  Joel  addresses  the  people  in  more  measured  tones, 
j2. 5.  i3a^  Qj.  when  the  promise  of  the  deity  is  recited,  2'^"'*'-  ^-  ^^^", 
also  2^^. — Similarly  the  pentameter  movement  follows,  e.  g.,  in 
2'^,  with  much  appropriateness  upon  the  quick  tetrameters  of 

We  see,  Joel  changes  the  rhythm  of  his  speech  in  accordance  with 
his  mood  and  thought.  This  gives  to  his  words  much  life  and  feel- 
ing. But  it  must  make  us  cautious  in  applying  a  metrical  norm 
to  questions  of  genuineness.  However,  the  authenticity  of  4^""* 
is  made  more  probable  by  the  metrical  argument  than  it  otherwise 
would  be,  for  in  ^^-^*^  we  find  the  characteristic  tetrameter  with  its 
staccato  style  which  Joel  uses  with  such  telling  effect  in  undoubted 
passages  of  chs.  i,  2.  It  is  used  here  with  the  same  felicity  and 
force. — The  metre  helps  us  also  to  exclude  certain  additions,  e.  g., 
in  i^--  "  2^-  ^.  But  further  than  this  it  does  not  help  us  in  dis- 
tinguishing between  authentic  and  secondary  material.  For  the 
editorial  additions  are  also  in  metre,  most  of  them  having  been 
taken  from  other  prophets  who  also  wro  e  in  rhythm.  And  since 
Joel  did  not  confine  himself  to  one  metre  even  within  the  single 


70  JOEL 

sections  we  cannot  argue  for  or  against  authenticity  simply  on  the 
basis  of  his  metric  scheme. 

The  two  most  noteworthy  contributions  to  the  question  of  the  metre 
are  by  Sievers  and  by  Duhm. 

Sievers  arranges  the  book  in  accordance  with  his  metrical  principles 
into  seven  sections:  I,  i^- '.  6.»».  u»e  2'6-n  in  two-line  pentameter  strophes; 
II,  I*  '<>•  »b-  "»>.  u.  16.  17.  23e.6b.»  in  two-linc  strophes  of  the  metrfc  form 
8:4;  III,  111''.  12b.  lib.  12a.  17b.  18..  i»b.  18b.  19..  20  jn  two-Une  hcptameter 
strophes;  IV,  2'b.  «.  <  6..  7.  s.  ii».  10..  iit.  iia  uc  ;„  two-line  pentameter 
strophes;  V,  4'b.  lob.  12.14  jn  two-line  strophes  of  the  metric  form  8  :  4;  VI, 
4U  23-  «.  lOb.  1.  410.  in  two-line  hexameter  strophes;  VII,  2'2-><-  ^»-"  3'-' 
41-8.  17-21  in  heptameters  without  strophic  grouping. — Of  these  sections 
he  regards  VII  as  secondary. 

Here,  as  in  Obadiah  (see  pp.  16/.),  Siev.'s  contribution  to  the  rhythm 
is  most  valuable,  but  here  also  instead  of  solving  the  problem  of  liter- 
ary composition  by  the  metre  he  has  arrived  at  conclusions  which  are  so 
little  likely  to  commend  themselves  that  one  cannot  help  feeling  that  the 
metrical  argument  should  be  used  with  much  more  caution  and  re- 
straint. It  does  not  seem  credible  that  passages  which  form  beauti- 
fully connected  wholes  as  they  stand  can  be  the  result  of  such  an  arti- 
ficial and  complicated  literary  process. 

The  reader  of  Duhm's  translation  is  impressed  by  the  great  metr.  and 
str.  regularity  of  1^2 '^  The  rest  of  the  book  Du.  prints  as  a  prose  ap- 
pendix. According  to  him  the  prophet  wrote  in  strophes  usually  of  four 
half  lines  each;  only  four  strophes  of  the  thirty-four  have  six  half  lines  each. 
These  four  consist  of  i*  i^  i*-  '2<j.i6e  jio^and  the  str.  structure  is  apparently 
one  of  Du.'s  reasons  for  separating  them  from  their  context  and  arranging 
them  together  in  one  group.  The  result  is  that  ch.  i  is  rearranged  as 
follows  (a)  vv.  2.  3.  6.  7.  9.  11.  12  each  verse  representing  a  strophe  of  four 
half  lines;  (b)  vv.  <■  s.  »  -f  uc  -1-  lec  10  four  verses  (vv.  '•  '='^-  ""^counting  as 
one)  making  four  strophes  of  six  half  lines;  (c)  vv.  "  '<•  "  +  ""»•  i'»^b  + 
i8aa.  ua^b  +  19..  20  +  19c  gix  strophcs  of  four  half  lines.  More  can  be  ad- 
duced in  favour  of  this  rearrangement  of  ch.  i  than  simply  the  metr.  ar- 
gument but  it  is  not  convincing.  Whether  Joel  himself  intended  two  or 
three  long  lines  (equivalent  to  Du.'s  four  and  six  half  lines)  as  a  str.  unit  is 
more  than  we  can  say.  In  some  cases  it  is  obvious,  e.  g.,  i*  *  (two  strophes 
of  three  long  lines  each),  in  other  cases  it  is  probable,  e.  g.,  i'-  '  (two 
strophes  of  two  long  lines  each),  but  just  as  probably  i°  '  may  form  but 
one  strophe.  Similarly,  e.  g.,  i" .  12  may  form  two  strophes,  but  they  may 
also  form  but  one;  if  two  we  cannot  take  v.  '-■=  with  the  second  unless  we 
give  up  the  uniform  length  of  the  single  strophes.  Du.  takes  v.  '^"^  with  an- 
other strophe,  made  up  of  vv.  s.  12.-.  i6r_  gut  are  we  sure  that  Joel  was  so 
scrupulous  about  the  uniformity  of  his  strophes?     Are  we  sure,  e.  g., 


MODERN   LITERATURE  7 1 

that  1'"  must  be  lengthened  out  to  a  strophe  of  six  half  lines  as  Du.  does 
by  a  conjectural  insertion?  May  not  the  last  half  have  been  left  un- 
completed with  intention  ?  It  would  be  not  less  effective  thus.  These 
are  questions  which  the  progress  of  metr.  investigation  may  eventually 
answer  definitely  in  Du.'s  manner.  But  at  this  present  stage  they  are 
still  matters  of  uncertainty.  And  so  the  metr.  and  str.  regularity  of 
Du.'s  translation  appears  to  me  as  not  truly  representing  the  original. 
Nevertheless  it  brings  out  most  beautifully  the  rhythmic  swing  and 
melody  of  chs.  i,  2.     It  is  strange  that  Du.  finds  no  rhythm  in  chs.  3,  4. 


§  6.     MODERN  LITERATURE. 

(i)  Commentaries  on  all  the  Minor  Prophets. — See  p.  17. 

(2)  Special  commentaries  on  Joel. — K.  A.  Credner,  Der  Prophet 
Joel  ubersetzt  und  erkldrt,  1831.  A.  Wiinsche,  Die  Weissagung  des 
Propheten  Joel  ubersetzt  und  erkldrt,  1872.  A.  Merx,  Die  Prophetic 
des  Joel  und  ihre  Ausleger,  1879.  Scholz,  Kommentar  zum  Buche 
des  Propheten  Joel,  1885.  S.  R.  Driver,  The  Books  of  Joel  and 
Amos,  in  the  Cambridge  Bible,  1898.  J.  D.  Wynkoop,  in  Kahana's 
Biblia  Hebraica,  1906  (Hebrew).  K.  Marti,  in  Kautzsch's  Die 
Heilige  Schrift  des  A.T.'s,^  1909. 

(3)  Special  articles. — Vatke,  Die  biblische  Theologie  wissen- 
schaftlich  dargestellt,  I,  1835,  PP-  4^2  /•  Hilgenfeld,  ZwTh., 
1866,  pp.  412  ff.;  Das  Judentum  im  Persischen  Zeitalter.  M. 
Vernes,  Le  Peuple  d'  Israel  et  ses  Esperances,  1872,  pp.  46-54, 162/.; 
Histoire  des  Idees  Messianiques,  1874,  pp.  13  /.;  Melanges  de 
Critique  Religieuse,  1880,  pp.  218-28.  Duhm,  Theologie  der 
Propheten,  1875,  pp.  275-77.  ^-  ^-  Davidson,  Exp.,  March, 
1888,  pp.  198/.,  The  Prophet  Joel.  Holzinger,  ZAW.,  1889,  pp. 
89-13 1,  S prachcharakter  und  Abfassungszeit  des  Buches  Joel.  G.  B. 
Gray,  Exp.,  Sept.,  1893,  pp.  208^.,  The  Parallel  Passages  in  Joel 
in  Their  Bearing  on  the  Question  of  Date.  J.  W.  Rothstein,  in  the 
German  edition  of  Driver's  Introduction,  1896,  pp.  333/.  Kirk- 
patrick,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets,^  1897,  pp.  57^.  Cameron, 
in  DB.,  II,  1899.  W.  R.  Smith  (Driver),  in  EB.,  II,  1901.  Rys- 
sel,  in  JE.,  VII,  1904.  Bruston,  Les  plus  anciens  Prophetes,  1907, 
pp.  16  ff.  Stocks,  NkZ.,  1908,  pp.  725  ff.,  Der  ''Nordliche" 
und  die  Komposition  des  Buches  Joel. — Besides  the  Introductions 


72  JOEL 

mentioned  on  p.  i8,  cp.   Kuenen,   Onderzoek^   1889,    §§   68  /. 
Reuss,  Geschichte  der  heiligen  Schriften  A.T.'s,^  1890. 

(4)  The  text  and  metre. — See  p.  18.  Sievers,  Alttestamentliche 
Miscellen,  VI,  1907.  Oesterley,  JTS.,  1906,  pp.  228-35.  Kent, 
Student's  OT.,  Ill,  1910,  pp.  4og  f.  Rahmer,  Ilieronymus'  Com- 
mentar  zu  den  zwblf  kleincn  Propheten,  1902. 

ADDITIONAL  NOTE  ON  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BOOK. 

Paul  Riessler  presents  the  following  theory  of  the  composition  of  Joel  in 
his  new  book,  Die  Kleinen  Propheten  oder  das  Zwolfprophetenbuch  nach  dent 
Urtext  iiberselzt  und  erkldrt  (191 1).  The  original  nucleus  consisted  of  i-'- 
8-12  2'-'.  To  this  were  joined  parallels  from  messages  of  Joel  which  did 
not  belong  to  the  original  book,  i^-'-  >3-2o  a's-n  's.  20.  27  ^i.  »  ^i-s.  9.  10.  12. 
"•  ".  Still  later  there  were  added  passages  which  probably  go  back  in 
large  measure  to  Joel  himself  but  which  had  been  handed  down  separately, 
24-».  »-".  21-24.  26  2>-  «.  Besides  these,  4<-'-  's"  were  inserted  from  some 
older  author.  And  finally  a  number  of  marginal  notes  and  glosses  found 
their  way  into  the  text,  i^  {elders)  '  {to  their  children  and  their  children) 
7b.  lob.  12  {also  palms,  and  yea,  joy,  etc.)  '^  {old  men)  ^^^-  ""ab-  isa  {-what  could 
we  put  in  them?)  i^b.  aobp  g't"  2"-  't^-  "P-  "•  ''•^t-  '<*>  {meal-offering,  etc.)  " 
{that  the  heathen  may  not  rule  over  them)  2°  {and  its  bad  odour  ascends)  ^^^-  ^^^ 
^2.  3b.  i  {even  escaped  ones,  etc.)  4*  {to  the  Sabeans,  and  for  Yahweh  has 
spoken)  "•  "  {the  vats  overflow)  "i"-  "». 


COMMENTARY  ON  JOEL. 

1.  The  title  states  merely  that  a  divine  communication  had  come 
to  Joel.  No  date,  not  even  of  the  period,  no  home  from  which 
Joel  came,  no  hint  to  w^hom  the  oracle  was  directed,  are  given. 
Nor  is  the  mode  described  in  which  Yahweh's  revelation  came  to 
him.  Simply  the  common  superscription,  Tlie  word  of  Yahweh 
which  came  to  Joel  the  son  of  Pethuel,  or  Bethuel,  cf.  Ho.  i^  Mi.  i* 
Zp.  i^  Its  simplicity  appears  to  vouch  for  its  genuineness.  There 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  names  are  not  genuine  names  of 
historical  persons. 


THE  AWFUL  LOCUST  PLAGUE  AND  DROUGHT  (i^-^o^ 

After  an  introduction  in  which  the  attention  of  the  people  is 
directed  to  the  unexampled  and  ever  memorable  character  of  the 
locust  plague  through  which  they  are  now  passing  (yv.  ^*),  Joel 
proceeds  to  a  graphic  description  of  the  unprecedented  devastation 
of  the  land  by  means  of  the  rhetorical  device  of  describing  the  dis- 
tress of  the  various  classes;  of  the  wine-bibbers  who  can  no  longer 
enjoy  tJieir  favourite  drink  (vv.  ^^),  of  the  priests  who  can  no  longer 
bring  sacrifices  to  the  altar  {vv.  ^'^^),  of  the  husbandmen  and  vifte- 
yard  keepers  who  have  lost  their  harvests  (vv.  ""^^).  Then  Jie  calls 
for  the  remedy  and  exhorts  the  priests  to  make  preparations  for  a 
great  day  of  public  fasting  and  supplication  {vv.  *^").  And  with 
the  words  of  a  prayer  in  which  he  sets  forth  in  moving  manner  the 
distress  of  man  and  beast  he  concludes  (vv.  ^^^^). 

W  ^^  is  an  interpolation  by  the  editor  who  interpreted  the  locusts 
as  the  precursors  of  the  day  of  Yahweh. 

73 


74  JOEL 

THE  UNPRECENTED  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PLAGUE 
AND  ITS  EXTENT  (i'-^. 

'•  Hear  this,  ye  old  men, 

and  give  ear,  all  who  dwell  in  the  land! 
Has  the  like  ever  happened  in  your  days, 
or  in  the  days  of  your  fathers? 

'■  Tell  your  children  all  about  it, 

and  (let)  your  children  (tell)  their  children. 
And  their  children  the  following  generation. 

J-  That  which  the  shearer  left, 

the  swarmer  has  eaten. 
And  that  which  the  swarmer  left, 

the  lapper  has  eaten. 
And  that  which  the  lapper  left, 

the  finisher  has  eaten! 

Three  introductory  strophes,  (i)  v.  2  a  he.xameter  +  a  pentameter,  (2)  v.  «  a 
pentameter  +  a  trimeter,  (3)  v.  *  three  tetrameters. — Strs.  i  and  2  may  be  taken 
as  one  str. 

2-4.  Joel  did  not  merely  write  his  addresses  but  spoke  to  the  as- 
sembled people.  He  addresses  the  old  men,  they  are  not  the  elders 
here,  because  he  wants  to  appeal  to  their  experience  and  their  mem- 
ory. Their  testimony  is  valuable  because  they  are  so  very  old. 
Has  anything  like  this  (ever)  happened  (before)  in  your  life-time  or 
in  the  days  of  your  fathers  ?  No!  Not  even  the  oldest  men  can 
remember  having  experienced  or  having  heard  their  fathers  tell  of 
anything  like  it.  The  whole  is  so  unprecedented  that  it  will  long 
be  memorable.  So  the  prophet  exhorts  them  all, — here  we  see 
why  he  addressed  at  the  beginning  not  only  the  old  men  but  all  the 
people, — to  preserve  the  memory  of  it  and  to  hand  it  down  to  their 
children  and  children's  children,  with  all  its  particulars.  The 
event,  thus  far  only  referred  to  by  this  and  it,  is  explained  in  v.  *. 
A  terrible  locust  plague  has  visited  the  land  and  in  successive 
swarms  has  totally  devoured  the  herbage  and  foliage  of  the  coun- 
try. Shearer,  swarmer,  lapper  and  finisher  are  different  names  for 
locusts,  translated  after  their  probable  etymology.  The  OT.  men- 
tions several  kinds  of  locusts  by  seven  different  names.     Some  are 


i^-*  75 

synonyms  denoting  the  same  species,  others  denote  different 
stages  of  the  same  species,  still  others  different  species.  Here  it 
is  not  locusts  in  the  different  stages  of  their  development  or  differ- 
ent species  that  are  meant,  but  the  four  names  are  used  to  exhaust 
the  category  and  to  describe  the  completeness  of  the  destruction 
caused  by  these  successive  swarms.  What  one  swarm  had  left 
another  devoured.  In  synonyms  for  locust  the  Heb.  is  richer 
than  the  English.  Whether  these  successive  swarms  were  con- 
fined to  a  single  year  or  not,  see  on  2^.  Either  would  be  true  to 
nature. 

Fr.  Alvarez  reports,  "When  we  were  in  the  Seignory  of  Abrigima,  in  a  j 
place  called  Aquate,  there  came  such  a  multitude  of  locusts  as  cannot  be  | 
said.     They  began  to  arrive  one  day  about  terce  [nine]  and  till  night  \ 
they  ceased  not  to  arrive;  and  when  they  arrived,  they  bestowed  them- 
selves.    On  the  next  day  at  the  hour  of  prime  they  began  to  depart,  and 
at  mid-day  there  was  not  one,  and  there  remained  not  a  leaf  on  the  trees. 
At  this  instant  others  began  to  come  and  stayed  like  the  others  to  the 
next  day  at  the  same  hour;  and  these  left  not  a  stick  ^\ath  its  bark,  nor  a 
green  herb,  and  thus  did  they  five  days  one  after  another." — Das  Indias, 
ch.  32  (quoted  by  Pusey).     Barrow,  on  the  other  hand,  speaks  of  succes- 
sive years,  "The  present  year  is  the  third  of  their  continuance,  and  their 
increase  has  far  exceeded  that  of  a  geometrical  progression  whose  ratio 
is  a  million." — 5.  Africa,  p.  257  (Pu.). 

1.  Snv  =  r  -t-  "^n  =  Yahweh  is  God.  This  is  the  best  explanation. 
Other  proposals  see  in  BDB.  Cp.  i'i;'?x  and  Kue.'s  interesting  but  un- 
tenable suggestion  that  Sxii  -^yas  a  pseudonymous  name  formed  by  in- 
version of  ih-'Sn.  (62^  urxvs  Kv  irap  E^paiois.  (6"  curjX  epfieveverai  ayaTrrj- 
Tos  KV  -qv  Se  sk  ttjj  c^uXtjs  povjSein.  Pseudo-Epiphanius,  Vita;  Prophetarum, 
says,  ^v  iK  r^s  7^s  rod  'Pov^rjv  iv  dypQ  ^eOwfjiSpdJV.  iv  elp-qvQ  airidave  Kal 
iTa<p7)  iKei  (Marti). — Sxino  occurs  only  here;  CS  21  ^  read  Sniho,  which 
was  also  the  name  of  Rebeka's  father  (Gn.  22^3  24'5-  '<•  ").  QI  H  =i3I. 
Sni.id  has  been  variously  explained,  from  the  root  n.-io  (0  persuade,  which 
the  old  Jewish  commentators  regarded  as  another  form  of  Samuel  who 
prevailed  over  God  in  prayer  (i  S.  8').  But  Snip3  is  probably  the  more 
orig.  reading.  The  explanation  of  the  Midrash,  Why  was  his  name  called 
Sxino  ?  Because  he  had  his  hair  curled  like  a  virgin  (nVinaD),  seems  to  con- 
tain a  word-play  on  Ssina  and  nSina  and  to  argue  for  ':'nio3  as  orig.  (Rah- 
mer). — 2.  a''jprn,  the  reading  ounsn  in  one  ms.  of  de  R.  and  in  the  marg. 
of  one  cod.  of  Kenn.  is  an  interpretation.  nKr  =  nKT3.  0Tr2-2,  ^^^^  vftCiv, 
M  is  better,  asi  usually  dm  in  disjunctive  questions,  but  cf.  Ges..^""*. 
uvNHi  yea,  give  ear,  the  constr.  of  an  imv.  with  waw  conj.  after  another 


76  JOEL 

imv.  makes  each  imv.  distinct.  Else  waw  cons,  with  pf.  Siev.  om.  the 
waw. — 3,  n^*?;"  in  emphatic  position.  Gr.  suggests  •"i>'?j,'o.  isD  is  stronger 
than  Tjn;  the  use  of  hy  instead  of  the  simple  ace.  indicates  that  par- 
ticulars and  reflections  are  to  be  given  about  it.  Now.'^  om.  on^jaV 
DH-jai  prob.  for  metr.  reasons,  but  it  is  dub.  \yhether  int*  inS  would 
directly  have  followed  D3''ja.  Cf.  Vergil,  /En.  3",  et  nati  natorum  et  qui 
nascentur  ab  illis;  Homer,  II.  2o'<'8,  Kal  tralduv  iraiSes  rol  Kev  fieTSiriade 
yivuprai  (Cred.).  Du.  transposes  a-'iprn  from  v. '  to  the  beginning  of  v. ' 
because  of  the  metre. — 4.  On  the  locusts  see  esp.  Cred.,  pp.  261-313, 
and  Dr.,  pp  82-91,  and  the  literature  cited  there,  ou  shearer,  2-^  Am. 
4',  from  DTJ,  to  cut  off.  na-»N  Assy,  aribu,  usually  connected  with  n^i  to 
multiply,  =  swartner,  but  this  is  doubtful.  It  is  the  usual  name  for 
locust  and  occurs  frequently.  r>S>  is  usually  connected  with  pph  to  lick, 
lap  =  the  lapper,  elsewhere  Na.  3»5-  '6  Je.  5i'<-  ".  Hpt.  {JBL.,  XXVI, 
p.  34)  connects  it  with  Assy,  ilkiiu,  Ar.  ualaqd,  =  leaper.  S>Dn  from  Son 
to  finish,  the  vb.  is  used  in  Dt,  28"  of  the  action  of  the  locusts.  In 
NH.  =  to  destroy  utterly,  to  bring  to  an  end.  Taanith  3^^^,  "Why  is  the 
locust  called  hasil?  Because  it  brings  everything  to  an  end."  Else- 
where S'Dn  occurs  2»  i  K.  8"  (||  2  Ch.  6")  Is.  ^^  Ps.  78<6.  It  is  not  im- 
possible that  pS'  may  denote  a  certain  stage  in  the  development  of  the 
locust  but  its  use  in  Na.  3'^  Je.  512'  does  not  favour  the  non-winged 
state.  The  various  stages  are  summarised  by  Dr.  as  follows,  "The 
insect,  after  leaving  the  egg,  casts  its  skin  not  less  than  six  times  before 
it  assumes  its  complete  form  (which  is  reached  6-7  weeks  from  birth), 
but  only  three  of  the  stages  through  which  it  thus  passes  are  clearly 
different  to  an  ordinary  observer.  Immediately  after  the  locusts  are 
hatched,  they  are  in  the  larva-sta.ge,  in  which  they  have  no  wings,  but 
are  capable  of  hopping  about;  and  advancing  in  compact  bodies,  they 
begin  almost  immediately  their  destructive  operations.  After  about 
three  weeks'  time,  their  fourth  moult  brings  them  to  the  pupa-stage,  in 
which  their  wings  are  partially  developed,  but  enclosed  as  yet  in  mem- 
branous cases;  in  this  stage  they  advance  by  walking  rather  than  by 
hopping.  Ten  days  after  reaching  the  pupa-stage,  they  moult  again; 
and  10-15  days  after  this,  by  a  last  moult,  they  disengage  themselves 
from  their  *  pupa,'  or  nymph-skin,  and  as  soon  as  their  vidngs  are  stiffened 
and  dry,  mount  in  clouds  into  the  air;  they  are  now  the  imago,  or  com- 
plete insect.  In  all  stages  of  their  development,  they  are  equally  vo- 
racious, and  equally  destructive  to  vegetation,"  pp.  84/.  Cred.  thought 
that  the  four  names  denoted  different  stages  of  development.  But  the 
order  in  2"  is  diff.,  and  nain,  the  most  common  term  for  locust,  would 
then  not  denote  the  complete  insect.  Moreover,  the  swarms  move 
onward  and  it  could  therefore  not  be  said,  what  the  shearer  had  left,  tlie 
swarmer  has  eaten,  because  the  shearer  had  become  the  swarmer  and  was 
no  longer  in  the  place  where  it  was  6rst.     Cf.  Dr.,  p.  37  n. 


77 


POETIC  PICTURE  OF  THE  DISTRESS  OF  THE  WINE- 
DRINKERS   (i^O- 

6-  Awake,  ye  (merry)  tipplers  and  weep, 
and  wail,  all  ye  bibbers  of  wine. 
Because  of  the  must,  for  'tis  snatched  from  your  mouth! 

•■  For  a  nation  has  invaded  my  land, 
powerful  and  numberless; 
Its  teeth  are  the  teeth  of  a  lion, 
and  it  has  a  lioness'  jaw-teeth. 

'•  It  has  turned  my  vines  to  waste, 
and  my  fig  trees  to  splinters. 
Has  stripped  them  clean  bare  and  thrown  down  (the  shreds), 
white  gleam  their  branches. 

Three  strs.,  (i)  v.  =  a  hexameter  -f  a  trimeter,  strs.  2  and  3  are  formed  by  two 
pentameters  each. 

5-7.  Joel  was  a  poet.  He  could  not  be  satisfied  with  a  mere 
prosaic  statement  of  the  calamity.  With  dramatic  power  he  calls 
on  the  various  classes  of  the  people  to  lament  over  the  awful  catas- 
trophe.— 5.  He  addresses  the  wine-bibbers  and  rouses  them  from 
their  sleep  of  intoxication  that  they  may  mourn  with  all  the  lovers 
of  wine  over  the  destruction  of  the  grape-vines  and  the  loss  of  the 
grape-juice,  which  the  locusts  have  snatched,  as  it  were,  from  their 
very  lips.  In  contrast  to  their  usual  merriment  they  are  to  wail  in 
desperate  grief,  for  they  will  no  longer  be  able  to  indulge  in  their 
precious  and  beloved  sweet  wine.  It  may  be  that  the  loss  of  the 
wine  is  mentioned  first  because  the  locusts  had  come  immediately 
before  the  vintage,  but  this  may  be  due  to  Joel's  rhetoric. — 6. 
The  reason  why  the  sweet  wine  is  taken  away  from  the  wine-bib- 
bers is  a  severe  locust  plague.  The  locusts  are  compared  to  an  in- 
vading nation  of  huge  numbers  and  terribly  armed.  For  this  com- 
parison see  also  2*'^,  Pr.  30  ^■'■^^.  Homer  also  speaks  of  peoples 
of  bees,  of  flies,  etc.  The  invading  army  is  strong  and  powerful, 
and  irresistible  in  its  attack.  Joel  does  not  think  here  of  the 
strength  of  the  individual  locust,  for  though  they  are  quite  strong 
it  is  only  their  immense  numbers  that  make  them  so  formidable. 
Without  number  is  literally  true;  cf.  Je.  46^. 


78  JOEL 

"You  feel  as  if  never  before  you  had  realised  immensity  in  number. 
Vast  crowds  of  men  gathered  at  a  festival,  countless  tree-tops  rising  along 
the  slope  of  a  forest  ridge,  the  chimneys  of  London  houses  from  the  top 
of  St.  Paul's — all  are  as  nothing  to  the  myriads  of  insects  that  blot  out  the 
sun  above  and  cover  the  ground  beneath  and  fill  the  air  whichever  way 
one  looks." — Jas.  Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  1897  (quoted  by 
GASm.,  p.  400).  "In  1889  there  passed  over  the  Red  Sea  a  swarm 
which  was  estimated  to  extend  over  2,000  square  miles,  and  each  locust 
being  assumed  to  weigh  ^\  oz.,  the  weight  of  the  swarm  was  calculated 
to  be  42,850  millions  of  tons;  a  second  and  even  larger  swarm  passed  on 
the  following  day.  That  these  numbers  are  no  exaggeration  is  shown  by 
the  Government  Reports  on  the  destruction  of  the  locusts  in  Cyprus.  In 
1881  over  1,300  tons  of  locust  eggs  had  been  destroyed,  but  in  spite  of 
this  it  was  calculated  that  over  5,000  egg  cases,  each  containing  many 
eggs,  were  deposited  in  the  island  in  1883." — EB.,  Ill,  col.  2808,  s.  v. 
Locust. 

The  weapons  of  this  army  of  locusts  are  their  strong  jaw-teeth 
whose  destructive  power  is  brought  out  by  comparing  them  to  those 
of  lions.  "Their  mandibles  and  maxillas  are  strong,  sharp  and 
jagged." — Cent.  Did.,  s.  v.  locust.  "...  to  strength  incredible 
for  so  small  a  creature,  they  add  saw-like  teeth,  admirably  calcu- 
lated to  eat  up  all  the  herbs  of  the  land."— Morier,  A  Second 
Journey  Through  Persia,  p.  99  (Pu.) .  Pliny  reports  that  they  even 
gnaw  through  doors  {Hist.  Nat.,  I,  11,  ch.  12). — It  is  not  certain 
whether  the  prophet  means  by  my  land  his  ovm  or  Yahweh's  land. 
Of  course,  Judah  is  referred  to  in  either  case.  The  use  of  my 
vine  and  my  Jig  tree  in  v.  '  would  seem  to  indicate  that  Joel  was 
speaking  in  Yahweh's  name  and  that  my  land  is  Yahweh's  land; 
but  see  on  the  other  hand  w.  ^-  ^^  where  Yahweh  is  spoken  of  in 
the  3d  pers. — 7.  Since  Joel  is  speaking  here  of  the  ruin  of  the  vint- 
age he  does  not  refer  to  the  plants  and  vegetables  which  the  locusts 
attack,  as  a  rule,  first,  but  of  the  total  destruction  of  the  vines  and 
fig  trees.  For  the  personal  pronoun  see  v.  ®.  He  has  reduced  my 
vines  (Heb.  sg.  coll.)  to  a  waste — and  my  fig  trees  to  splinters!  He 
has  utterly  stripped  them  of  their  leaves  and  bark  and  while  he  was 
devouring  he  Jias  thrown  the  shreds  and  twigs  to  the  ground,  and 
stripped  off  their  bark  so  that  their  branches  gleam  white. 

This  is  an  exact  description,  verified  by  many  travellers.    "  When  they 
have  devoured  all  other  vegetables,  they  attack  the  trees,  consuming  first 


i"-"  79 

the  leaves  then  the  bark." — Jackson,  Travels  to  Morocco.  "After  hav- 
ing consumed  herbage,  fruit,  leaves  of  trees,  they  attacked  even  their 
young  shoots  and  their  bark." — Adansson,  Voyage  au  Senegal,  p.  88. 
"It  is  sufficient,  if  these  terrible  columns  stop  half  an  hour  on  a  spot,  for 
everything  growing  on  it,  vines,  olive  trees,  and  corn,  to  be  entirely 
destroyed.  After  they  have  passed  nothing  remains  but  the  large 
branches  and  the  roots,  which  being  underground  have  escaped  their 
voracity." — Constitutional,  May,  1841,  of  locusts  in  Spain  in  that  year. 
"They  are  particularly  injurious  to  the  palm  trees;  these  they  strip  of 
every  leaf  and  green  particle,  the  trees  remaining  like  skeletons  with  bare 
branches." — Burckhardt,  Notes,  II,  p.  90.  "The  country  did  not  seem 
to  be  burnt,  but  to  be  covered  with  snow,  through  the  whiteness  of  the 
trees,  and  the  dryness  of  the  herbs." — Fr.  Alvarez,  /.  c,  ch.  33  (all 
quoted  by  Pu.).  "The  gardens  outside  Jaffa  are  now  completely 
stripped,  even  the  bark  of  the  young  trees  having  been  devoured,  and 
look  like  a  birch-tree  forest  in  winter." — Journ.  Sacr.  Lit.,  Oct.,  1865 
(Dr.). 

5.  is''pn,  cf.  Gn.  g^*  Pr.  23*5.  (&  adds  the  explanatory  i^  otvov  airdv, 
which  Du.  accepts  as  orig.  but  with  sf.  of  2d  pers.  pi. — d^'iid;:'  vocative, 
without  art.  contrary  to  the  rule,  Ges.  ^  '^^  <=.  Van  H.  concludes  that  all  in- 
habitants and  not  only  a  fraction  are  addressed. — In  iSV^ni  Siev.  om.  waw 
conj.,  with  05,  and  places  iSS'n  after  |". — D^oy  sweet  wine,  -j/  dd;'  to  press 
out,  grape  juice  as  pressed  out.  Cf.  (5  in  Jo.  4'8  y'S.vKaffiiSs,  in  Is.  49^  ohos 
v^os.  In  distinction  from  p^  which  is  fermented  vnne  D^Dy  is  either  must 
or  wine  made  by  a  process  in  which  fermentation  was  artificially  arrested 
(Am.  9"  Is.  49"  Ct.  8').  See  Dr.,  on  Am.  9". — ($  adds  iv<ppo(TtJvr]  Kal  x'^P'^ 
=  Sui  nnDB';  cf.  i". — mao,  w.  s-  »■  "  =  pjnj^  v.  ". — 6.  hy  rh-;  military 
term  for  invading. — niySnD  jaw-teeth;  (&  /xiJXai,  always  parall.  with 
QijB',  Pr.  30"  Jb.  29"  ^  58'  (nijjnSn  for  ni;;Snc). — koS,  (g  S  U 
N''?'??.  Siev.,  Marti  ni^V?  rniySnDi;  IM  is  preferable. — 7.  ■r\zzh  uz\ 
word-play. — noxp  is  parall.  to  ncc,  (&  ffvyKXaa-ndv.  BDB.  cp.  Ar. 
kasafa,  break,  snap  off,  a  snapping  or  splintering.  Dr.  splinters,  ixf 
is  also  connected  with  Itap,  pluck  off  (twigs,  etc.) ;  cf.  T'Sifn  v,  i>,  Gr. 
reads  ns-jpS,  but  this  is  perhaps  not  necessary  since  noxp  =  rys^p. 
This  holds  good  also  for  ixp  (Ho.  10')  did  '<:d  hy  ixpp  •"ioSk'd,  cast  (sic!) 
like  a  chip  upon  the  water. — T'VtJ'ni  has  no  sf.,  it  may  have  been  om.  in- 
tentionally, cf.  f  139',  or  v/e  must  read  with  We.,  Now.  ''^^'\}\  ItJ'n  nefe'n 
he  has  stripped  it,  stripping  and  throwing  away,  i.  e.  he  stripped  the 
bark  of  the  fig  trees  and  of  the  grape-vines — for  they  are  both  included 
in  the  sf. — and  in  doing  so  shreds  of  leaf  and  bark  fell  to  the  ground. 
i'mvh,  cf.  Je.  9"  Jb.  18'. — U'aSni  Hiph.  show  whiteness,  grow  white,  cf. 
Ges.  ^  '"".  One  cod.  of  de  R.,  &,  Ar.  have  sg.,  he  makes  its  branches 
white.  M  is  better.  The  sg.  in  <S  is  due  to  pi.  neuter  of  the  subj. — 
C5  confuses  'yifn  with  tfcn,   H^epevvdv  i^ripe6vT}<xev  ain-fip. — jns*  is   the 


8o  JOEL 

branch  of  the  vine  also  in  Gn.  4o">-  ".  Etymologicaliy  it  means  some- 
thing intertwined,  tendril,  twig,  so  that  it  may  denote  the  young  branches 
of  the  fig  tree  also. 


THE  DISTRESS   OF  THE  PRIESTS   (i^'°). 

'•  With  a  sorrow  like  that  of  a  virgin,  sack-girt 

for  the  spouse  of  her  youth, 
">•  Sorrow  the  priests, 

the  ministers  of  Yahweh, 
»»•  For  the  meal-offering  and  the  libation  are  cut  off 

from  the  temple  of  Yahweh. 

>«•  The  fields  are  blasted, 

the  ground  is  mourning, 
For  the  corn  is  blasted, 

the  new  wine  is  abashed 
The  fresh  oil  pines  away. 

Two  strs.,  (i)  w.  8-  9  a  pentameter  +  a  tetrameter  -f  a  pentameter,  (2)  v.  '• 
a  tetrameter  4-  a  hexameter  consisting  of  three  dimeters  (staccato  style). 

8-10.  Joel  turns  now  to  the  priests.  A  dramatic  division  into  a 
chorus  of  revellers  and  a  chorus  of  priests  is  not  intended.  It  is 
simply  the  rapid  turning  from  one  class  to  another. — 8.  With  a  sor- 
row like  that  of  a  virgin  who  is  girded  with  sackcloth  for  the  husband 
of  her  youth,  sorrow  the  priests,  the  ministers  of  Yahweh.  This  is 
most  probably  the  orig.  reading,  for  the  rendering  lament  like 
a  virgin!  is  beset  by  various  difficulties.  The  fem.  form  of  the 
imv.  would  show  that  either  the  land  or  the  community  was 
addressed.  But  the  address  is  omitted,  which  is  so  awkward  that 
some  insert  my  land,  or  daughter  of  my  people,  or  Israel.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  the  people  who  mourn  so,  but  the  priests,  as  v.  ^^  shows, 
though  there  the  line  is  probably  inserted.  There  were  two  com- 
parisons for  the  deepest  sorrow,  the  mourning  for  an  only  son,  cf. 
Am.  8"^,  and  the  heart-rending  sorrow  of  the  young  virgin  for  her 
betrothed,  the  husband  of  her  youth,  with  whom  she  had  not  yet 
tasted  the  joy  of  married  life.  To  the  Hebrews  a  betrothal  was  as 
binding  as  marriage,  and  the  engaged  were  subject  to  the  same  laws 
as  the  married  people  and  were  punished  in  case  of  transgression 
in  the  same  manner.  A  betrothed.maiden  could  therefore  be  called 
the  wife  of  his  neighbour  (Dt.  22^  ^■),  and  the  man  the  husband  of 


her  youth.  For  his  death  she  mourns,  clothes  herself  in  sackcloth, 
the  common  mourning  apparel,  and  laments. — 9.  So  the  priests 
mourn  because  the  most  awful  thing  that  could  happen  has  come 
about;  the  daily  sacrifices  have  ceased,  for  there  is  no  material  for 
offerings!  The  necessary  means  of  communion  with  Yahweh  are 
taken  away,  "the  tokens  of  Jehovah's  presence  and  favour,  mani- 
fested in  His  acceptance  of  the  offerings  have  been  removed" 
(Dav.).  That  the  daily  sacrifices  are  meant  here  admits  of  no 
doubt.  On  the  meal-offering,  cf.  Lev.  2,  on  the  libation  or  drink- 
ofifering,  usually  in  connection  with  a  burnt-offering,  cf.  Ex.  29^^'*^ 
Nu.  28^'^.  The  postexilic  community  laid  great  stress  on  the  daily 
offerings  believing  that  by  means  of  them  daily  contact  and  inter- 
course with  Yahweh  were  assured;  cf.  Ne.  10^.  How  terrible  a 
misfortune  the  cessation  of  the  daily  sacrifices  was  considered  is 
plain  from  Dn.  8"  11^*  12"  and  esp.  from  Josephus  who  tells  us 
that  they  were  not  omitted  even  in  times  of  siege  and  that  their  ces- 
sation on  July  17th,  70  A.D.,  during  the  siege  of  Titus  produced  an 
awful  impression  {Bell.  Jud.,  VI,  2,  i).  And  this  calamity,  we  are 
told,  had  befallen  the  people  in  Joel's  day.  The  impression  on 
Joel  is  very  profound,  it  shows  how  different  his  attitude  toward 
the  cult  was  from  that  of  the  pre-exilic  prophets.  He  valued  sacri- 
fices highly,  they  rejected  them;  cf.  Am.  5^  Ho.  4"  8"  Is.  i^^  Je.  ^^. 
To  Joel  they  were  a  condition  of  the  gracious  intercourse  between 
Yahweh  and  his  people,  to  the  pre-exilic  prophets  it  was  impossible 
to  find  Yahweh  by  means  of  them.  There  is  only  one  sanctuary 
referred  to  by  Joel,  one  house  of  Yahweh,  at  Jerusalem  where  the 
ministers  of  the  altar  perform  their  sacred  functions.  That  this 
side  of  the  calamity  would  be  most  keenly  felt  by  them  is  natural, 
for  it  touched  them  first  of  all. — 10.  "The  longer  lines  into  which 
Hebrew  parallelism  tends  to  run  are  replaced  by  a  rapid  series  of 
short,  heavy  phrases,  falling  like  blows.  .  .  .  Joel  loads  his  clauses 
with  the  most  leaden  letters  he  can  find,  and  drops  them  in  quick 
succession,  repeating  the  same  heavy  word  again  and  again,  as  if 
he  would  stun  the  careless  people  into  some  sense  of  the  bare, 
brutal  weight  of  the  calamity  which  has  befallen  them"  (GASm.,  p. 
405).  The  field  is  blasted,  the  ground  mourns,  a  beautiful  personi- 
fication; cf.  Am.  i^.    When  crops  are  abundant  "the  vales  shout 


82  JOEL 

for  joy  and  sing"  (Ps.  65^^).  Here  the  ground  mourns  because  the 
corn  is  blasted,  the  new  wine  is  ashamed,  another  personification, 
cf.  Is.  24',  =  has  failed,  the  oil  languishes,  elsewhere  this  word  is 
used  of  fading,  withering  trees;  cf.  e.  g.  v.  ^^  Com,  wine  and  oil 
were  the  most  important  products  of  the  land,  and  are  often  men- 
tioned together;  e.  g.,  Dt.  7^^  9"  28^'  Ho.  2*.  The  words  denote 
both  the  corn  in  the  ears,  the  juice  in  the  grapes  and  in  the  olives, 
and  the  prepared  products.  Here  the  former  appear  to  be  meant. 
The  word-plays  of  the  Heb.  cannot  be  reproduced  in  English. 

THE  DISTRESS  OF  THE  HUSBANDMEN  AND  OF  THE 
VINE  DRESSERS   (i"-  '-). 

"•  Abashed  are  the  husbandmen, 
the  vineyard  keepers  wail, 
For  the  wheat  and  the  barley, — 

for  the  harvest  of  the  field  has  perished. 

"•  The  vine  is  abashed, 

and  the  fig  tree  is  drooping, 
Pomegranate  as  well  as  palra 
and  apple  are  dried  up. 

Yea,  Joy  is  abashed  (and  has  gone) 
away  from  the  children  of  men. 

In  v.  12  there  is  added,  all  the  trees  of  the  field. — We  have  here  five  tetrameters 
(staccato  style),  they  may  form  either  three  strs.,  as  here  printed,  or  two,  v.  '^ 
consisting  only  of  one  str.      Possibly  the  whole  section  is  but  one  str. 

11-12.  The  third  class  which  Joel  mentions  are  the  cultivators 
of  the  soil,  the  husbandmen  and  vineyard  keepers  who  mourn  and 
lament  with  all  the  outward  signs  of  grief  over  the  loss  of  their 
harvests. — 11.  The  prophet  need  not  exhort  them  by  an  imper- 
ative call  to  be  disappointed,  he  describes  their  grief  and  con- 
sternation. The  reason  for  the  sorrow  of  the  husbandmen  is  given 
in  V.  "^,  for  the  wheat  and  the  barley,  here  mentioned  for  all  the 
products  of  the  field, /or  the  harvest  of  the  field  has  perished.  The 
reason  for  the  lament  of  the  vineyard  keepers  is  given  in  v.  *^,  which 
shows  that  the  term  embraces  not  only  vineyard  keepers  or  planters 
but  fruit-growers  in  general. — 12.  He  speaks  of  the  vine  as  showing 
signs  of  shame,  as  the  husbandmen  did  in  v.  ".     And  the  fig  tree 


languishes,  the  pomegranate  as  well  as  the  palm  and  the  apple  tree 
are  dried  up.  Probably  all  the  trees  of  the  field  is  an  addition.  But 
whether  it  is  or  not  we  need  not  be  surprised  by  the  omission  of 
the  olive  tree,  for  the  passage  is  not  prose  but  poetry.  If  it  were 
not  for  i^""^"  we  should  regard  the  drying  up  of  the  trees  as  due  to 
the  locust  plague,  and  this  would  be  quite  possible,  but  there  we 
are  told  of  a  long  drought  from  which  the  land  was  suffering  at  the 
same  time.  Yea,  Joel  concludes  his  description  by  the  beautiful 
line,  joy  is  ashamed  {and  has  gone)  away  from  the  children  of  men. 
Joy  is  personified,  she  hides  herself  in  shame  not  daring  to  let  her 
face  be  seen.  The  harvest  joy  has  vanished.  The  land  is  full  of 
sorrow.  How  can  gladness  dwell  with  men  who  are  so  full  of  grief? 

8.  iSx  only  here  in  OT.,  h'^n  usual  in  Aram.  One  ms.  reads  '''?2!<, 
Houb.  '''r'?''^-  <S  dp-{)V7)<Tov  irpbs  fx^  =  ^D2  '■^^  ,  'D3  is  prob.  due  to  dittog.  of 
the  foil.  '33.  Note  also  inr^p  v6h((>t)v  =  n^inaa  (?).  As  subj.  of  iSx  QI 
supplies  Snib",  de  W.,  Marti  ii-;N',  Hi.  'd;?.  na,  Siev.  substitutes  ^^'W\  for 
"hn.  Du.  reads  pi.  for  sg.,  but  it  is  not  the  topers  that  appear  to  be  ad- 
dressed. Ehr.  connects  ''Sn  with  preceding  Us  branches  have  become  gray 
for  me  like  a  virgin,  etc.  More  likely  ''Sn  was  orig.  'I'.aN  ace.  cog.  to  i'^^n, 
with  a  sorrow  like  that  of  a  virgin  who  is  girded  with  sackcloth  for  the 
husband  of  her  youth  sorrow  the  priests.  It  was  changed  to  ^Sn  after 
V.  ^^  had  been  accidentally  disp'aced,  it  should  follow  directly  v.  ^  ''O 
should  be  inserted  before  man,  cf.  the  variant  reading  in  v. "''.  The 
punctuation  iSn  is  somewhat  unusual,  but  cf.  f  147'  Nu.  21"  uy,  Gas. 
§  83  1, — p-ff  niun,  cstr.  expressing  girded  with  sackcloth  as  onan  ciaS  (Ez. 
Qii"). — 9.  ri^rtf  im^D  ($  narn  Tna'S,  cf.  v.  ".  mis'  is  often  used  of  the  sa- 
cred services  of  the  priests  from  the  time  of  Deuteronomy  on.  Since  the 
context  refers  to  cultic  actions  naro  may  seem  the  more  proper  reading, 
so  Me.,  Now.,  Marti,  et  al.  But  see  i"  "^  and  2'^. — V.  ^^  is  om.  by  <S'^', 
— iSas,  ®  TrevOeiTe  imv.,  Siev.  iSavS.  M  is  preferable.  The  topers 
had  to  be  aroused  to  a  realisation  of  the  calamity,  the  priests  and  hus- 
bandmen (v.  ")  know  it  and  are  in  distress  over  it.  The  comparison 
with  the  sorrow  of  the  virgin  shows  that  a  description  is  intended. — & 
adds  a''a'?D  kings,  feeling  that  they  should  not  be  omitted. — nin''  n^aD, 
Du.  adds  irrj*??*  mtr.  cs. — v.  '»  and  v.  ">  are  to  be  transposed,  for  v.  "> 
belongs  directly  after  v.  '. 

10.  (B  begins  with  13. — nitf  tisj'  ,  hdin  nSat*  ,  cnTi  coin,  word-plays. 
— n^aN,  05  vevdeliruj  imv. — ht^  indefinite,  in  contrast  to  city,  fields. — 
nmN  cultivated  ground. — Du.  inserts  before  pi  iiw',  ^'fort  ist  das  Grtin," 
mtr.  cs. — i£'"'ain  is  used  in  ch.  i  (a)  of  new  wine  v.  '*,  of  vines  v.  '2,  of  corn 
V.  ";  (b)  of  husbandmen  v.  ";  (c)  of  the  joy  of  men  v.  '-.     It  is  evident 


84  JOEL 

that  in  (b)  it  must  be  from  S'n  and  this  is  the  more  natural  and  appropri- 
ate meaning  also  of  (c).  One  might  be  inclined  to  connect  (a)  rather 
with  BO",  Hiph.  to  exhibit  dryness,  be  dried  up,  as  in  Zc.  lo",  so  the  Vrss., 
Ew.,  Ges.,  Or.,  and  one  might  then  think  of  an  interesting  play  on  words. 
But  Joel  uses  ra^  Qal  to  express  to  be  dried,  w.  ".  20^  so  that  it  is  better 
to  take  all  forms  from  v^2.  They  are  either  metaplastic  forms  or  from 
a  secondary  form  of  tt'n,  5c.  u'3\  cf.  w  and  fp^;  3io  and  23';  ^m  and  '^n'; 
cf.  BDB.,  5.  V.  i:'3\  Used  of  men  it  means  to  be  ashamed,  confused,  disap- 
pointed; of  things  to  fail,  miscarry  (to  suffer  shame  =  to  be  brought  to 
naught). — 11.  li-ijin  and  i^j^Sti  either  imv.,  QI,  Jewish  interpreters,  show 
shame  1  show  your  disappointment  1  lament  1  or  pf .,  &  "&  they  are  disap- 
pointed and  show  their  disappointment  by  outward  signs,  tJiey  lament. 
The  latter  is  preferable,  as  in  v.  '  1S3N.  The  absence  of  the  art.  also 
favours  it,  though  cf.  v.  '.  (&  i^-rjpdvdrjcrav  pf.,  Op-qveire  imv.  One  cod. 
(Kenn.)  has  iria  for  w^ain. — d-'DIS,  Or.,  Now.  onxp  harvesters,  not 
Now.*^. — -\ixp  is  here  the  barley  and  wheat  harvest  not  the  vintage  (6, 
but  cf.  4'3. — a>->0K,  (6  KTi^fj-ara,  &»  "^'e-,  so  also  Ho.  2"  Pr.  3i'«,  S 
KTTjTopej. — 12.  DJ  =  1.  Marti  om.  riTZ'n  •>xj;  S3  as  an  insertion  from  i". 
The  metre  may  also  be  urged  as  an  argument  against  its  originality. 
<8  adds  (cat.  Siev.  om.  mom  idh  oj  pci.  We.  says  "the  pomegranate, 
the  palm  and  the  apple  would  not  have  been  enumerated  in  an  older  age." 
This  may  be  true  but  poi  occurs  as  early  as  i  S.  14*;  inn,  Ex.  15^'  (J); 
DnD.nn  ■\''y,  Ju.  i'«  (J),  Dt.  34' (JE).,  as  apropername  2  S.  13,  etc.  Since 
palm  trees  suffer  especially  from  locusts,  cf.  on  v.  ',  even  an  earlier  writer 
would  probably  have  included  them  in  his  list,  men  occurs  only  in  late 
books,  Pr  25"  Ct.  2'-  '  7'  8*,  but  its  non-occurrence  in  earlier  literature 
may  be  accidental,  cf.  Holzinger. — o  asseverative,  yea. — 'tt'-ain  >2  (6 
Sti  Tjffxvvav  xapa"  ol  viol  dvOpdwuv,  due  to  the  omission  of  j?  by  haplo. 


CALL  FOR  A  PENITENTIAL  ASSEMBLY   (i"-  "). 

"■  Gird  yourselves  (with  sackcloth)  and  beat  the  breast,  O  priests! 

wail,  ye  ministers  of  the  altar! 
Come,  keep  on  your  sackcloth  day  and  night, 

ye  ministers  of  God! 
[For  withheld  from  the  house  of  your  God 

are  the  meal-offering  and  the  libation.] 

"•  Sanctify  a  fast! 

call  a  solemn  assembly! 
Gather  all  inhabitants  of  the  land 

into  the  house  of  your  God, 
And  cry  unto  Yahwch! 

Two  strs.,  (i)  v.  •»  a  hexameter  +  a  pentameter,  v.  "« is  a  doublet  of  v.  »»,  (2) 
a  tetrameter  -\-  a  hexameter,  consisting  of  three  dimeters  (staccato  movement). 
Cf.  V.  '0. 


J13-15  8^ 

13-14.  Joel  proceeds  to  suggest  the  remedy.  He  summons 
the  priests  not  only  to  mourn  and  do  penance  themselves  but  to 
proclaim  a  universal  fast,  to  call  all  people  together  to  the  temple, 
in  order  that  they  may  there  cry  all  together  to  Yahweh.  By  such 
earnest  national  humiliation  and  penitence  Yahweh  may  be  moved 
to  help  them. — 13.  Gird  yourselves  (with  sackcloth,  cf.  v.  ^-  ^^  Is. 
32")  and  beat  your  breasts,  O  ye  priests/  Wail,  ye  ministers  of  the 
altar!  Come  (into  the  temple,  cf.  2  S.  12^^),  keep  on  your  sackcloth 
day  and  night,  ye  ministers  of  God/  This  accentuates  the  serious- 
ness of  the  mourning  and  penitence.  Only  in  time  of  dire  dis- 
tress and  hard  penance  the  sackcloth  was  kept  on  day  and  night, 
cf.  2  S.  12^^  I  K.  21^^.  The  tokens  of  mourning  are  not  to  be 
removed  until  the  suffering  is  over.  The  foil,  clause,  for  the  meal- 
offering  and  the  libation  are  withheld  from  the  house  of  your  God, 
appears  to  be  a  doublet  of  v.  ®*  and  not  original  here.  In  v.  ^  it  is 
in  place,  but  not  here,  because  Joel  has  moved  on  to  suggest  the 
remedy.  He  wants  the  priests  to  prepare  for  a  day  of  public  fast- 
ing and  prayer. — 14.  Sanctify  a  fast,  make  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions. The  fast  with  its  abstention  from  food  and  ordinary  enjoy- 
ments was  a  religious  function.  Its  self-inflicted  suffering  was 
intended  to  propitiate  the  deity,  who  seeing  the  earnestness  of  the 
suppliant  was  supposed  to  accede  more  readily  to  his  requests. 
The  underlying  idea  of  fasting  and  mourning  and  of  putting  on  of 
sackcloth  is  expressed  very  clearly  by  David,  2  S.  12^^,  and  by  Jon. 
3^'',  cf.  also  Jo.  2*^"^^  Call  a  solemn  assembly,  cf.  Am.  5^^  Is.  i^, 
gather  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  cf.  2*^,  into  the  house  of  your 
God  and  cry  to  Yahweh/  The  calling  together  of  all  adds  to  the 
power  and  effectiveness  of  the  appeal,  for  when  all  unite  in  peni- 
tent, sorrowful  supplication  God  will  more  readily  answer.  The 
old  men  or  elders  (official  title)  have  probably  been  inserted  here 
from  2*®.  Why  they  should  here  be  singled  out  is  not  clear;  it  is 
different  in  i^  and  2'^.  Some  Vrss.  bring  out  the  intensity  of  their 
prayer  by  adding  incessantly  or  with  might. 

13.  ^•\m  sc.  pv,  one  cod.  of  de  R.,  one  cod.  of  Kenn.  and  &  insert  pt'. 
— •\SD  is  used  esp.  of  solemn  lamentations,  Je.  4*  Zc.  8'  121",  for  the  dead, 
Gn.  232  I  K.  i4'3  Je.  22I8  Zc.  12'",  cf.  van  H. — iS'Sin  Siev.  om. — in3 
Oi  '53  om.     Ace.  to  van  H.  'W2  appears  to  refer  to  a  ritual  usage  which 


86  JOEL 

was  to  be  observed  in  the  temple.  Ehr.  translates  in3  go  home  I — D'i";1j'3 
with  art.  =  in  your  sackclothes. — ^h^n  <g  C  correctly  O'hSn,  the  error  in 
m  arose  from  an  abbreviation.  Siev.  reads  vtf^^.  =  '•■J''^?'??*'  There 
is  no  reason  for  a  distinction  between  my  God  and  your  Cod.  V.  "  *>  is  a 
variant  of  v.  »»  and  not  orig.  here.  So  also  Du. — 14.  v-^p  is  a  denom- 
inative verb,  to  consecrate  with  religious  rites,  a  fast,  i"  2",  an  assembly, 
2'"  (c/.  2  K.  10^"),  war,  4'  {cf.  Je.  6<  Mi.  3').  Sometimes  Nip  is  equiva- 
lent to  irip,  e.  g.,  Jo.  i'<  rnx;?  iNip  =  mx;?  wip,  2  K.  10*0.  o^jpt  om. 
with  We.,  Marti,  Du.,  else  read  '■'aif^  Ssi.  We.  reads  iddnh  gather  your- 
selves 1  M  is  preferable.  D3''nSN  mn>  O'la  (&  om.  rnn'',  metre  also 
favours  this.  At  the  end  (8  adds  iKrevQs  B  vehementer,  in  order  to  bring 
out  the  full  force  of  tpyn.     Jon.  38  nfirna  is  thus  translated  by  06. 


INSERTION  CONCERNING  THE  DAY  OF 
YAHWEH   (i''). 

"•  "  Alas  for  the  day! — 

For  at  hand  is  the  day  of  Yahweh, 
and  as  destruction  from  the  All-destroyer  it  comes  I" 

A  dimeter  +  a  hexameter. 

15  does  not  belong  to  the  original  text  of  Joel  but  is  the  first 
interpolation  of  the  day  of  Yahweh ;  see  p.  50.  The  interpolator 
connects  the  locust  plague  with  the  day  of  Yahweh  and  explains 
it  as  its  forerunner.  To  him  it  is  not  the  present  calamity  which 
is  to  be  feared,  however  great  it  may  be,  but  the  more  awful  day 
whose  harbingers  the  locusts  seem  to  be.  He  does  not  think  that 
the  day  has  already  arrived  but  that  it  is  imminent,  and  to  him 
it  is  the  dread  of  this  impending  catastrophe  that  necessitates  the 
appeal  to  Yahweh,  not  the  locust  plague.  This  is  entirely  different 
from  Joel's  own  view  of  the  situation.  The  idea  of  the  day  is  in 
line  with  that  proclaimed  by  Amos  (5^*"^'*)  as  a  day  of  punishment. 
Only  that  with  the  pre-exilic  prophets  the  presentiment  of  its  ap- 
proach was  awakened  as  a  rule  by  some  great  political  movement, 
while  here  the  locust  plague  is  interpreted  as  heralding  its  coming. 
Alas  for  the  day  I  For  the  day  of  Yahweh  is  near,  and  as  destruc- 
tion from  the  Almighty,  lit.  an  overpowering  from  the  Over  power  er 
(Dr.)  it  comes!  This  cry  of  alarm  is  quoted  from  Is.  13'  Ez.  30^-  ^; 
cf.  also  Zp.  i'-  "  Ob.  *^.    The  phrase  as  an  over  powering  from  the 


J 15-17  87 

Overpowerer  appears  to  be  a  proverbial  phrase  and  reminds  one  of 
like  the  overthrow  caused  by  God,  Am.  4".  The  force  of  as  is  rightly 
interpreted  by  Dr.,  "the  coming  visitation  will  be  what  a  devas- 
tation proceeding  from  the  Almighty  might  be  expected  to  be,  it 
will  realise  what  the  term  implies,  it  will  be  a  veritable  '  overpower- 
ing from  the  Overpowerer,' "  imless  we  should  have  to  read  both 
here  and  in  Is.  it,^  for,  because  instead  of  as,  which  would  involve 
a  very  slight  change  in  Heb. 

15.  &  connects  v.  "  with  v.  "  by  and  say,  w.  "  "•  contain  thus  ace.  to 
^  the  prayer.  With  v.  "»  cp.  Ez.  30«-  '  anpi  ov  anp  ■'3  nvS  t\7\  -h-h^ry 
nin>s  Dv,  with  v.  "''  cp.  Is.  13*  nij;  ''lu'o  nco  nini  ov  anp  ""O  i^S^n. 
(&  translates  hhn  by  threefold  0(1x01.  perhaps  due  to  double  reading  of 
preceding  nini  sc.  r\r\  ,  nh  ,  in  (Rahmer).  ms'd  ns'j  with  forcible  as- 
sonance. Though  nr  and  t;*  are  here  derived  from  the  same  root,  this 
is  not  decisive  for  the  true  etymology  of  ns*.  See  Dr.,  Additional  Note 
on  Chap.  7, 15  {Shaddai),  p.  81,  also  his  excursus  I  in  his  com.  on  Genesis, 
pp.  404-6.  Probably  na'  is  an  ancient  Semitic  divine  name  (Marti). 
Baethgen,  Beitr age  zur  semitischen  Religions geschichte,  pp.  192^.,  291  jf., 
connects  it  with  the  root  ■"!£•;  No.,  ZDMG.,  1886,  pp.  735/.,  and  Hoff- 
mann, Phonizische  Inschriften,  p.  53,  connect  it  with  iu'  demon;  Zim., 
KA  r,'  p.  358,  with  lad-Cl,  a  divine  title  of  the  Babylonians.  (&  translates 
wj  ToKaLirupla  iK  raXaiiruplas  =  Tj'p  TJ'r,  due  to  haplo.  of  ■<  in  nCD 
N13\     In  Is.  13^  Kal  awTpi^i]  irapa,  roO  deov  (=  nii'). 


PRAYER  VOICING  THE  NEED  OF  ALL  CREATURES  IN 
VIEW  OF  THE  FAMINE  AND  DROUGHT  (i'«-2«). 

>»•  Is  not  (our)  food  cut  off 
before  our  very  eyes? 
From  the  house  of  our  God 
gladness  and  joy? 

w.  Waste  lie  the  store-houses, 
ruined  the  barns! 
Since  the  corn  has  failed, 

•8-  what  shall  we  put  in  them? 

Aimlessly  the  herds  of  cattle  wander  about, 

because  they  have  no  pasture, 
And  even  the  flocks  of  sheep  stand  aghast, 

"■  unto  thee,  O  Yahweh,  they  cry. 


88  JOEL 

For  fire  has  devoured 

the  pastures  of  the  steppe, 
And  the  flame  has  scorched 

all  the  trees  of  the  field. 

Even  the  wild  beasts 

cry  aloud  to  Thee, 
For  the  water-courses  are  dried  up 
[And  fire  has  devoured 

the  pastures  of  the  steppe.] 

Five  strs.,  strs.  i,  2,  4  consist  of  two  tetrameters  each,  str.  3  of  two  hexameters, 
str.  5  of  a  tetrameter  +  a  trimeter. 


16-20.  These  verses  may  be  taken  either  as  a  renewed  descrip- 
tion of  the  distress  of  man  and  beast  or  as  the  substance  of  the 
prayer  which  the  people  are  to  present  to  Yahweh.  The  direct 
address  in  vv.  ^®-  ^^  appears  to  decide  for  the  latter  interpretation. 
It  is  true  that  vv.  *^^^  do  not  sound  like  a  prayer.  Notice  the 
difference  in  2^'!  But  there  is  something  moving  in  the  simple 
recital  of  the  desperate  situation  of  the  people  and  deeply  appealing 
in  the  awful  distress  of  the  animals  which  cry  to  Yahweh  for  relief 
in  their  anguish.  Even  so  it  is  not  a  complete  prayer.  Perhaps 
the  interpolated  v.  *^  has  taken  the  place  of  an  original,  brief  pas- 
sionate appeal. — 16.  A  fresh  description  of  the  calamity  begins 
here  in  any  case.  75  not  food  cut  off  before  our  very  eyes?  We  must 
look  on  without  being  able  to  prevent  it.  Cp.  for  the  force  of  the 
phrase  before  our  eyes,  Is.  i'  Dt.  28'*  Ps.  23^.  It  stands  here  in  an 
emphatic  position,  laying  stress  on  the  helplessness  of  the  onlookers. 
The  food  Joel  has  in  mind  esp.  is  that  destined  for  the  altar  which 
was  eaten  in  conformity  to  the  ritual,  at  the  great  harvest  festivals 
when  gratitude  and  joy  filled  every  heart.  But  now  there  are  no 
harvest  feasts,  not  even  the  daily  sacrifices;  cut  oSfrom  the  house  of 
our  God  are  joy  and  gladness.  The  element  of  joy  was  not  missing 
in  the  temple  worship  in  postexilic  times,  as  some  have  thought. 
Cp.,  e.  g.,  the  jubilant  psalms  of  praise  of  the  postexilic  community. 
— 17.  There  being  no  harvests  the  store-houses  are  dilapidated,  the 
barns  are  broken  down.  We  do  not  know  any  particulars  about  the 
store-houses  and  barns  of  the  ancient  Jews,  but  evidently  they  were 
not  solidly  built  and  had  to  be  repaired  every  year.    This  year  there 


jl8.20  8^ 

was  no  use  for  them.  Since  the  corn  has  failed  (lit.  shows  shame) 
what  shall  we  put  in  them?  The  first  half  of  v.  ",  translated  by 
AV.,  The  seed  (marg.:  grains)  is  rotten  under  their  clods,  by  RV., 
The  seeds  rot  (marg. :  shrivel)  under  their  clods,  is  in  all  probability 
nothing  more  than  a  corrupt  variant  of  the  following  sentence. 
The  first  clause  of  v.  ^®  belongs  with  v.  ",  for  the  reading,  how  the 
beasts  groan!  is  due  to  a  wrong  vocalisation  of  the  text.  (^  has 
preserved  the  right  text,  what  shall  we  put  in  them? 

18-20.  The  distress  of  the  cattle,  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  wild 
animals  is  vividly  described. — 18.  Aimlessly  the  herds  of  cattle 
wander  about,  perplexed  where  to  find  food,  because  they  have  no 
pasture.  And  even  the  flocks  of  sheep,  which  prefer  the  dry  pastures 
of  the  steppe  and  which  do  not  suffer  as  quickly  as  the  cattle  which 
need  rich,  moist  pastures,  even  they  stand  aghast,  perishing  with 
hunger. — 19.  Unto  Thee,  O  Yahweh,  they  cry,  appealing  for  help. 
Underlying  is  the  idea  that  Yahweh  cannot  resist  this  universal  cry 
that  goes  up  to  Him  from  man  and  beast.  It  is  not  the  prophet  who 
cries  to  Yahweh  (M)  either  because  moved  thereto  by  the  distress 
of  the  animals  or  in  the  name  of  the  community,  but  the  animals 
themselves,  as  v.  ^°  clearly  shows,  cf.  also  Jon.  3^-  ^.  They  cry  be- 
cause the  fire  has  devoured  the  pastures  of  the  steppe,  and  the  flame 
has  burnt  all  the  trees  of  the  field.  The  fire  and  flame  are  most 
probably  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun,  cf.  Am.  7'',  and  signify  an 
accompanying  drought.  We  might  regard  them  as  figuratively 
describing  the  devastation  caused  by  the  locusts,  cf.  2^,  if  it  were 
not  for  V.  ^°'',  where  the  drying  up  of  the  rivers  shows  that  the  de- 
struction of  all  vegetation  is  not  merely  due  to  the  visitation  of  the 
locusts  but  also  to  a  severe  drought.  It  has  often  been  noticed  that 
locusts  are  worst  in  very  hot  summers.*  The  word  translated  by 
AV.,  RV.,  wilderness,  means  really  the  steppe  where  the  cattle  and 
sheep  are  driven  to  pasture. — 20.  Even  the  wild  animals  cry  aloud 
to  Thee,  for  the  channels  of  water  are  dried  up,  and  they  do  not  know 
how  to  quench  their  thirst.     If  the  last  clause  is  not  simply  a  doub- 

♦  "Siccale  gaudenl  locusiee,"  says  Tertullian,  De  aninta,  ch.  32 ;  "sicca  vere  major  provenlus," 
observes  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  XI,  2q.  "  This  year  was  remembered  for  the  locust  swarms  and  great 
summer  heat,"  Doughty,  Arabia  Deserta,  p.  335.  GASm.  thinks  that  the  clause  the  flame  has 
burnt  all  the  trees  oj  the  field  is  best  explained  by  forest  fires,  which  are  so  often  a  consequence  of 
an  absolute  drought. 


90  JOEL 

let  of  V.  ''''*,  which  is  most  likely,  it  is  a  kind  of  refrain,  dolefully 
reiterating,  and  the  fire  has  devoured  the  pastures  of  the  steppe. 

16.  In  yyyy  and  i:>n'^N  (g  has  sf.  2d  pers.  pi.  Ace.  to  this  v.  " 
would  be  an  appeal  to  the  priests,  not  part  of  a  prayer. — 17.  The  second 
half  is  clear,  only  read  nnjD  for  nnjcs,  the  D  is  due  to  dittog.,  cf.  Hg. 
2",  Aq.  e/c  Orja-avpuv,  as  if  'op.  It  is  parall.  to  nnxx,  and  thus  =  store- 
houses, granaries.  The  first  half  is  very  difficult.  Of  the  four  words  three 
are  i-ir.  To  get  at  their  meaning  scholars  have  gone  back  to  their  roots 
and  compared  them  with  the  cognate  languages.  V2-j  has  been  compared 
with  Ar.  'abisa,  to  contract  (esp.  the  face),  to  frown,  and  the  meaning 
shrivel  has  thus  been  derived  for  our  passage,  so  among  others  RVm., 
Buhl,  BDB.  Others  have  explained  it  from  NH.,  Aram.  e'o>,  to  rot,  V, 
AE.,  Ki.,  AV.,  RV.  But  this  is  suitable  only  if  animals  are  referred  to, 
since  rotting  of  vegetable  matter  is  not  an  effect  of  severe  and  continued 
heat.  B  takes  it  of  beasts  of  burden  that  rot  in  their  dung,  computru- 
erwU  jumenta  in  stercore  suo.  But  this  involves  translations  for  nmo 
and  ronjs  which  are  not  certain,  nmo  is  usually  derived  from  1/  "tne, 
to  divide,  separate,  and  compared  with  Syn.  ferda\  ferada' ,  kernel,  berry, 
and  the  Jew.  Aram.  Nyi.?  pebble,  berry,  and  then  translated  grains  of 
seed.  Buhl,  BDB.,  seeds,  AV.,  RV.  If  this  is  correct,  the  transl.  of  AV., 
RV.  the  seeds  rot  is  impossible,  shrivel  would  be  suitable.  B  pointed 
nmp  jumenta  {v.  i.).  ctpdijo  comes  from  •\/  I^J  to  sweep  away,  so 
also  NH.,  Ar.,  Aram.,  and  is  translated  either  clods,  AE.,  Ki.,  AV.,  RV. 
or  shovels,  BDB.,  et  at.  The  transl.  clods  would  make  sense  but  it  is 
etymologically  indefensible,  since  both  the  root  and  the  noun  in  Heb., 
NH.,  Aram.,  Ar,  mean  to  sweep  away,  and  the  instrument  with  which 
this  is  done,  shovel,  hoe  or  broom,  besom,  cf.  NH.  no-ijr,  Aram,  ma- 
grafta',  Ar.  migrafatun.  "  The  Ar.  gurf  does  not  mean  gleba  terrce  (Ke.), 
but  (Lane,  Arab.  Lex.,  p.  411),  the  water-worn  bank  of  a  stream.  Clod 
(Heb.  2i-y,  Jb.  XXI,  33,  XXXVIII,  38)  would  not  be  a  probable  gen- 
eralisation even  of  a  word  signifying  properly,  masses  of  earth  swept 
away  by  a  stream"  (Dr.)  or  of  a  word  denoting  the  overhanging  edge 
of  the  border  of  a  stream  or  hollow  road.  The  transl.  shovels  (hoes), 
though  etymologically  correct,  makes  no  sense:  the  grains  of  seed  shrivel 
under  their  shovels!  Stei.  emends,  therefore,  onipDnjD  by  Dn^jn,  their 
clods,  cf.  Jb.  21"  38'*,  and  translates  the  seeds  shrivel  under  their  clods. 
If  the  text  is  to  be  emended  at  all  this  is  the  best  emendation,  but  v.  i. 
None  of  the  Vrss.  knew  the  meaning  of  this  line.  On  the  basis  of  (S^naq 
i(TKlpTi)(Tav  dafidXeis  iirl  rats  (pdrvais  avrCjv,  Merx  emended  nna  iro 
on^nnn  (?)  nnn.  But  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  rnn  and  for  the  change 
of  on^ncijo  to  Dn<pnN.  Besides  is'd  is  hardly  the  word  Me.  wants,  for 
it  does  not  express  the  distress  of  the  animals  before  the  (empt}'?)  man- 
gers.    Elsewhere  the  vb.  is  used  of  gambolling  or  proud  prancing. 


I''-^"  91 

Moreover,  the  animals  are  not  dealt  with  till  v.  's,  their  mention  here  is 
premature.  This  tells  also  against  B.  Marti  tries  to  meet  these  ob- 
jections by  reading  Dn''nnN  h';_  (nn^s)  3'>'3"ib  ie'''3in  the  mules  stand  dis- 
appointed by  their  mangers,  and  by  transposing  this  to  the  beginning  of 
V.  ".  But  the  difficulty  of  jo  rnn  remains.  It  is  easier  to  believe  that 
05  translated  rnn  freely  by  ivl  than  to  explain  how  S;'  was  changed  to 
pnp.  Now.'^  reconstructs  the  text  of  <S  c^ivrci.  nnn  nnc  hv)Odv^  and 
adopts  this  with  the  single  change  of  nn^s  or  0''"!10  for  rns.  But 
while  graphically  easier,  this  text  is  also  improbable.  Van  H.  reads 
nniD  for  nms  and  translates,  les  'pressoirs '  se  sont  encrasses  sous  leur 
immondices.  But  is  it  true  that  the  wine-presses  rot  or  become  mouldy — 
this  is  the  meaning  of  C'b>*  which  van  H.  compares,  not  simply  become 
soiled! — during  a  season  of  protracted  drought? — From  this  survey  it  is 
clear  that  the  text  of  v.  '^»  is  corrupt,  and  meaningless  as  it  stands.  But 
the  matter  is  not  hopeless  because  an  old  scribe  or  editor  had  noticed  it 
also  and  had  put  directly  after  it  the  correct  text,  perhaps  from  a  better 
ms.  The  old  text,  which  in  places  had  become  illegible  and  which  had 
therefore  been  so  badly  copied,  he  left  also,  just  as  the  scribe  in  Ho. 
9"  wrote  down  a  text  which  he  could  not  quite  make  out,  as  he  himself 
tells  us  \"i'NT  •m'NS  as  I  see,  so  the  scribe  in  Jo.  i'^  wrote  down  the  text 
as  he  could  make  it  out,  without,  however,  adding  ipiNT  ns'ND.  And 
just  as  in  Ho.  9"  another  scribe  wrote  directiy  after  the  corrupt  line, 
nij3  nSinB>  -nsS  onss  the  correct  text  rja  Jin  Sk  N^'inS  d^-isn,  so  here 
also  oninouD  rnn  rma  ^V2•;  is  followed  by  the  correct  reading  T\^-\^n  ica>j 
nnjD  iDinj.  Cf.  Bewer,  JBL.,  1911,  p.  61/.  V. '"»  must  therefore  not 
be  corrected  but  omitted,  v.  "*>  contains  the  correction. — rnjr:  C5  Xijvoi 
(Aq.,  S,  e,  drjffavpoi)  Me.  regards  this  as  original  =  mriJ,  but  rnjD 
is  preferable. 

18.  M  i^s^a  nnjNj  no  how  the  beasts  groan/  With  different  vocal- 
isation (6  reads  tI  diro9-^ffo/iev  eavrocs  =  nona  nn'^j  no  what  shall  we 
put  in  them?  i.  e.,  in  the  store-houses,  since  the  corn  has  failed.  This 
gives  a  very  satisfactory  conclusion  to  v.  •'  and  is  most  likely  the  correct 
reading,  so  Me.,  We.,  et  al.  h  was  sometimes  written,  sometimes  not, 
here  it  was  vsrongly  written  by  a  scribe  who  thought  it  was  ^n^?*;..  But 
this  never  occurs  elsewhere  with  animals,  and  though  it  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  an  impossible  reading,  <8  is  more  probable.  ^;  =  since. — ijjj 
Ni.  from  ^o,  cf.  Ex.  14'  where  Israel  wanders  aimlessly  about,  here  it  is 
the  cattle  that  do  not  know  where  to  find  pasture.  Ci  iKkav<Tav  =  un. 
Me.  adopts  this,  but  the  weeping  of  animals  is  grotesque,  and  occurs  no- 
where in  OT.  The  translator  of  the  Dodekapropheton  did  not  recog- 
nise 113  in  Mi.  7*  either,  onjiao  K\avdfjLol  avrCiv.  Ex.  14'  Is.  22'  Est. 
315  are  correctly  translated  by  (S.  Siev.  om.  an*?  n>no  px  '3  as  a  prosaic 
gloss. — 10CNJ  Ni.  only  here,  vb.  never  elsewhere  used  of  animals.  If 
orig.  it  would  mean  suffer  punishment  (as  a  consequence  of  guilt),  Ger- 


92  JOEL 

man:  biissen  miissen.  But  (5  ■^(pavlffOrjcrav,  &  B  disperierunt  read  icc'j 
ore  OToJe  desolate  or  j^anrf  aghast  {cf.  Ho.  5"  iH  ices-,  ®  inr^,  also  Ho. 
10'  14';  cf.  also  nnjxj  and  r^njj  above).  Though  dsb'  is  elsewhere  not 
used  of  animals,  this  is  evidently  the  correcc  reading.  So  also  Me.,  We., 
Marti,  et  al.  In  La.  4'  it  is  used  of  men  who  have  nothing  to  eat,  here 
of  animals.  Its  meaning  is  therefore  virtually  =  they  are  famished  or 
perish  with  hunger  and  thirst,  cf.  also  Ez.  4".  Siev.  adds  ncs?. — 19. 
N-(|iN  is  not  correct,  for  it  is  not  the  prophet  but  the  animals  that  cry  to 
Yahweh,  as  the  parall.  in  v.  2"  shows,  cf.  also  Jon.  3'-  '.  Arm.  ms. 
(HP.)  §o-f)ffovTai,  Siev.  iN-(p,  certainly  correct.  Du.  n^i"'.  V.  "^«  = 
v.  ^'"'P.  niNJ  pi.  cstr.  of  mj  as  usual,  mj  Zp.  2*;  11  wrongly  speciosa 
as  if  from  niKj.  1213  without  art.  also  2«,  with  art.  1*0. — 20.  mcna 
though  the  pi.  is  not  impossible,  Ges.  ^'"'',  it  is  better  to  read  the 
sg.  ric^D,  or  ij-iyn  for  Jn;'.n,  2"  favours  the  latter. — Jip  only  here  and 
twice  in  '/'  42'  where  it  is  used  of  the  hind  and  of  the  soul.  C6  d.v^p\e\j/av, 
Aq.  irrpaffiibdrj,  B  quasi  area  siiiens  imbrem  suspexerunt,  this  is  intended 
as  the  transl.  of  iJ"i>n  in  accordance  with  Aq.;  Jer.  explains  hoc  enim 
uno  verba  significat  Aquila  discens,  iirpaaiwdt).  The  vb.  has  usually  been 
connected  with  jnj?,  from  which  ^'^i?^,  garden  terrace  or  bed,  is  derived, 
and  it  has  been  compared  with  the  Ar.  and  Eth.  root  J"\y  to  ascend, 
and  then  been  explained  as  =  to  ascend  (with  longing  and  desire)  = 
to  long  for,  <&  iTTivoOel,  H  desiderat  \p  42',  to  pant,  AV.,  RV.  But  it 
would  seem  as  if  this  J^y  had  nothing  to  do  with  njnj;,  and  the  meaning 
given  to  it  by  &,  the  Rabbis,  Luther,  Cal.,  et  al.,  to  cry  or  cry  aloud  is 
much  more  fitting  both  here  and  in  \p  42',  cf.  also  \p  1042'.  Ehr.,  Psalm- 
en,  ad  42',  connects  it  with  Ar.  'agga,  to  cry  aloud. — nir  mcn^  the  wild 
animals,  cf.  i  S.  17",  elsewhere  men  n^n. — Du.  appears  to  omit  T''?n, 
but  the  parall.  in  v.  «'»  argues  for  its  genuineness. — CD  ■•p''CN  also  ^  42', 
05  d<p4<reis  vddruv.  Ace.  to  Deissmann  this  was  the  technical  term  for 
irrigation-ditches  in  Egypt  in  the  Ptolemaic  and  Roman  periods. — V.^ob  p 
=  V.  '">a^  ^95.  114.  163.  186.  MOom.  it,  rightly,  for  it  is  only  a  doublet,  Siev., 
cf.  Gr.,  Marti. 


THE  INVASION  OF  THE  LOCUST  ARMY  (2*-"). 

TJtis  address  places  us  in  the  midst  of  the  excitement  over  the 
approach  of  the  locust  swarm.  The  alarm-horn  is  to  be  sounded 
on  the  temple  hill  to  warn  the  people  of  the  imminent  danger,  v.^^. 
Already  a  huge  army  of  locusts,  the  like  of  which  has  never  been 
seen,  has  settled  on  the  mountains,  v.^^^^,  and  has  begun  its  de- 
structive work,  which  is  so  awful  that  it  looks  as  if  a  fire  had  swept 


2'- '  93 

ffver  the  country  wherever  they  have  been,  v. '.  Vividly,  Joel  de- 
scribes the  appearance  of  the  locust  army  and  its  speed,  v.  ^,  the 
noise  it  makes  when  it  marches  and  when  it  forages,  v.  ^^,  its  well- 
ordered  and  irresistible  advance,  w.^^-  ''•  *,  and  its  attack  upon 
the  city,  v.  ^.  Then  after  this  graphic  and  rapid  description  he 
calls  to  repentance;  even  now  it  is  not  too  late  to  implore  Yahweh 
for  mercy  for  He  is  gracious  and  may  yet  be  prevailed  upon  to 
leave  enough  at  least  for  the  daily  sacrifices,  vv.  *^". 

The  interpolator  had  explained  the  locusts  in  i*^  as  the  vanguard 
of  the  day  of  Yahweh  whose  approach  they  heralded.  In  this  ad- 
dress, 2*"^^,  he  has  again  inserted  several  verses  (^b.  zaa.  e.  lo.  u^ 
which  connect  the  locust  plague  with  the  day  of  Yahweh.  See 
p.  50. 

The  two  addresses,  i^^"  and  2*"",  are  complete  in  themselves  and 
independent  of  each  other;  and  it  is  certain  that  they  were  not  de- 
livered at  the  same  time.  In  ch.  i  the  locusts  had  already  come, 
swarm  after  swarm,  and  the  basis  of  the  appeal  to  Yahweh  is  the 
awful  condition  of  the  country  due  to  the  locusts  and  the  drought. 
Ch.  2  presents  a  different  phase  of  the  plague.  The  drought  is  not 
mentioned,  but  the  locusts  are  advancing  and  have  begun  their 
destructive  work,  quickly  reducing  the  fruitful  landscape  to  a 
desolate  wilderness.  It  appears  thus  to  have  been  the  first  swarm 
of  the  several  that  succeeded  each  other.  The  visitation  seems 
to  Joel  altogether  unprecedented  and  he  takes  pains  to  describe 
the  appearance  and  the  march  of  this  strange  army  in  detail.  The 
swarm  here  described  cannot  have  come  after  the  situation  had 
become  as  depicted  in  ch.  i.  In  view  of  this  it  is  most  reasonable 
to  see  in  v."''  an  expression  of  the  hope  that  by  Yahweh's  gracious 
intervention  enough  may  yet  be  left  for  the  daily  sacrifices  whose 
performance  Joel  sees  threatened,  while  in  ch.  i  they  had  already 
been  suspended.  In  point  of  time  2^""  was  therefore  delivered 
earlier  than  i^'^",  but  whether  Joel  himself  or  an  editor  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  present  arrangement  cannot  be  decided.  Possibly  the 
wrong  interpretation  of  2^^^'  as  part  of  the  address  of  2^""  had 
something  to  do  with  it,  see  on  2^^^''.  There  can,  however,  be  no 
question  that  from  a  purely  literary  point  of  view  ch.  i  serves  as 
a  better  introduction  than  ch,  2. 


94  JOEL 

WARNING    OF    AN   UNPARALLELED   LOCUST   INVA- 
SION  AND   ITS   RAVAGES   (2^-^). 

'•  Blow  the  horn  in  Zion, 

sound  the  alarm  on  My  holy  mountain! 
Let  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  tremble! 

I" For  the  day  of  Yahwek  conies,  for  it  is  near, 
*•  A  day  of  darkness  and  gloom, 

A  day  of  clouds  and  deep  darkness/"]  ■ 

For  black  on  the  mountains  is  scattered 

a  great  and  powerful  people. 
Its  like  has  not  been  from  of  old, 

nor  shall  be  again  after  it. 
For  years  of  generation  upon  generation. 

»■  Before  them  the  fire  devours, 

and  behind  them  burns  a  flame! 
Like  the  garden  of  Eden  is  the  land  before  them, 

but  a  desolate  desert  behind  them. 
And  nothing  whatever  escapes  them! 

Four  strs.,  of  which  the  second  is  an  insertion,  (i)  consists  of  a  hexameter  +  a 
trimeter,  (2)  of  a  trimeter  +  a  hexameter  (or  if  read  more  rapidly  a  tetrameter), 
(3)  and  (4)  of  two  hexameters  followed  by  a  trimeter,  each.  The  trimeter  in  (3) 
and  (4)  may  be  secondary. 

1-2.  One  sometimes  has  the  feeling  that  Joel  was  a  priest,  for 
his  interest  in  the  priests  and  in  the  temple  services  was  very  great. 
But  there  is  nothing  to  prove  this. — 1.  Again  he  addresses  the 
priests,  though  he  does  not  mention  them  by  name,  Sound  the  horn 
in  Zion,  and  give  the  alarm  in  My  holy  mountain!  From  the 
height  of  the  temple  hill  the  alarm  is  to  be  sounded,  by  the  blast 
of  the  horn  and  perhaps  also  by  shouting,  so  that  Jerusalem  and 
the  surrounding  parts  may  be  warned  of  the  impending  danger. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  the  people  who  were  to  be  warned 
lived  all  in  Jerusalem  or  so  near  by  that  they  could  all  hear  the 
sound  of  the  alarm-horn,  for  the  signal  was  doubtless  passed  from 
place  to  place,  beginning  on  the  temple  hill.  Of  course,  it  is  only 
the  land  of  Yahweh  that  is  to  be  thus  warned.  The  inevitable  re- 
sult of  the  alarm  is  expressed  here  by  a  further  jussive,  let  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  land  tremble!    CJ.  Am.  3®,  Shall  the  alarm-horn  be 


^  95 

sounded  in  a  city  and  the  people  not  he  afraid  ?  The  people  would 
usually  flock  to  the  fortified  cities,  here  Jerusalem,  -cf.  Je.  6^^,  to  es- 
cape the  threatened  danger.  The  reason  for  calling  them  together 
to  Jerusalem  is  not  stated,  but  it  is  clear  from  2^^^-  i".  The 
alarm-horn,  shophdr,  was  the  curved  horn  of  a  cow  or  ram  used  as 
a  musical  instrument.  The  prophet  speaks  this  summons  in  the 
name  of  Yahweh,  for  he  says  in  My  holy  mountain.  This  is  a  slight 
indication  of  the  secondary  character  of  v.  ^"^^  ^^",  where  Yahweh  is 
referred  to  in  the  3d  pers.  For  other  arguments  see  p.  50.  The 
interpolator  gives  the  approach  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  as  the  reason 
for  sounding  the  alarm  and  for  the  fear  of  the  people, /or  the  day  of 
Yahweh  comes,  for  it  is  near!  Cf.  i^^  4".  He  continues  with  a 
literal  quotation  from  Zp.  i'^. — 2.  A.  day  of  darkness  and  gloom, 
a  day  of  clouds  and  deep  darkness,  cf.  for  the  latter  part  also  Ez. 
34".  This  is  the  prophetic  conception  of  the  day  of  Yahweh,  cf. 
Am.  5^^-20.  Darkness  and  gloom  are  figurative  for  disaster  and  de- 
spair. In  Zp.  i^^  the  phrases  had  nothing  to  do  with  locusts.  And 
indeed  the  terms  are  too  strong  for  a  locust  swarm.  Observers 
speak  frequently  of  the  eclipse-like  hiding  of  the  sun  by  a  locust 
swarm,  but  never  in  this  exaggerated  manner  of  thick  darkness. 
It  need  nevertheless  not  be  denied  that  the  interpolator  may  have 
used  these  particular  phrases  because  "a  flight  of  locusts,  as  it  ap- 
proaches, presents  the  appearance  of  a  black  cloud,  which,  as  it 
passes,  obscures  the  sun,  and  even  sometimes  darkens  the  whole 
sky"  (Dr.).  But  this  alone  does  not  explain  the  use  of  these  strong 
terms.  The  writer  took  them  from  the  prophetic  vocabulary.  Un- 
fortunately, by  inserting  his  interpolation  at  just  this  point  he  has 
created  the  impression,  as  if  he  identified  the  day  of  the  locusts 
with  the  day  of  Yahweh,  which  he  clearly  does  not  according  to  i^^. 
— Joel  thought  only  of  the  locusts  and  not  of  the  day  of  Yahweh 
and  he  meant  to  warn  the  people  of  the  approach  of  their  terrible 
army,  as  blackness,  darkness,  a  great  and  powerful  nation  is  spread 
out  on  the  mountains.  They  are  so  numerous  that  the  mountains  are 
black  with  them.  In  Ex.  10^^  there  were  so  many  "that  the  land 
was  darkened"  as  they  covered  the  face  of  the  whole  land.  Cf. 
Thomson,  The  iMnd  and  the  Book,  p.  416/.,  "The  whole  face  of  the 
mountain  [Lebanon]  was  black  with  them."    The  point  emphasised 


96  JOEL 

here  is  the  great  multitude.  This  seems  a  much  better  reading  than 
the  transl.  as  daan  spread  on  the  mountains,  though  the  descriptions 
by  travellers  of  the  shining  yellow  brightness  caused  by  the  reflec- 
tion of  the  rays  of  the  sun  on  the  wings  of  the  locusts  have  often 
been  adduced  for  the  lifelikeness  of  this  comparison.  GASm., 
e.  g.,  says,  p.  404,  "No  one  who  has  seen  a  cloud  of  locusts  can 
question  the  realism  even  of  this  picture:  the  heavy  gloom  of  the 
immeasurable  mass  of  them,  shot  by  gleams  of  light  where  a  few 
of  the  sun's  imprisoned  beams  have  broken  through  or  across  the 
storm  of  lustrous  wings.  This  is  like  dawn  beaten  down  on  the 
hill-tops,  and  crushed  by  rolling  masses  of  cloud  in  conspiracy  to 
prolong  the  night."  But  this  is  a  description  of  a  flying  locust 
swarm,  here  they  are  on  the  ground,  on  the  mountains,  see 
also  V.  '\  On  the  mountains  defines  the  place  where  the  locusts  are 
spread  out,  not  where  the  dawn  is.  It  is  such  an  awful  swarm  that 
it  has  no  parallel  in  history,  cf.  i^-  ^,  the  like  of  it  has  never  been  be- 
fore, nor  shall  be  any  more  afterward  (lit.  after  it)  all  through  (lit.  to) 
the  years  of  generation  after  (lit.  and)  generation.  The  parallel  to 
the  first  part  of  this  in  Ex.  10"  shows  that  this  is  merely  a  strong 
and  common  way  of  expressing  the  extraordinary  and  unique  char- 
acter of  the  visitation.  Joel  did  not  think  of  the  Exodus  passage 
when  he  wrote  this. — 3.  He  likens  the  destruction  caused  by  the 
locusts  to  a  fire  which  precedes  and  follows  them  on  their  march: 
Afire  devours  before  them,  and  aflame  burns  after  thctn.  This  figure 
is  so  appropriate  for  the  devastation  of  the  country  by  the  locusts 
that  travellers  have  frequently  employed  it.*  Joel  describes  the 
locusts  as  an  invading  army  in  vv.  ^-  ^  ^-  and  the  figure  must  have 
been  present  in  his  mind  also  in  v.  ^.  As  a  host  of  barbarians  in- 
vades the  country,  burning,  destroying  and  pillaging  everything, 
so  also  these  locusts.     Quickly  the  fertile  fields  disappear,  like 

*  "  Wherever  they  come,  the  ground  seems  burned,  as  it  were  with  fire."  "  I  have  myself  observed 
that  the  places  where  they  had  browsed  were  as  scorched  as  if  the  fire  had  passed  there."  "  They 
covered  a  square  mile  so  completely,  that  it  appeared,  at  a  little  distance,  to  have  been  burned  and 
strewn  over  with  brown  ashes."  (Quoted  by  Pu.)  Of  the  locust  plague  in  Palestine  on  June 
i?-iS,  i8'J5,  an  observer  remarked,"  the  trees  are  as  barren  as  in  England  in  winter,  but  it  looks 
as  if  the  whole  country  had  been  burnt  by  fire"  (£«/<•.?.  Gazette,  1865,  p.  55,  quoted  by  Dr.). 
"Bamboo  groves  have  been  stripped  of  their  leaves  and  left  standing  like  saplings  after  a  rapid 
bush  fire,  .  .  .  and  grass  h.Ts  been  devoured  so  that  the  bare  ground  appeared  as  if  burned" 
(.Standard,  Dec.  25,  1896,  quoted  by  Dr.). 


2'- '  97 

the  garden  of  Eden  the  land  was  before  them,  but  after  them  it  is  a 
desolate  wilderness!  The  two  extremes  of  wonderful  fertility  and 
absolute  barrenness  are  used  quite  effectively.  For  the  garden  of 
Eden,  with  its  proverbial  fruitfulness,  cf.  Gn.  2®,  for  the  same  com- 
parison see  Ez.  36^  and  Gn.  13^"  (the  garden  of  Yahweh),  Is.  51' 
(the  garden  of  Yahweh  parall.  to  Eden) ;  for  the  trees  of  Eden,  cf. 
Ez.  31^-  ^®-  ^^.  Again  observers  vouch  for  the  accuracy  of  the  de- 
scription of  the  destruction.*  It  is  clear  that  Joel  meant  here  the 
devastation  caused  by  the  locusts,  and  not  the  drought  which  ace. 
to  ch.  I  accompanied  and  accentuated  the  plague.  The  drought 
cannot  yet  have  set  in  at  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  this  swarm, 
which  must  have  been  the  first  of  the  series,  if  we  are  to  take  Joel's 
words  at  all  seriously.  And  nothing  whatever  escapes  them  is  again 
true  to  life.f 


THE  ADVANCE  AND  ATTACK  OF  THE  LOCUST 
ARMY  (2'-'). 

*■  Their  appearance  is  as  the  appearance  of  horses, 

and  like  war-horses  they  run. 
'•  Like  the  ratth"ng  of  chariots  (it  sounds) 

(as)  they  leap  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains, 

Like  the  crackling  of  a  flame  of  fire 

that  devours  stubble. 
(They  are)  like  a  powerful  nation, 

set  in  battle-array. 

[3.  Nations  are  in  anguish  before  them 
all  faces  grow  crimson.] 


*  "Everywhere,  where  their  legions  march,  verdure  disappears  from  the  country,  like  a  curtain 
which  is  folded  up;  trees  and  plants  stripped  of  leaves  and  reduced  to  their  branches  and  stalks, 
substitute,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  the  dreary  spectacle  of  winter  for  the  rich  scenes  of  spring." 
"Desdlation  and  famine  mark  their  progress,  all  the  expectation  of  the  husbandman  vanishes; 
his  fields,  which  the  rising  sun  beheld  covered  with  luxuriance,  are  before  evening  a  desert." 
(Quoted  by  Pu.) 

t  "They  ate  every  herb  of  the  land,  and  all  the  fruit  of  the  trees  which  the  hail  had  left :  and  there 
remained  not  any  green  thing,  either  tree  or  herb  of  the  field,  through  all  the  land  of  Egypt"  (Ex. 
io'»).  "\Miere  these  destructive  swarms  alight,  not  a  leaf  is  left  upon  the  trees,  a  blade  of  grass  in 
the  pastures,  nor  an  ear  of  com  in  the  field."  "On  whatever  spot  they  fall,  the  whole  vegetable 
produce  disappears.  Nothing  escapes  them,  from  the  leaves  of  the  forest  to  the  herbs  on  the  plain." 
(Quoted  by  Pu.) 


98  JOEL 

'•  Like  warriors  they  run, 

like  soldiers  they  advance, 
They  march  each  in  his  own  way, 
and  do  not  entangle  their  paths. 

*•  None  pushes  the  other. 

each  goes  on  his  own  track, 
They  plunge  through  the  weapons 
and  are  not  held  back. 

••  They  rush  upon  the  city, 
they  run  upon  the  walls, 
They  climb  into  the  houses, 

through  the  windows  they  enter. 

Five  strs.,  (i)  consists  of  a  hexameter  +  a  pentameter,  (2)  of  two  tetrameters; 
V.  '  is  an  inserted  hexameter,  (3)  of  a  tetrameter  +  a  hexameter,  (4)  of  a  hexameter 
+  a  tetrameter,  (5)  of  two  tetrameters  (staccato  style). 

4.  Now  this  army  is  described  more  in  detail,  and  first  of  all,  the 
appearance  of  the  single  locusts.  The  head  of  a  locust  looks  so 
much  like  that  of  a  horse  that  Joel  says  tlieir  appearance  is  as  the 
appearance  of  Jiorses.  "  If  one  carefully  considers  the  head  of  the 
locust,"  says  Theodoret,  "he  will  find  it  exceedingly  like  that  of  a 
horse."  The  Arabs  use  the  same  metaphor  to  this  day,  cf.  Tris- 
tram, Nat.  Hist.  Bib.,  p.  314,  and  the  Germans  call  the  locust 
Heupferd,  the  Italians  cavallette.  Note  also  the  description  in 
Rev.  9'',  "and  the  shapes  of  the  locusts  were  like  unto  horses  pre- 
pared for  war."  But  not  only  their  appearance  but  also  their 
speed  is  likened  to  that  of  horses,  and  like  war-horses  they  run.  In 
Jb.  39^"  the  swiftness  of  the  horse  is  compared  to  that  of  the  locust, 
hast  thou  given  tJie  horse  his  might,  .  .  .  hast  thou  made  him  to  leap 
as  a  locust?  There  are  a  number  of  archaic  imperfect  forms  in 
this  and  the  foil,  verses.  They  are  used  purposely  to  bring  out  the 
whole  weight  and  power  of  the  attack,  they  deepen  the  impression 
of  terror  and  awe. — 5.  The  noise  made  by  the  flight  of  a  vast  locust 
swarm  is  compared  to  the  rattling  of  swiftly  moving  chariots. 
Like  the  rattling  of  chariots  {it  sounds  as)  they  leap  on  the  tops  of  the 
mountains.  The  same  comparison  is  made  in  Rev.  9®,  And  the 
sound  of  their  wings  was  as  the  sound  of  chariots,  of  many  horses 
rushing  to  war.     Modern  observers  have  also  been  impressed  by 


2"-"  99 

the  great  noise  the  advancing  swarm  makes*  It  is,  of  course,  the 
locusts  that  leap  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  where  Joel  had  seen 
them  in  v. ',  and  not  the  chariots,  which  do  not  leap  on  or  over 
mountain  tops.  The  noise  the  locusts  make  when  feeding  is  com- 
pared to  the  crackling  of  a  fire:  (//  sounds)  like  the  crackling  of  a 
fame  of  fire  that  devours  stubble.  The  same  comparison  is  made  by 
ancient  and  modem  observers.f  Now  they  approach  and  they  ap- 
pear like  a  strong  nation — set  in  battle  array,  ready  for  the  attack. 
— 6.  This  verse  interrupts  the  description  of  the  march  of  the 
locusts  which  began  in  v.  '^  and  is  continued  in  v.  ^.  The  mention 
of  the  nations  suggests  that  it  was  inserted  by  the  day  of  Yahweh 
interpolator.  See  p.  50.  The  interpolator  connects  the  locust 
plague  so  closely  with  the  day  of  Yahweh,  cf.  also  vv.  ^°-  ",  that 
he  can  speak  of  nations  as  writhing  in  terror  at  the  approach  of  the 
awful  army,  while  Joel  would  have  thought  only  of  Judah.  If  the 
verse  should,  however,  after  all  be  genuine,  we  must  read  with  a 
slight  change,  before  them  hearts  are  in  anguish, — all  faces  grow 
crimson,  and  the  impression  of  great  terror  caused  by  the  locusts 
would  be  portrayed.  We  may  then  compare  the  words  of  Pliny, 
Nat.  Hist.,  XI,  35,  "they  overshadow  the  sim,  the  nations  looking 
up  with  anxiety,  lest  they  should  cover  their  lands,"  and  of  Burck- 
hardt,  Notes,  II,  91,  "the  Bedouins  who  occupy  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai  are  frequently  driven  to  despair  by  the  multitude  of  locusts 
which  constitute  a  land  plague"  (Pu.). — 7.  The  description  of  the 
march  of  the  attacking  host  is  now  continued.  Like  warriors  they 
run,  as  they  charge,  like  soldiers  they  advance.  In  perfect  order,  like 
a  regular,  disciplined  army,  they  march,  every  one  in  his  own  way, 
and  they  do  not  entangle  their  paths.  There  is  no  confusion  in  their 
ranks  which  would  impede  their  rapid  advance.  They  move  in 
straight  lines,  none  crossing  the  other's  track.  The  locusts  have 
no  king,  yet  go  they  forth  all  of  them  in  bands,  says  Pr.  30^^. — 8. 

♦  "  What  strikes  every  one  as  they  approach  is  the  strange  rustling  of  millions  on  millions  of  crisp 
wings." — C.  Home,  in  Hardwicke's  5<: ien^rf  Gossip,  187 1,  p.  80  (Dr.).  Foskal  compares  it  to  the 
sound  of  a  great  cataract,  Descript.  animal.,  p.  87  (van  H.).  Thomson,  /.  c,  p.  416  /.,  wrote,  "  The 
noise  made  by  them  in  marching  and  foraging  was  like  that  of  a  heavy  shower  falling  on  a  distant 
forest."  G  ASm.  speaks  of  it  as  "  less  like  the  whirring  of  wings  than  the  rattle  of  hail  or  the  crack- 
ling of  bush  on  fire,"  p.  399. 

t  E.  g.,  by  Cyril,  diim  prostratas  fruges  dentibus  commolunt,ceu  flammis  venlo  diffundente  crepi- 
lanlibus ;  by  Riley,  Riverside  Nat.  Hist.,  II,  p.  197,  who  likens  it  to  "  the  crackling  of  a  prairie  fire  "; 
by  Newman  Hist,  oj  Insects,  V,  i,  who  says,  "The  sound  of  their  feeding,  when  in  sw^arms,  is  as 
the  rushing  of  flames  driven  by  the  wind"  (Dr.). 


lOO  JOEL 

There  is  no  crowding,  none  pushes  the  other,  lit.  his  brother,  each 
goes  in  his  own  track.  This  remarkable  order  and  regularity  in 
their  march  with  its  soldier-like  precision  have  often  been  ob- 
served.* To  this  regularity  they  add  a  sheer  irresistible  power  of 
attack:  and  they  thrust  themselves,  or  plunge  through  the  weapons 
with  which  the  people  try  to  check  their  advance.  All  efforts 
are  vain,  ihey  are  not  stopped.^ — 9.  They  rush  upon  the  city,  they 
(scale  and)  run  upon  the  walls,  they  climb  up  into  the  houses, 
they  enter  through  the  windows.^  The  Eastern  windows  have  no 
glass,  they  are  at  most  latticed.  So  "they  flood  through  the 
open,  unglazed  windows  and  lattices;  nothing  can  keep  them 
out,"  GASm.,  p.  403. §  The  staccato  character  of  the  rhythm 
is  evidently  intended,  it  brings  out  the  movement  of  the  advanc- 
ing and  attacking  hosts  with  great  realism.  The  rhythmic  tone 
corresponds  exactly  to  the  graphic  description  and  heightens  its 
effect. 

*  Jerome  wrote,  "  This  we  have  seen  lately  in  this  province  [Palestine].  For  when  the  hosts  of 
locusts  came,  and  filled  the  air  between  heaven  and  earth,  they  flew,  by  the  disposal  of  Gf.d's  or- 
daining in  such  order,  as  to  hold  each  his  place,  like  the  minute  pieces  of  mosaic,  fixed  in  the  pave- 
ment by  the  artist's  hands  so  as  not  to  incline  to  one  another  a  hair's  breadth."  Moricr,  /.  c, 
pp.  98  f}.,  described  them  thus,  "They  seemed  to  be  impelled  by  one  common  instinct,  and 
moved  in  one  body,  which  had  the  appearance  of  being  organised  by  a  leader.  .  .  .  They  seemed 
to  march  in  regular  battalions,  crawling  over  everything  that  lay  in  their  passage,  in  one  straight 
front"  (Pu.).  Another  observed,  "The  roads  were  covered  with  them,  all  marching  and  in  ngular 
lines,  like  armies  of  soldiers,  with  their  leaders  in  front,"  Jonrn.  Sacr.  Lit.,  Oct.,  1865,  pp.  235  /. 
(Dr.).  GASm.  saw  that  "  though  they  drifted  before  the  wind  there  was  no  confusion  in  their 
ranks.     They  sailed  in  unbroken  lines,  sometimes  straight,  sometimes  wa\'y,"  p.  399. 

t  "  All  the  opposition  of  man  to  resist  their  progress  was  in  vain.  .  .  .  Though  our  men  broke 
their  ranks  for  a  moment,  no  sooner  had  they  passed  the  men  than  they  closed  again,  and 
marched  forward  through  hedges  and  ditches  as  before,"  Journ.  Sacr.  Lit.,  Oct.,  1865,  pp.  235  /. 
(Dr.).  Thomson,  /.  c,  pp.  296  fj.,  gives  this  vivid  description,  "Toward  the  end  of  May  we  heard 
that  thousands  of  young  locusts  were  on  their  march  up  the  valley  toward  our  village:  we  accord- 
ingly went  forth  to  meet  them,  hoping  to  stop  their  progress,  or  at  least  to  turn  aside  their  line  of 
march.  .  .  .  Their  number  was  astounding:  the  whole  face  of  the  mountain  was  black  with  them. 
On  they  came  like  a  disciplined  army.  We  dug  trenches  and  kindled  fires,  and  beat  and  burnt 
to  death  heaps  upon  heaps,  but  the  effort  was  utterly  useless.  They  cliarged  up  tlic  mountain 
side,  and  climbed  over  rocks,  walls,  ditches,  and  hedges,  tliose  behind  coming  up  and  passing  over 
the  masses  already  killed."  Shaw,  Travels  in  Barbary,  pp.  256  ff.,  wrote  of  similar  endeavours 
to  stop  the  progress  of  the  locusts.  But  "  the  trenches  were  quickly  filled  up,  and  the  fires  put 
out  by  infinite  swarms  succeeding  one  another  ;  whilst  the  front  seemed  regardless  of  danger,  and 
the  rear  pressed  on  so  close  that  a  retreat  was  impossible  "  (Pu.). 

t  "We  have  seen  this  done,"  says  Theodoret,  "notby  enemies  only,  but  by  locustsalso.  For  not 
only  flying,  but  creeping  up  the  walls  also,  they  enter  the  houses  through  the  openings  for  light" 
(Pu.).  And  Bar-Hcbraeus  similarly,  "  A.D.,  784,  there  came  the  flying  locust,  and  wasted  the  com 
and  left  its  offspring ;  and  this  came  forth  and  crawled,  and  scaled  walls  and  entered  houses  by 
windows  and  doors"  (Pu.). 

§  "  They  entered  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  houses,  were  found  in  every  comer,  stuck  to  our 
clothes,  and  infested  our  food,"  Morier,  /.  c,  p.  100. 


2'-'  lOI 

1.  •\syv  alarm-horn,  cf.  Dr.'s  note  and  illustrations  on  Am.  2'. — ij?'''*^' 
some  mss.,  05 Bom.  1  conj. — itji''  juss.,  (&  itji^i,  (gBNQ*  ^^j  avyxvO'^(^<Tav, 
(6^  Kal  avvax^T^Tuffav,  so  #"  niarg,^  tjjg  same  confusion  in  210. — n3 
prtc.  not  pf.,  the  day  is  near,  but  has  not  yet  arrived.  Du.  transposes 
D«j?i  3T  Dj?  of  V.  *  after  n3  >3,  which  is  attractive  but  arbitrary. — 2.  Fol- 
lowing Abulwalid  and  Tanchumi,  Gr.,  Du.  point  more  correctly  '\hz'2  as 
darkness,  blackness,  cf.  La.  48. — The  reading  of  one  cod.  ^\^2^\  Vp  tfng 
seems  t6  be  due  to  Ho.  5'. — For  juss.  1?''''  read  ipii,  Mas.  pointing  is  per- 
haps due  to  scriptio  defectiva,  or  it  expresses  the  wish  that  it  may  not  occur 
again.  Siev.  om. — im  in  '«jb>  np  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  the 
parall.  oSu'n-jD  argues  for  its  genuineness. — 3.  nSoN  pf.  is  used  because 
of  the  following.  It  is  not  necessary  to  punctuate  n'^pi*.  naiSo  is  often 
the  technical  term  for  those  who  have  escaped  the  great  judgment,  cf.  Is. 
4*,  and  on  that  account,  probably,  Du.  om.  the  whole  clause  as  part  of 
the  day  of  Yahweh  interpolation  of  w.  't.  2_  jjj  also  connects  it  with  the 
day  of  Yahweh  ^''i'tt'i'?  .-13  n^S  2Nta'-r|Ni.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to 
take  no'iSfl  in  that  sense  here. — ^h  refers  back  to  oy,  v.  2,  nothing  has  es- 
caped them.  Gr.  suggests  ^i^,  but  that  gives  a  different  shade  of  meaning. 
1'^  has  the  force  of  i:cc  here,  Ki.,  AE.  The  pf.  nn^n  is  used  with  refer- 
ence to  the  preceding,  eji  used  for  emphasis,  and  nothing  whatever 
escapes  them;  cf.  German,  und  da  ist  auch  nichts,  das. — 4.  a^chij  (g 
iirirus,  H  equites,  AV.,  RV.  horsemen,  RVm.  war-horses.  The  latter 
is  preferable,  parall.  D''Did.  Note  the  solemn  archaic  endings,  cf, 
Holz.,  p.  120. — fixn>  (5  KaraSiw^ovrai,  in  v. '  dpafwvvrai;  Je.  49"  50** 
iKdni)Keiv,  (g  =  iJJ. — Siev.  om.  jr. — 5.  For  nnoiD  Sipo  Gr.,  Me.  read 
nn3iDD,  but  this  is  awkward,  for  chariots  do  not  leap  on  mountain  tops. 
— an-y  Q';2  C6  &  add  1  ai  from  v.  2. — inj.  the  usual  pointing  would  be 
Tiny,  but  cf.  Ges.  Ui.*.  n.  2^  j^5_  jj^  §  j^q^  ^a,  cstr.  st.  expresses  mar- 
shalled for  battle,  cf.  onja  ijQp  2  S.  13'',  y^o  ''IB'J,  Ps.  32'. 

6.  For  D^Dj?  Ehr.  suggests  cpn  which  would  be  parall.  to  D'JD-Sa,  cj 
Je.  4".  This  would  remove  the  strongest  objection  to  the  genuineness 
of  the  verse. — ■\n^<e  ixap  is  a  technical  term  for  exhibiting  signs  of  fear, 
but  its  exact  meaning  is  debated.  The  phrase  occurs  only  here  and 
Na.  2".  It  is  translated  (a)  all  faces  grow  pale,  Cred.,  Hi.,  Wii., 
RV.,  cf.  Je.  306  VP"]"!?  D''4?"'^?  •''3fDAi;  or  (b)  all  faces  grow  red,  crim- 
son, Ew.,  Me.,  We.,  cf.  an^je  D'anS  ijd  Is.  13';  or  (c)  all  faces  shall  gather 
blackness,  AV.,  GASm.  (a)  assumes  that  ]-2p  =  idn  as  in  v.  '"  o^aaioi 
on.o  lepN,  gather  in,  withdraw,  but  it  is  not  used  thus  elsewhere.  Tap  means 
to  collect,  gather  together,  idn  to  gather  in,  withdraw,  (a)  is  therefore 
contrary  to  usage,  itind  is  connected  with  ino  pot,  by  (6  "B.  Some 
derive  the  meaning  of  blackness  from  this  connection,  others  that  of  red- 
ness. The  latter  is  the  more  likely  and  (b)  is  the  most  probable  translation, 
all  faces  have  gathered,  acquired  redness.  SeeHpt.,  JBL.,  XXVI,  p.  43 
Others  derive  inxa  from  i.sij,  cf.  BDB.,  and  translate  beauty  or  color 


I02  JOEL 

Ehr.  translates  every  face  betrays  that  which  is  within.  Ginsburg:  nnj 
np.  ^  ws  irp6(TKavfjia  x^P"-^  seems  to  have  read  ;  with  a  noun  for  vijp. 
Pr  lo'  V'p  is  translated  (wrongly)  by  Kavfia. — 7.  nmn  is  omitted  by  Siev. 
because  of  the  metre  and  of  the  context,  in  which  the  climbing  of  the  wall 
is  premature,  cf.  v. '.  It  appears  indeed  to  be  due  to  dittog.,  the  copy- 
ist's eye  lighting  upon  ncnSs  after  he  had  written  iS>'\ — nSy  is  a  military 
term  for  marching,  advancing. — ]\C2'p  would  be  lit.  they  borrow  or  lend, 
but  the  explanation  they  do  not  lend  their  paths,  i.  e.,  each  one  main- 
tains his  own  and  does  not  allow  another  to  take  it,  does  not  sound  nat- 
ural. And  the  diflSculty  of  this  term  has  long  been  felt.  One  ms.  reads 
pt3j?3'>  nSi,  another  piaSy  nSi,  ®  explains  by  paoya.  (5  iKKKlvuaav,  ^, 
B  declinabunt  may  point  to  an  original  ]^\3\  (Gr.),  or  Jii^l  (Siev.),  or 
jiniy/^  (We.,  GASm.,  Marti).  The  last  is  the  most  probable.  To  read 
|inaj'>  is  not  so  advisable,  because  the  reading  in  Mi.  7'  where  it  oc- 
curs is  dub.,  though  the  root  meaning  of  naj?,  to  wind,  weave,  twist,  is 
well  established.  If  Syr.  'ahat  means  to  be  mixed  up,  entangled,  as 
van  H.  claims,  and  if  it  could  be  used  with  paths  {cf.  also  Scholz:  ver- 
binden,  complicare),  why  did  ^  not  use  it  in  his  translation? — oninnN  for 
oriimN. — 8.  ppnT"  (g  d^^^cTot,  Aq.  ffvvTpl\l/ei,  S  eXifei.  (6  =  some  Heb. 
mss.  Pfni'',  M  is  correct. — naj  is  used  here  to  avoid  the  repetition  of 
iff''H.  nSpp  is  usually  the  artificially  constructed  road,  here  parall.  to 
omniN  and  vdii,  GASm.:  "high-road,  as  if  defined  and  heaped  up  for 
him  alone."  It  is  simply  due  to  the  desire  to  avoid  the  same  term  in  close 
succession  that  Joel  uses  here  h'^dd. — ^  read  KaTa^apvv6iJ.€voi  iy  rotj 
iirXotsauTwi',  apparently =iD''Sr3)  Dn^S??  C"!??,  though  Wii.  thinks  that  iu 
Tots  6ir\ois  airrwv  is  =  inSaoa.  Van  H.  regards  (&  as  containing  the  better 
text  and  reads  inrpc3,  dans  son  equipement,  Du.  reads  with  his  sword. 
But  on  the  whole  M  is  preferable,  though  perhaps  not  altogether  correctly 
preser\'ed. — iSd^  nScn  ij?3i  (§  Kal  iv  tois  ^^Xeciv  avrup  ireffovvrai,  ap- 
parently n^3  for  n>"3,  so  Gr.,  Du.  nSc  occurs  only  in  late  writings,  Ne. 
^is  411 .  17  2  Ch.  23'"  326  Jb.  33'*  36'2;  it  is  significant  that  the  parall.  of  2  Ch. 
23'"  in  2  K.  II"  has  D''S3  instead.  It  is  used  collectively.  Cf.  At.  sila- 
hun,  German,  Geschoss,  missile.  Sbj  does  not  only  mean  to  fall  (uninten- 
tionally) but  also  to  threw  oneself,  plunge.  nStt'n  nya  is  similar  to  ^y3 
cjiSnn,  v.  ",  through  the  weapons,  i.  e.,  they  thrust  themselves  in  between 
the  weapons,  round  about  them,  RV.  U  sed  et  per  fenestras  cadent  is 
due  to  Jerome's  misunderstanding  of  his  teacher's  remark  that  (the 
construction  of)  rh'^ry  -\yz  is  the  same  as  D^jiSnn  npj  (v.  »),  cf.  Rahmer. 
Du.  translates,  sie  fallen  mit  Waffengewalt  ein.  Siev.  divides  differently, 
joining  jidS''  to  rhvr^  lio  and  taking  iSd>  with  the  foil.,  but  psS'  cannot 
be  spared  in  the  previous  line. — i>S3''  from  1/  }'X3  to  cut  off,  break  off. 
Usually  it  is  thought  that  the  obj.,  their  course,  is  omitted,  RV.,  though 
Marti  takes  it  absolutely  in  the  sense  that  they  burst  through  the  weap- 
ons and  then  close  up  their  ranks  at  once  so  that  there  is  no  break.     But 


2"-"  I03 

it  is  very  doubtful  whether  VX2^  can  mean  this  absolutely.  C5  /cai  ov  fir] 
avvT€\ecrdw<Tii>,  Q  <rvvTpi^i^<TovTai,  H  et  non  demolientur,  note  nSi,  which 
also  many  Heb.  mss.  have,  and  the  pass.,  some  Gk.  mss.  and  S  have  the  act. 
AE.,  et  al.,  explain  it  as  equivalent  to  ij?S3^  xS  ihey  are  not  wounded,  so 
AV.,  Gr.  emends  text  thus.  But  this  is  contrary  to  the  facts.  (3  con- 
nects yx3  with  j.'X3  gam,  |1dd  ^Sapn  nVi  and  they  take  no  money;  this 
is  due  to  Ws  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  locusts.  Ehr.  transl. 
and  fall  into  the  pond  atid  are  not  drowned,  comparing  nStf  with  Ar. 
salahun{?),  and  reading  V3a'_  for  U'pv  But  this  is  contrary  to  the 
facts.  Evidently  what  was  meant  is  that  nothing  can  stop  them  in  their 
march,  neither  weapons  nor  walls.  Since  it  is  doubtful  whether  i;?sai 
abs.  can  express  this  it  seems  advisable  to  read  nxjj^  nSi  for  lyxji  nS 
they  are  not  stopped.  Du.  takes  n^jja,  v.  ',  with  iyx3%  they  do  not  break 
off  at  the  city. — 9.  ipt;"  -j/  ppu  connected  with  p^U'  leg,  to  leg,  scamper, 
rush,  they  rush  upon  the  city,  3,  cf.  Is.  33^  &  they  climb,  Gr.  emends  ac- 
cordingly ipp'.  1/  pSo.  But  PP':^  may  mean  this,  without  emendation,  by 
virtue  of  its  connection  with  pir,  3  as  in  a^njj,  they  climb  into  the  city. 
One  may  question  whether  i'jJ3  was  then  not  rather  i^i^a  upon  the  wall, 
but  this  is  expressed  in  the  next  phrase  ]is"i^  nnina.  The  transl.  they 
rush  upon  the  city  is  therefore  preferable.  (&  iiriK-ZifipovTai  took  ipa"  from 
Aram,  prj  (Vol.). — 2Vd  generic  pi.,  05  &  correctly  translate  by  pi., 
Gr.  emends  a''3jJ3.  The  comparison  is  not  appropriate  here,  and  3jj3 
is  to  be  regarded  as  a  later  gloss  (Du.). 


INSERTION   CONCERNING   THE   DAY   OF   YAHWEH 

(2^«-  "). 

10-11.  These  verses  are  by  the  day  of  Yahweh  interpolator 
and  do  not  belong  to  Joel's  original  description  of  the  advance  and 
attack  of  the  locusts.  The  interpolator  connects  the  day  of  the 
locusts  so  closely  with  that  of  Yahweh  that  they  are  practically 
one.  The  locusts  are  here  not  the  precursors  and  heralds  of  the 
day  of  Yahweh  but  the  terrible  army  which  He  uses  to  execute  His 
will  on  His  great  day.  This  raises,  of  course,  at  once  the  question 
whether  the  interpolator  regarded  the  locusts  as  real  locusts  or 
rather  as  apocalyptic  forces.  See  p.  50.  The  accompanying 
cosmical  phenomena  here  described  are  not  caused  by  the  locusts. 
We  have  here  no  ordinary  thunder-storm  nor  the  frequently  wit- 
nessed darkening  of  the  sky  by  a  flight  of  locusts  but  the  tremen- 
dous convulsions  and  signs  accompanying  the  day  of  Yahweh. 


I04  JOEL 

'"■  ''Before  them  the  earth  trembles, 
the  heavens  quake. 
Sun  and  moon  grow  dark, 

and  the  stars  withdraw  their  splendour. 

»•  And  Yahweh  utters  His  voice 
be/ore  His  army. 
For  very  great  is  His  host 

yea,  powerful  he  that  executes  His  word. 

For  great  is  the  day  of  Yahweh  and  very  awful. 
And  who  can  endure  it?" 

Three  strs.,  (i)  and  (2)  consist  of  a  pentameter  -|-  a  hexameter  each,  (3)  of  a 
hexameter.     They  may  all  together  form  only  one  str. 

10.  Before  them  the  earth  trembles,  the  heavens  quake.  Preceded 
and  accompanied  by  these  great  manifestations  the  locusts  ap- 
proach. They  are  not  due  to  them.  To  heighten  the  fear  and 
deepen  the  awe,  the  earth  as  well  as  the  heavens  tremble.  The 
heavens  are  thought  of  as  a  solid  vault,  cf.  Am.  8^  2  S.  22*  Is. 
13^*.  The  sun  and  the  moon  grow  dar^  and  the  stars  withdraw 
their  brightness,  4'^.  A  terrible  thunder-storm  accompanies  the 
earthquake  on  this  "day  of  clouds  and  deep  darkness,"  2^. — 11. 
And  Yahweh  utters  His  voice  in  awful  thunder  peals,  for  the 
thunder  is  His  voice,  sometimes  also  the  nmibling  and  roar- 
ing of  the  earthquake;  but  here  it  is  evidently  the  thunder,  cf. 
Am.  i^  Hb.  3'"-  "  Ps.  18"  46'.  The  locusts  are  called  His  army, 
cf.  V.  ^,  and  the  agent  or  executor  of  His  word  or  purpose.  Before 
them  He  thunders  as  if  to  enhance  the  awful  noise  of  the  tramp  of 
His  vast  army.  They  are  coming  on  His  great  and  exceedingly  ter- 
rible day.  The  day  is  so  awful  that  the  prophet  wonders  who  may 
endure  it,  cf.  Mai.  3^-  ^^  Je.  10*".  Evidently  the  literal  locusts  are 
lost  sight  of  here,  and  they  are  no  longer  heralds  or  precursors  of 
Yahweh's  day,  but  the  agents  of  His  will. 

CALL  TO  HEARTFELT  REPENTANCE  (2'^-"). 

12-14.  This  call  to  repentance  originally  followed  directly  upon 
V. ".  As  it  now  stands  it  is  connected  with  the  interpolation  of  the 
day  of  Yahweh,  and  was  intended  by  the  interpolator  to  be  taken 


2"-"  105 

as  a  call  to  repent  even  now,  before  it  was  too  late,  though  the  day 
of  Yahweh  has  not  only  been  heralded  but  actually  begun,  in  order 
that  the  judgment  of  Yahweh  may  yet  be  averted.  Cf.  the  sim- 
ilar interpolation  in  i*^.  But  the  verses  themselves  give  no  hint 
of  such  an  intention  on  the  part  of  Joel.  It  is  the  extreme  of  the 
calamity  to  which  the  locust  swarms  might  reduce  them,  cj.  v.  "'^, 
that  he  seeks  to  avert  by  Yahweh 's  gracious  intervention  which  he 
hopes  to  secure  by  the  earnest,  whole-hearted  penitence  of  the 
people.     Of  the  day  of  Yahweh  he  does  not  speak. 

!*•  Yet  even  now,  is  Yahweh's  oracle, 
Turn  unto  Me  with  all  your  heart. 
With  fasting  and  weeping  and  mourning, 

!'•  but  rend  your  hearts  and  not  your  garments! 

And  return  to  Yahweh  your  God, 

for  gracious  is  He  and  compassionate. 

Long-suffering  and  plenteous  in  love, 
and  relents  of  the  evil. 

"•  Who  knows  but  He  will  turn  and  relent, 
and  leave  behind  Him  a  blessing, 
(For)  meal-offerings  and  libations 
to  Yahweh  your  God? 

Three  strs.,  (i)  and  (2)  consist  of  two  hexameters,  each,  (3)  of  a  hexameter  -}- 
a  tetrameter. 

12 .  But  even  now  he  believes  that  the  worst  may  be  averted .  The 
locust  swarms  are  working  terrible  havoc.  But  in  his  spirit  Joel 
feels  the  stirring  of  the  proph.  impulse  to  summon  the  people,  in 
Yahweh's  own  name.  Even  now,  says  Yahweh,  turn  unto  Me 
with  your  whole  heart!  "with  the  entire  force  of  your  moral  pur- 
pose" (Dr.).  The  heart  is  not  only  the  teat  of  the  emotions,  but 
also  of  the  intellect  and  the  will.  In  Deuteronomy  and  with  your 
whole  soul  is  usually  added.  It  is  important  to  note  the  stress  laid 
on  this  whole-hearted  repentance  because  Joel  joins  to  this  inner 
requirement  all  the  external  signs  of  penitence,  fasting,  weeping 
and  lamenting,  which  characterise  the  day  of  contrition  also  in 
Est.  4^.  He  does  not  speak  of  the  sins  of  the  people  at  all,  but  he 
appeals  to  the  general  feeling  of  sinfulness  which  expresses  itself 
in  these  modes  of  penitence. — 13.  But  while  he  endorses  these  ex- 
ternal modes  he  insists  on  the  repentance  of  the  heart,  rend  your 


io6  JOEL 

hearts  rather  than  your  garments  I  While  he  differs,  e.  g.,  from  Amos 
and  Isaiah  in  valuing  the  cult,  he  is  no  mere  ritualist.  He  recog- 
nises the  need  of  deep,  sincere  repentance  and  presses  it  home  in 
this  striking  manner.  C/.  Je.  4^  Ps.  5i^*Ez.  36^'Zc.  7'^  Rending 
of  the  garments  was  a  sign  of  grief,  cf.  Lev.  13'^  Je.  36^^  But  it 
might  be  only  outward  and  formal.  That  is  not  enough.  So  far 
Yahweh  had  spoken.  Now  the  prophet  expands  and  interprets 
this  call.  And  turn  to  Yahweh  your  God,  for  He  is  gracious  and 
full  of  compassion,  slow  to  anger  and  of  great  loving  kindness.  The 
reason  for  hope  even  in  extremis  lies  in  the  wonderfully  gracious 
character  of  Yahweh.  The  prophet  uses  the  famous  old  phrase, 
cf.  Ex.  34",  which  was  used  ever  again,  e.  g.,  Ps.  86'^  103^  145^  Ne. 
g^\  Instead  of  and  truth  which  is  added  in  Ex.  34^,  both  Joel  and 
Jon.  4^  read  and  repenteth  of  the  evil,  which  he  intended  to  bring 
upon  the  people.  This  is  given  here  as  one  of  Yahweh's  attri- 
butes, also  in  Jon.  4^,  and  implies,  as  Je.  18^  26^-  "■  ^^  Jon.  3^"  show, 
that  He  always  does  this  when  certain  conditions  are  fulfilled.  So 
it  has  become  characteristic  of  Him.  On  the  basis  of  this  gra- 
cious compassion  of  Yahweh  the  prophet  builds  his  hope. — 14.  It 
is  not  absolutely  certain,  but  who  knows  He  may  turn,  from  His 
purpose  of  judgment,  ayid  repent  and  show  His  compassion,  and 
leave  behind  Him,  as  He  turns  back,  a  blessing  in  the  tangible  form 
of  renewed  fertility,  so  that  the  daily  sacrifices,  the  meal-offering 
and  the  drink-offering,  may  be  continued  and  thus  the  ordinary 
means  of  intercourse  with  Yahweh  be  insured. 

10.  mp  niM  VQV  ova.,  by  some  Gk.  mss. — 11.  (8  6ti  1<tx^P^  *P7*  Xi57t>jp 
ainou  vna-j  nu'iJO  Dixj?  ">:,  due  to  dittog.  of  n,  translating  sg.  freely  by  pi. 
— N-(U  (S  iTTKpavi^s  B  illustris,  as  if  from  hni. — m^^t  (5  (<TTai  UavSs  avrj, 
Aq.  6  vwo/jL^vei  airijv,  ^  sufficiens. — 12  nny  oji  ($  /coi  vvv'B  nunc  ergo, 
but  this  is  too  weak,  and  even  now  !  though  the  danger  is  so  great.  Ger- 
man: und  auch  jelzt  noch. — .iiri'  dnj  (5  adds  6  6e6j  vtiQv. — -\y  avj*,  cf. 
Am.  4«  Ho.  14'. — Some  Heb.  mss.  &  B  om.  1  before  bix3,  some  mss. 
om.  prep.  2  in  ■'^331  and  idds3\  Some  Gk.  mss.  add  Kal  iv  ffdKKif)  after 
D1X3. — 13.  Sni  rather  than,  cf.  Ehr.  onji  prtc,  not  pf.  with  waw  subord. 
(Hi.),  for  V.  "  describes  God's  character,  v.  '<  speaks  of  the  possibility 
of  pardon.  In  v. '«  onji  pf.  with  waw  conj. — 14,  ^DJl  nnja  stand  in  ap- 
position to  ri3-i3,  which  is  a  little  harsh.  AE.,  Ki.:  ^0i^  nnjD  UOD  lerc 
Gr.  proposes  iDji  nnjc^.  If  *?  did  not  stand  in  the  orig.  it  was  surely 
meant.     do'hSn  (&  ijuQv,  M  correct,  cf.  v.  ". 


I07 


THE    GREAT    PENITENTIAL    ASSEMBLY    AND    ITS 
PRAYER  FOR  MERCY   (2*^-^^). 

15-17.  These  verses  are  usually  regarded  as  a  reiterated  appeal, 
cf.  V.  \  to  hold  a  solemn  service  of  penitence  and  contrition  in  the 
temple.  But  another  interpretation  is  perhaps  more  likely.  Evi- 
dently V.  ^^  presupposes  that  the  people  have  followed  the  prophet's 
exhortation  to  repentance.  But  this  is  nowhere  expressly  said 
in  our  text.  To  assume  it,  while  not  impossible,  is  not  quite 
so  easy,  because  we  have  narrative  in  v.  ^*,  not  proph.  address. 
Why  did  the  narrator  omit  this?  Was  it  after  all  so  self-evident? 
There  is  thus  a  break  between  v.  ^^  and  v.  *^  It  is  somewhat 
strange,  as  Me.  urged,  that  such  a  holy  assembly  to  which  even 
the  suckling  babes  are  summoned  should  have  been  demanded  by 
the  proph.  But  it  does  not  seem  impossible.  Again  it  is  somewhat 
strange  that  the  particular  place  where  the  priests  are  to  weep  ( !) 
and  to  pray  should  have  been  pointed  out  and  assigned  to  them 
(Hi.),  together  with  the  specific  formula  of  prayer  which  they  are 
to  use.  But  this  is  not  inexplicable  either.  Hi.  believed,  there- 
fore, that  the  narrative  of  the  people's  repentance  began  with  v.  ^'', 
Joel  describing  it  in  the  present  tense  and  continuing  in  v.  ^^  in  the 
past.  But  clearly  it  would  be  preferable  to  point  the  various  tenses 
as  narrative  tenses  in  the  past,  which  can  be  done  without  changing 
a  single  consonant.  This  removes  some  difficulties,  but  it  puts 
the  lacuna  between  v.  ^®  and  v.  ".  There  is  then  not  so  serious  a 
break,  it  is  true,  but  nevertheless  a  real  ohe.  It  seems  that  we  must 
go  one  step  further  and  assume  that  the  narrative  begins  with  v.  ^* 
and  not  with  v.  ".  With  v.  "  the  proph.  address  comes  to  an  ef- 
fective close  and  a  new  section  begins  with  v.  ^^.  If  v.  '^  is  really  the 
description  of  how  the  proph.  demand  was  carried  out,  it  does  not 
tell  us  enough,  for  it  speaks  only  of  what  the  priests,  and  not  at  all 
of  what  the  people  did.  V.  ^^  points,  therefore,  beyond  itself  and  in- 
dicates that  vv.  ^^-  ^®  are  also  description.  As  a  description  of  what 
actually  happened  the  assembly  in  which  even  the  suckling  babes 
were  present  is  entirely  in  order. — This  necessitates  the  punctua- 
tion of  the  verbs  as  perfects  not  as  imperatives.    And  here  an  ob- 


lo8  JOEL 

jection  must  be  faced  by  pointing  out  that  the  staccato  form  of  de- 
scription, so  unusual  in  Heb.,  corresponds  altogether  to  the  style 
of  Joel  in  i^"'^  2^"®.  The  brief,  abrupt  sentences,  unconnected  by 
particles,  are  admirably  adapted  to  bring  before  our  imagination 
the  quick  action  taken  by  priests  and  people.  They  blew  the  horn 
in  Zion,  they  sanctified  a  fast,  called  a  solemn  assembly,  etc. — Now 
everything  is  in  order.  There  is  no  break  between  v.  ^^  and  v.  '", 
or  between  v.  **  and  v.  ".  Nothing  is  to  be  supplied  in  thought. 
The  description  of  the  calling  of  the  assembly  and  of  its  character, 
of  the  place  where  the  priests  wept  and  prayed,  as  well  as  the  form- 
ula of  their  prayer  and  Yahweh's  answer — all  this  is  exactly  as  we 
should  desire  it.  And  no  change,  even  of  a  single  consonant,  is 
necessary  for  this. 

"•  They  blew  the  horn  in  Zion, 
they  sanctified  a  fast. 
They  called  a  solemn  assembly, 
'«•  they  gathered  the  people. 

They  consecrated  the  congregation, 

they  assembled  the  old  men. 
They  gathered  the  babes, 

even  the  infants  at  the  breast. 
The  bridegroom  came  forth  from  his  nuptial  chamber, 

and  the  bride  from  her  bridal  pavilion. 

"•  Between  the  porch  and  the  altar 
the  priests  were  weeping, 
The  ministers  of  Yahweh,  and  said, 
"Spare,  O  Yahweh,  Thy  people! 

"And  do  not  make  Thy  heritage  a  reproach, 

a  by- word  among  the  peoples! 
"Why  should  they  say  among  the  nations, 

'Where  is  their  God?'  " 

It  is  doubtful  whether  w.  >'•  "  are  more  than  one  str.,  but  they  may  consist  of 
two,  as  printed  here.  V.  "  also  may  be  either  one  or  two  strs.  As  represented 
above,  (i)  consists  of  a  pentameter  -f-  a  tetrameter,  (2)  of  two  tetrameters  -|-  a 
pentameter,  (3)  of  a  pentameter  -|-  a  hexameter,  (4)  of  two  pentameters.  Note 
the  staccato  style  in  (i)  and  (2). 

15.  Cf.  2^  and  i". — 16.  Though  the  subject  is  indefinite,  it  is 
evidently  the  priests  who  gathered  the  people,  they  sanctified,  pre- 


2'"-   "  109 

pared  everything  for  an  assembly,  a  solemn  cultic  meeting.  TJiey 
assembled  the  old  men,  gathered  the  children,  even  those  that  sucked 
the  breasts.  Everybody  vi^as  brought  to  the  temple,  young  and  old, 
to  make  the  appeal  to  Yahv^^eh  as  strong  as  possible.  Ace.  to 
Jon.  4^^  Yahweh  is  moved  to  pity  by  the  many  children  who  can- 
not yet  make  moral  distinctions.  The  old  men  are  mentioned  with 
the  children  and  the  babes,  not  as  officials  but  because  they  might 
perhaps  under  ordinary  circumstances  not  go  to  the  temple  on  ac- 
count of  their  age.  But  they  came,  their  age  and  infirmity  silently 
appealing  for  mercy.  Everybody  came,  even  the  bridegroom  and 
the  bride,  who  felt  least  inclined  to  mourn  and  to  weep  and  who 
ordinarily  were  excused  from  many  functions  and  duties,  cf.  Dt. 
24'^ ;  ace.  to  Berakhoth  2^,  also  from  saying  the  prescribed  prayers  on 
their  wedding  day  and  even  to  the  end  of  the  following  Sabbath  if 
the  marital  function  had  not  been  fulfilled  before.  The  bridegroom 
came  out  of  his  nuptial  chamber,  and  the  bride  out  of  her  bridal 
pavilion,  in  which  their  marriage  was  to  be  consummated. — 17. 
In  the  inner  court,  between  the  porch  at  the  east  end  of  the  temple, 
I  K.  6^,  and  the  great  altar  of  burnt-offering  in  front  of  it,  i  K. 
S*'^  2  Ch.  8^",  with  their  faces  turned  toward  the  sanctuary,  cf. 
Ez.  8'^  per  contra,  the  priests,  the  ministers  of  Yahweh,  i^-  ^^,  were 
weeping  in  genuine  contrition.  A  similar  scene  is  recorded  in 
I  Mac.  7^",  And  the  priests  went  in  atid  stood  before  the  altar  and  the 
sanctuary  atid  wept  and  said.  .  .  .  The  prayer  of  the  priests  is 
given.  Spare  thy  people,  O  Yahweh,  And  do  not  make  thine  in- 
heritance a  reproach  and  a  by-word  among  the  nations  !  Why  should 
they  say  among  the  peoples.  Where  is  their  God?  They  appeal  to 
Yahweh  to  spare  them  because  they  are  His  people  and  His  in- 
heritance, cf.  Dt.  9^^-  ^°,  and  try  to  move  Yahweh  to  intervene  on 
their  behalf  because  His  non-interference  will  be  interpreted  falsely 
by  the  nations,  cf.  Ex.  32^^  Nu.  14*^^^  Dt.  9^®.  They  will  begin  to 
doubt  Yahweh's  efficiency  and  to  mock  Israel  and  Yahweh  Him- 
self by  contemptuously  asking,  Where  is  their  God?  They  see  no 
evidence  of  His  power.  This  appeal  is  constantly  made  in  post- 
exilic  times,  cf.  Ps.  42^-  "  79*"  115-  Mi.  7*°.  Yahweh's  glorious 
name  will  be  profaned  by  this  taunt. — If  the  interpretation  of 
vv.  ^^'^^  as  narrative,  rather  than  as  a  reiterated  appeal,  holds  good 


no  JOEL 

vv.  '^  ^-  simply  continue  the  narrative,  and  there  is  an  interesting 
parallel  not  Only  to  v.  **  but  to  vv.  ^^"  in  Judith  4®-^^  Since  ch.  i 
contains  a  later  address  than  ch.  2,  the  description  of  the  assembly 
and  its  result,  vv.  ^^^-j  belongs  really  in  point  of  time  after  ch.  i, 
and  not  directly  after  2^'".  The  prayer  of  the  priests  which  does 
not  mention  the  locusts  whose  approach  and  arrival  had  been  so 
vividly  portrayed  in  2*  ^-  is  quite  in  line  with  this  observation.  And 
so  is  the  promise  in  v.  '*'.  If  w.  *^  ^-  were  the  direct  continuation 
of  vv. '  ^-  we  should  expect  an  ardent  prayer  for  the  removal  of  the 
locusts  before  the  whole  harvest  was  destroyed.  In  vv.  ^^  ^-  the 
emphasis  lies  on  the  restoration  of  the  fertility  of  the  land.  The 
removal  of  the  locusts,  v.  ^^,  comes  in  almost  incidentally.  Some 
have  regarded  v.  ^°  as  an  insertion  which  did  not  belong  to  the 
original  text. 


YAHWEH'S  ANSWER  AND  PROMISE  OF  RELIEF  AND 
RESTORATION   (2^^'*'-  ^-  2'^). 

This  is  the  direct  continuation  of  the  narrative  of  vv.  *^".  The 
tenses  are  narrative  tenses  and  cannot  be  interpreted  as  referring 
to  the  future. 

'*•  Then  Yahweh  became  jealous  for  His  land, 

and  had  pity  on  His  p)eople. 
•  9-  And  Yahweh  answered  and  said  to  His  people. 

Behold,  I  will  send  you 

corn  and  new  wine  and  oil. 
And  ye  shall  be  satisfied  therewith. — 
And  I  will  not  make  you  again 

a  reproach  among  the  nations. 

20-  And  the  northerner  I  will  remove  far  from  you, 
and  will  drive  him  into  a  dry  and  waste  land. 

His  van  into  the  eastern  sea, 
and  his  rear  into  the  western, 

And  stench  and  foul  smell  of  him  will  arise, 
for  I  will  do  great  things. 

»•  And  I  will  restore  unto  you  the  rich  fruits 
which  the  swarmer  has  eaten, 


Ill 


The  lapper,  the  finisher  and  the  shearer, 
[My  great  army]  which  I  sent  among  you. 
56-  And  you  shall  eat  in  plenty  and  be  satisfied. 

Four  strs.,  (i)  introductory,  consisting  of  a  pentameter  and  a  tetrameter,  (2) 
of  a  hexameter  -\-  a  dimeter  -f-  a  hexameter,  (3)  of  three  hexameters,  (4)  of  two 
hexameters  -j-  a  trimeter. 

18.  The  priests  had  appealed  on  behalf  of  the  people  to  Yah- 
weh's  love  and  to  the  honour  of  His  holy  name.  And  Yahweh  be- 
came jealous  for  His  land.  Strong  and  deep  emotions  were  aroused 
in  Him.  He  cannot  bear  to  have  His  land  and  people  treated  thus 
scornfully  by  the  nations  nor  the  honour  of  His  name  defiled.  And 
He  had  pity  on  His  people,  whom  He  after  all  loved  as  His  own, 
though  he  had  to  discipline  them. — 19.  And  Yahweh  answered  and 
said  to  His  people,  most  likely  through  His  prophet,  because  His 
answer  is  quoted  in  direct  form.  Others  believe  that  Yahweh 
spoke  directly  to  His  people,  not  in  words,  however,  but  in  deeds, 
by  removing  the  plague.  Behold,  I  will  send  to  you  (directly)  corn 
and  new  wine  and  fresh  oil,  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  the 
locusts,  i^°,  and  of  which  they  stood  in  such  need,  and  (you  shall 
have  it  in  such  abundance  that)  you  shall  be  satisfied  with  it.  And 
I  will  no  longer  make  you  a  reproach  among  the  nations,  which  they 
had  become  as  a  result  of  their  direful  condition,  cf.  v. ". — 20.  A  nd 
as  for  the  northerner,  by  this  Joel  must  mean,  if  indeed  he  wrote 
this  word,  the  locust  swarm  which  contrary  to  all  precedents  had 
come  from  the  north,  for  it  is  the  fate  of  the  locust  swarm  that  is 
now  described.  It  seems  likely,  however,  that  the  term  north- 
erner which  conjures  up  those  dark  prophecies  concerning  the  ene- 
my from  the  north  of  whom  Je.  i"  and  Ez.  38®-  ^^  39^  had  spoken 
and  who  had  become  a  fixed  feature  of  later  eschatology  is  due  to 
the  interpolator  of  the  day  of  Yahweh  who  slightly  changed,  as  in 
v.  *^,  the  original  text,  in  which  Joel  had  spoken  of  the  locust 
swarm.  The  removal  of  the  locust  swarm  is  mentioned  after  the 
promise  of  restored  fertility  of  the  land  had  been  given.  It  does  not 
appear  to  be  the  most  pressing  need  at  the  time,  as  we  should  have 
expected  if  w.  ^^''^^  told  what  happened  directly  after  the  address  of 
2^^-.  But  we  saw  that  2^^-  are  an  earlier  address  than  i^*^-,  and  that 
2'^  ^-  tell  the  story  of  the  end  of  the  plague  and  not  of  an  episode. 


112  JOEL 

upon  which  the  worse  disaster  described  in  i"  ^-  was  yet  to  follow. 
Nevertheless,  the  promise  of  the  removal  of  the  locusts  had  to  be 
added,  esp.  also  because  Yahweh  wants  to  assure  the  people  that 
the  locust  visitation  shall  not  come  again  to  cause  them  all  this 
distress  and  shame,  v.  "''.  So  he  says,  And  as  for  the  northerner 
I  will  remove  him  far  away  from  you.  The  Heb.  expresses  the 
burdensome  character  of  the  plague,  the  locusts  had  settled  upon 
them  and  they  will  be  removed  far  away /row  upon  them.  And  I 
will  drive  him,  i.  e.,  the  main  body  of  the  swarm,  into  a  dry  land 
and  a  waste,  the  desert  S.  and  SE.  of  Judah,  where  they  will  perish. 
The  two  ends  of  the  army  will  be  carried  out  into  the  sea,  f/5fa«w/o 
the  Dead  Sea,  lit.  the  front  or  eastern  sea,  cf.  Ez.  47'^  Zc.  14*,  and 
its  rear  into  the  Mediterranean,  lit.  the  hinder  or  western  sea.  This 
idiomatic  way  of  expressing  E.  and  W.  is  due  to  the  habit  of  facing 
eastward  in  fixing  the  points  of  the  compass.  What  was  in  front 
was  E.,  what  was  behind  was  W.  The  swarm  lies  on  the  whole 
land  from  E.  to  W.  and  each  part  is  to  be  removed  in  the  quickest 
possible  way.  Usually  this  is  done  by  a  wind,  probably  in  this  case 
also,  though  this  is  not  mentioned.  "There  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  the  prophet  has  abandoned  the  realism  which  has  hitherto 
distinguished  his  treatment  of  the  locusts.  The  plague  covered 
the  whole  land,  on  whose  high  watershed  the  winds  suddenly  veer 
and  change.  The  dispersion  of  the  locusts  upon  the  deserts  and 
the  opposite  seas  was  therefore  possible  at  one  and  the  same  time. 
Jerome  vouches  for  an  instance  in  his  own  day"  (GASm.,  p.  420).* 
"A  wind  rising  first  in  the  NW.,  and  afterward  gradually  veering 
round  to  NE.,  would  produce  approximately  the  efifects  indicated" 
(Dr.).  Cf.  the  description  by  Home,  /.  c,  "The  wind  was  blowing 
from  the  north-east,  and  they  were  borne  along  upon  it.  After- 
ward the  wind  veered  round,  and  the  locusts  turned  with  it," 
(Dr.).  In  the  desert  and  the  sea  the  locust  swarm  will  be  com- 
pletely destroyed,  that  his  stench  and  foul  smell,  due  to  the  decaying 
carcasses,  may  com^  up.  The  mention  of  this  feature  is  another 
touch  of  realism.     The  awful  odour  cannot  have  been  pleasant  to 

♦  Jer.  wrote,  "In  our  times  also  we  have  seen  hosts  of  locusts  over  Judoa,  whicli  afterward,  by 
the  mercy  of  God,  ...  a  wind  arising  were  carried  headlong  into  the  eastern  and  the  western 
seas." 


2'"'  ■'"  113 

the  Jews,  it  was  added  to  assure  them  of  the  total  destruction  of  the 
locusts.  Observers  have  noticed  this  feature.*  V.  ^^  is  so  true  to  life, 
and  fits  so  exactly  the  fate  of  locust  swarms,  cf.  also  Ex.  lo^^,  that 
it  cannot  well  be  regarded  as  an  insertion.  It  concludes  with /or 
/  ivill  do  great  things.  Yahweh  is  still  speaking.  He  will  show  His 
greatness  by  restoring  fertility  and  by  destroying  the  locusts.  iE's 
reading  for  he  has  done  great  things,  i.  e.,  the  locusts  have  acted 
overweeningly,  is  so  improbable  that  many  have  preferred  to  omit 
the  whole  clause  as  secondary,  but  it  is  due  to  the  editor. 

The  composition  of  w.  ='-".  The  poetical  insertion  of  w.  2124  inter- 
rupts the  speech  of  Yahweh  in  a  way  that  can  hardly  have  been  intended 
by  Joel.  Style  and  phraseology  are,  however,  so  distinctly  those  of 
Joel  that  the  verses  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  later  insertion.  But  that 
Joel  himself  should  have  placed  them  here  is  improbable.  They  stood 
most  likely  at  first  directly  after  w.  25.  261a  where  they  concluded  very 
beautifully  chs.  i,  2.  Since  the  displacement  was  hardly  accidental,  we 
may  assume  that  the  editor  intended  ch.  3  (Engl.  2^8-32)  as  the  continua- 
tion of  the  promise  of  Yahweh  and  so  placed  the  poem  after  v.  2",  which 
the  phrase /or  /  will  do  great  things  suggested  as  a  suitable  place  for  its 
insertion.  But  while  it  follows  well  enough  upon  v.  2",  w.  m.  26a  are 
torn  apart  by  it  from  vv.  "•  ^o  to  which  they  inseparably  belong.  An- 
other argument  for  v.  *«  as  the  original  place  of  the  poem  is  found  in  v.  " 
itself.  The  sentence  and  you  shall  praise  the  name  of  Yahweh  your  God 
who  has  dealt  wondrously  with  you,  is  not  a  part  of  Yahweh's  ovm  words 
which  are  given  in  the  ist  pers.,  cf.  v.  ".  This  difficulty  disappears  as 
soon  as  it  is  taken  as  a  part  of  the  poem,  vv.  "i-m.  The  poem,  it  will  be 
noticed,  is  not  rounded  out  to  a  conclusion  in  v.  ^^  This  is  supplied  by 
our  sentence  which  is  admirably  suited  to  bring  the  poem  to  a  satisfying 
close.  Joel  composed  this  poem  some  time  after  the  promise  of  w.  "■ 
20.  26.  26  aa^  for  it  expresses  joy  not  over  the  promise  but  over  the  restora- 
tion of  fertility  which  has  already  been  experienced  at  least  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  people,  w.  22-  '',  who  are  looking  forward  to  a  rich  harvest, 
V.  '^     The  poem  formed  originally  the  conclusion  of  the  locust  passages. 

*  Jer.,  "  And  when  the  shores  of  both  seas  (the  Mediterranean  and  the  Dead  Sea)  were  filled  with 
heaps  of  dead  locusts  which  the  waters  had  cast  up,  their  stench  and  putrefaction  was  so  noxious 
as  to  corrupt  the  air,  so  that  a  pestilence  was  produced  among  both  beasts  and  men."  Augustine, 
De  Civ.  Dei,  III,  71,  quotes  from  Julius  Obsequens,  De  prodig.,  ch.  xc,  that  the^casses  of  a 
vast  locust  swarm  which  had  been  driven  into  the  African  sea  were  "  cast  back  on  the  shores,  and 
the  air  being  infected  thereby,  such  a  pestilence  arose  that  in  the  realm  of  Masinissa  alone  800,000 
men  perished,  and  many  more  in  the  lands  on  the  coasts.  Then  at  Utica,  out  of  30,000  men  in  the 
prime  of  life,  who  were  there,  they  assert  that  only  ten  remained."  Cp.  also  Orosius,  Historiarum, 
lib.  V,  II,  on  this  catastrophe  at  Utica,  quoted  by  Pu.  Similar  observations  of  the  awful  odour 
produced  by  the  decaying  mass  of  locusts  are  given  by  modem  writers.    See  Pu.  and  Dr. 


114  JOEL 

This  implies  that  w.  "b.  27  are  additions.  V.  *'  is  composed  of  stereo- 
typed phrases  which  have  vital  meaning  in  Deutero-Isaiah,  Ezekiel  and 
the  Holiness  Code,  but  are  without  real  significance  here  where  they  are 
purely  liturgical.  Of  course,  even  though  Joel  does  not  use  hackneyed 
phrases,  we  should  not  necessarily  assert  that  he  was  not  the  author  were 
it  not  that  the  phrase  and  you  shall  kncnv  that  I  am  Yahweh  your  God, 
followed  by  who  dwells  in  My  holy  mountain  Zion,  recurs  in  4",  where 
it  is  quite  in  place.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  editor  was  also 
responsible  for  2^'.  That  several  Gk.  mss.  omit  v.  ^^  cannot  be  used  as 
an  argument  in  favour  of  the  sccondariness  of  v.  2',  because  it  was  prob- 
ably due  to  homoioteleuton,  v.  ^vt  =  y.  ^Si^.  One  might  question  whether 
v.  26  b  is  also  secondary,  if  v.  27  js  an  addition.  If  genuine,  Yahweh  would 
probably  have  proceeded  in  the  direct  address  and  ye  shall  never  be 
ashamed  and  not  as  here  and  My  people  shall  never  be  ashamed.  In  v. 
*">  this  fits,  but  not  in  v.  ^st.  This  stylistic  hint,  slight  as  it  is,  indicates 
that  V.  iisb  is  a  doublet  of  v.  "b,  for  the  rounding  out  of  the  thought 
it  is  not  needed  since  the  same  promise  had  been  given  in  v.  "'>. 

In  accordance  with  our  results  we  take  up  first  w.  "■  '«»»  which  form 
the  direct  continuation  of  vv.  ''•  ^o,  then  vv.  -'■2<-  ^e^^  which  form  the 
poetical  comment  on  the  restoration  of  fertility  and  finally  vv.  '">.  s? 
which  are  later  additions. 

25.  Continuing  his  promises  Yahweh  assures  the  people  of  full 
compensation  for  the  deprivations  which  the  successive  swarms  of 
locusts  had  caused.  And  I  will  restore  to  you  the  rich  fruits  which 
the  swarmer  has  devoured,  the  tapper,  the  finisher  and  the  shearer. 
fH  has  the  years  which  the  swarmer  has  devoured,  but  this  is  most 
probably  due  to  a  slight  corruption  of  the  text.  On  the  names  of 
the  locust,  cf.  I*.  My  great  army  appears  to  be  due  to  the  inter- 
polator who  used  this  phrase  in  2". — 26^*.  And  you  shall  eat  in 
plenty,  and  be  satisfied  because  of  the  great  abundance  which  Yah- 
weh will  give. 

SONG    OF   JOY   OVER  THE    BEGINNINGS    OF   THE 
RESTORATION   {2''^-''^-  ^o*^). 

In  this  lyrical  outburst  of  joy  the  prophet  calls  upon  the  land, 
V.  ^^,  the  animals,  v.  ^^,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  to  rejoice 
over  the  restoration  of  fertility  by  Yahweh. 

In  vv.  ^^-  -°-  2^-  ^'''**  Yahweh  promised  deliverance,  the  prophet 
in  this  song  speaks  of  the  deliverance  as  past,  the  promise  as 


2^1-^0  115 

fulfilled.  He  breaks  forth  into  jubilant  strains  of  deep  joy,  and  an 
exquisitely  rhythmic  lyrical  poem  expresses  his  delight.  It  is  one 
of  the  passages  that  has  made  students  of  Joel  admire  the  beauty 
of  his  style.  It  reminds  one  of  the  lyrical  passages  with  which 
Deutero-Isaiah  interspersed  his  book. 

1-  Fear  not,  O  ground,  exult  and  rejoice, 
for  Yahweh  has  done  great  things! 

«•  Fear  not,  O  beasts  of  the  field, 

for  the  pastures  of  the  steppe  are  covered  with  new  grass. 
For  the  trees  bear  their  fruit, 

fig  tree  and  grape-vine  yield  their  produce. 

^-  And  ye  children  of  Zion,  exult 

and  rejoice  in  Yahweh  your  God! 
For  He  has  given  you  food  as  (a  token  of  your)  justification, 

and  He  has  poured  down  for  you  rain  [fall  rain  and  spring  rain], 
as  before. 

«•  And  the  threshing-floors  shall  be  full  of  wheat, 

and  the  vats  shall  overflow  with  new  wine  and  fresh  oil. 

25-  And  ye  shall  praise  the  name  of  Yahweh,  your  God, 
who  has  dealt  so  wondrously  with  you. 

Four  strs.,  (i)  consists  of  a  tetrameter  -\-  a  trimeter,  (2)  of  two  hexameters,  (3) 
of  a  pentameter  -\-  a  he.xameter,  which  is  to  be  read  rapidly.  The  metre  argues 
against  the  originality  oifall  rain  and  spring  rain.    (4)  consists  of  two  heptameters. 

21.  Fear  not,  O  ground,  exult  and  rejoice,  it  had  "mourned"  be- 
fore, i^°,for  Yahweh  has  done  great  things,  as  He  had  promised  in 
V.  ^"" — 22.  Fear  not,  ye  wild  beasts,  lit.  beasts  of  the  field,  who  had 
to  suffer  so  much,  i^^,for  the  pastures  of  the  steppe  are  covered  with, 
lit.  have,  fresh,  young  grass,  those  same  pastures  that  were  burnt, 
i^^,  and  the  trees,  which  had  failed  and  were  languishing,  i'-^^, 
have  borne  their  fruit,  the  fig  trees  and  the  grape-vines,  coll.  sg., 
have  yielded  as  much  as  they  can  bear,  lit.  their  strength.  All  this 
is  spoken  with  strict  antithetical  reference  to  the  description  of 
ch.  I.  It  is  due  to  his  poetic  impulse  that  Joel  joined  the  refer- 
ence to  the  bearing  of  the  fruit  trees,  which  of  course  is  not  strictly 
a  cause  of  rejoicing  for  the  wild  animals. — 23.  Now  he  calls  upon 
the  children  of  Zion,  strictly  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  only,  but 
it  would  seem  that  he  meant  all  who  belong  to  Zion  as  children,  who 
worship  Yahweh  there,  cf.  Ps.  87.     Exult  and  rejoice  in  Yahweh 


Ii6  JOEL 

your  God.  Contrast  i*®  where  joy  and  rejoicing  had  gone  away 
from  the  children  of  men.  Their  joy  is  to  be  full  of  gratitude  for 
Yahweh,  for  He  has  given  you,  note  the  past  tense,  nourishment 
(C5)  for  (a  token  of)  justification,  showing  that  the  right  relation 
between  Himself  and  His  people  has  been  re-established.  And  in- 
stead of  the  long  drought  He  has  poured  down,  lit.  caused  to  come 
down,  abundant  rain,  the  early  rain  as  well  as  the  latter  rain,  cf.  Je. 
5",  which  come  in  October  to  November  and  in  March  to  April 
respectively,  the  fall  and  spring  rains,  and  which  are  indispensable 
for  the  fertility  of  the  land.  The  early  rain  prepares  the  land  for 
seed  sowing,  the  latter  is  needed  to  nourish  and  ripen  the  growing 
crops.  Joel  looks  back  over  some  months.  Yahweh  had  fulfilled 
His  promise — the  fall  rains  had  come  and  the  spring  rains  also 
as  aforetime,  in  the  years  before  the  visitation. — 24.  And  now  he 
looks  forward  to  a  plentiful  harvest  when  the  threshing-floors  shall 
he  full  of  wheat,  and  the  vats  shall  overflow  with  new  wine  and  fresh 
oil.  The  threshing-floors  were  in  the  open  air,  when  possible  on 
or  near  the  top  of  the  hill  where  the  wind  would  blow.  They  were 
quite  primitive,  consisting  of  a  round  piece  of  ground  firmly 
stamped  by  the  feet.  On  this  the  sheaves  were  spread  out  to  be 
threshed.  See  an  illustration  of  a  modern  threshing-floor  in  EB., 
I,  83,  BD.,  I,  50.  The  grapes  were  trodden  out  by  the  feet  in  wine- 
presses which  were  hewed  out  in  the  rock.  They  consisted  usually 
of  two  vats,  a  larger  one,  eight  or  more  feet  square,  which  was  on 
the  upper  side  of  a  ledge  of  rock  and  rather  shallow,  and  a  smaller 
one,  not  quite  half  as  large,  which  was  sometimes  two  feet  lower 
and  three  or  more  feet  deep.  This  was  connected  by  a  large  groove 
through  which  the  juice  flowed  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  vat. 
This  lower  vat  is  meant  in  our  text.  Sometimes  there  were  two  or 
even  three  of  them  in  connection  with  a  press.  The  must  was  then 
passed  from  one  to  the  other  to  clarify  it.  See  an  illustration  in 
Benzinger,  Hehrdische  Archdologie,^  iQO?)  P-  I43-  Olives  were 
also  pressed  in  these  presses,  cf.  Gethsemane  =  oil-press.  See 
illustration  in  Benzinger,  /.  c,  p.  144. — 26^^.  Full  of  joy  over  the 
prospect  of  such  harvests  Joel  closes  his  poem,  calling  on  the 
people  to  show  their  gratitude  and  ye  shall  praise  the  name  of 
Yahweh,  your  God,  who  has  dealt  wondrously  with  you. 


117 


EDITORIAL  LINK   {2^'^-^^). 

[And  My  people  shall  nevermore  be  put  to  shame.] 
Ye  shall  know  that  I  am  in  the  midst  of  Israel, 

and  {that)  I  Yahweh  am  your  God  and  none  else; 
And  My  people  shall  nevermore  be  put  to  shame. 

Trimeter  or  tetrameter  lines. 

26^,  27.  V.  '«b  =  V.  "•'.  This  renewed  material  prosperity,  so 
the  editor  adds,  in  well-known,  common  terms,  will  assure  the 
people  of  Yahweh's  protecting  and  helping  presence  among  them. 
"Rain  and  harvest  are  not  merely  physical  benefits,  but  religious 
sacraments:  signs  that  God  has  returned  to  His  people,  and  that 
His  zeal  is  again  stirred  on  their  behalf"  (GASm.).  And  you  shall 
know  (by  this  wonderful  fertility)  that  I  am  in  the  midst  of  Israel, 
cf.  Ex.  if  Nu.  11=="  14"  Dt.  f  Is.  i2«,  etc.  This  is  the  first  oc- 
currence of  Israel  in  the  book,  it  is  used  as  the  postexilic  name  for 
Judah.  And  (further  ye  shall  know  that)  I  Yahweh  am  your  God 
and  {that  there  is)  none  else.  These  two  phrases  express  profound 
convictions  which  thrilled  the  hearts  of  exilic  and  postexilic  proph- 
ets: the  blending  together  of  the  two  elements  of  Yahweh's  unity, 
monotheism,  and  of  His  particularly  intimate  relationship  to  Is- 
rael, as  in  a  special  manner  Israel's  God.  For  this  blending  and 
fusing  into  a  higher  unity  Deutero-Isaiah  is  responsible.  It  belongs 
to  the  core  of  his  teaching.  Here  in  Joel  the  phrases  do  not  have 
that  real,  vital  significance,  but  sound  purely  liturgical.  No  trace 
of  idolatry  appears  in  the  book.  Joel's  answer  to  the  taunt  of  the 
heathen  is  given  in  v.  ^®.  The  editor  connects,  of  course,  his  state- 
ment with  this,  as  the  following  shows,  and  My  people  shall  never 
more  he  put  to  shame.  Note  the  emphasis  on  the  pronoims  My 
people,  your  God. 

15-17.  The  tenses  are  to  be  changed  to  the  narrative  tense,  because 
these  verses  do  not  contain  an  exhortation  but  a  description  of  the  result 
of  the  sermon. — 16.  Siev.  om.,  perhaps  rightly,  the  second  iddn  mtr.  cs. 
— -nn  here  parall.  and  synonymous  with  nsn  bridal-chamber,  cf.  Ju. 
15'  ^  19'.  Some  mss.  point  mnn. — 17.  For  ija''  one  Heb.  codex  reads 
1D5J.  If  the  impf.  is  taken  as  expressing  inchoative  or  continued  action 
in  the  past,  1331  need  not  be  changed  to  \Z2.     But,  if  necessary,  it  is  not 


Il8  JOEL 

difficult  to  assume  that  the  editor  changed  133  to  133'  in  conformity  with 
his  interpretation  of  vv.  '^•".  noin  with  S;*,  cj.  Ne.  13"  Jon.  4".  For 
D'u  33  ^z'r:h  read  ajija  '?c'nS  a  by-word  among  the  nations.  IK  which 
means  that  the  nations  should  rule  over  them,  AV.,  RV.,  is  excluded  by 
the  context.  No  foreign  nations  have  been  mentioned  as  ruling  over 
Judah.  Not  a  devastation  by  enemies  but  by  the  locust  plague  has  been 
the  theme.  The  parall.  noin'?  ir'^nj  jm  Sni  and  anjs  noin  -w;  jpn  nSi 
in  V.  '»,  cf.  also  v.  *',  show  that  the  nations  taunt,  but  do  not  rule  over, 
Judah.  The  vb.  ^vo,  to  make  proverbs  of,  using  their  ttame  as  a  by- 
word, cf.  AVm.,  RVm.,  is,  however,  excluded  here,  because  Su'd  with  3 
means  always  either  to  rule  over,  or  to  mock  in  or  among,  3  locale,  cf.  Ez. 
18'  12".  For  the  reading  Su'd  as  a  noun,  above  proposed,  cf.  Je.  24", 
SrnSi  nainS.  Either  the  day  of  Yahweh  interpolator  or  a  reader,  lander 
the  influence  of  ch.  4  and  of  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  locusts, 
corrected  the  text  so  that  it  read  that  the  nations  should  not  rule  over  them. 
— 18.  JM  points  correctly  the  impfs.  with  waw  consecutive.  Some  have 
thought  that  the  impfs.  should  be  read  with  waw  conjunctive,  and  that 
this  verse  and  the  foil,  refer  to  the  fut.,  containing  prediction  and  prom- 
ise. So,  (.  g.,  0,  AE.,  Ki.,  AV.,  etc.,  also  Me.,  who  regards  the  verses  as  a 
continuation  of  the  prayer  of  the  priests.  They  pray  that  Yahweh  may 
answer  and  give  to  them  all  the  beautiful  promises  which  they  put  into 
his  mouth.  This  is  altogether  improbable. — njiIm  is  entirely  correct 
and  regular  on  our  interpretation.  If  v.  '^  were  the  beginning  of  the 
narrative  the  1  consecutive  with  impf .  would  have  to  be  explained  as  one 
of  the  few  instances  where  there  is  nothing  in  the  preceding  with  which 
it  is  connected.  It  would  be  a  sort  of  crystallised  form  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  narrative,  cf.  Jon.  i'.— 19.  id;'S,  Ki.:  vnoj  n^  hy  D>p-;nh  njy. 
— n^j'  prtc.  of  imminent  fut. — Note  the  interpretative  addition  in  some 
mss.  3>n  noin  shame  of  famine;  one  ms.  3yT  ncnn  shows  the  explanatory 
character  of  the  gloss.  3  also  njos  niD''n,  Cf.  Ez.  36". — 20.  >jiDxn 
the  northerner.  The  term  must  refer  to  the  locusts,  for  the  fate  described 
is  that  of  a  swarm  of  locusts  and  not  of  human  armies.  The  interpre- 
tation of  human  invaders  from  the  N.,  e.  g.,  the  Assyrians,  is  excluded  by 
the  context.  If  original,  the  term  designates  the  locusts  as  coming  from 
the  N.,  which  is  not  the  direction  from  which  they  usually  come.  That 
they  may,  however,  come  from  there  is  certain  for  swarms  were  seen  by 
Niebuhr  between  Mosul  and  Nisibis,  by  Thomson  at  Beirut,  by  John 
P.  Peters  west  of  Mosul,  on  the  Tigris.  The  rareness  may  have  sug- 
gested the  term.  But  is  such  a  designation  not  rather  strange?  Hi., 
Ew.  explain  i:ii3xn,  therefore,  as  =  6  Tv<(>uviK6i,  Ex.  14',  Acts  27'^  Rev. 
9'-',  the  locust  swarm  is  a  demoniacal  scourge.  Cf.  for  this  use  of  TV(pu- 
pik6s,  e.  g.,  the  prophecy  of  the  Egyptian  potter  to  King  Amenophis,  col. 
2,  1.  14,  Gressmann,  Texlc  und  Bilder  zum  A.  T.,  p.  208.  Somewhat 
differently  most  modern  scholars  believe  that  'jiDxn,  which  was  first  used 


2'''-"  119 

by  Jeremiah  of  the  northern  hosts  of  the  Scythians  and  Babylonians,  had 
become  a  typical  name  for  doom  and  as  such  might  have  difiEerent  mean- 
ings in  accordance  with  the  special  need;  here  the  terrible  locust  swarm 
is  called  thus.  But  this  does  not  suit  the  mode  of  the  speech  of  Joel  so 
well  as  that  of  the  interpolator  who  saw  in  the  locusts  the  precursors  of 
the  Day  of  Yahweh,  and  who  evidently  took  'jidsh  in  the  eschatological 
or  apocalyptic  sense,  cf.  also  his  understanding  of  v.  •'.  There  is  thus 
some  justification  for  the  apocalyptic  interpretation,  but  not  for  Joel 
himself.  With  true  insight  Roth,  regards  v.  ^o  as  due  to  the  editor  who 
joined  both  sections  together,  WRS.,  EB.,  2496,  as  the  addition  of  an 
allegorising  glossator.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  regard  the  whole  verse 
as  secondary.  The  interpolator  may  be  responsible  only  for  •'Jisxn. 
E.  Meier  suggested  as  the  original  \n3S  or  N3i;n;  Ew.  'JiExrt  der  Heeres- 
mann  \/  fyi  Ar.  =  battle-line;  Gr.  ■'3un  yin,  agmen  locustarum ;  Che., 
EB.,  2496  n.,  v:D-nt<i  iD'>D-nj<i  and  both  its  rear  and  its  van,  transposing 
V.  "  before  v.  20.  Joel  wrote  simply  a  term  for  the  locust  plague. — We 
should  be  inclined  to  think  that  the  apocalytic  interpretation  of  the  Icv- 
custs  appears  also  in  (&  of  Am.  7'  Kal  idoii  ppovxos  eh  Tdi'y  6  /Sao-iXei^s,  if 
the  Gk.  translators  inspired  more  confidence  in  their  ability  than  they  do. 
It  may  be  that  they  did  not  reflect  too  much  on  a  translation  of  a  corrupt 
or  illegible  text,  C5  read  i^nn  ju  iriN  pS^  njm,  M  I'^cn  mj  nnvs  irpS  njni. 
— ncDtt'1  (^  a(l>avi.Q  =  \npDr,  the  following  pn  was  connected  with  it 
in  Heb.  text  of  C5;  one  cod.  vncri. — 12D  is  a  late  word  in  Heb.  literature, 
occurring  only  in  Chronicles,  Ecclesiastes,  Daniel  besides.  It  is  really 
Aram,  injnx  nowhere  else  used  in  Heb.  Bible,  cf.,  however,  njnx  -\sy, 
Ecclus.  11",  a  synonym  of  lysa,  cf.  BDB.  The  tautology  of  the  clauses 
iCNa  nSjji  and  injnx  Sjjpi  seems  to  show  that  one  of  them  is  secondary, 
irxa  nS;-i  is  the  common  expression.  Am.  4.'^"  Is.  34^  and  is  therefore  om. 
by  Me.,  GASm.,  Dr.,  Marti,  et  al.,  as  a  gloss  on  the  unusual  injnx.  But 
the  tense  of  S^ti,  juss.  with  waw  conj.,  is  against  the  genuineness  of 
injnx  Vyn,  We.,  van  H.  Surely,  z'H2  needed  no  explanatory  gloss,  but  did 
njnx  which  was  well  known  in  later  times  need  it  ?  Is  it  not  more  likely  that 
the  whole  difficulty  is  to  be  solved  by  regarding  "^yni  as  a  corruption,  say 
of  -inf.>,  cf.  Ez.  8"  ?  The  rhythm  favours  this  also. — In  nitt';-'?  Snjn  >3 
the  subj.  must  be  the  locusts.  But  this  is  difficult,  since  the  phrase  when 
used  in  contradistinction  to  God  expresses  arrogance,  overweening 
pride.  One  can  hardly  speak  of  the  locusts  as  animated  by  haughty 
disregard  of  Yahweh's  commands.  The  phrase  occurs  almost  immedi- 
ately afterward  with  Yahweh  in  the  sense  of  doing  great  and  wonderful 
things.  It  is  not  likely  that  it  would  have  the  two  different  meanings 
in  such  close  conjunction.  We  should  therefore  read  V'>ijn  for  Snjn, 
since  Yahweh  is  still  speaking.  Many  take  the  clause  as  a  doublet  of 
V.  *">  and  omit  it.  But  it  seems  that  it  suggested  the  place  where  the 
lyrical  poem,  w.  *'-2^,  should  be  inserted,  and  belonged  to  the  text  in  the 


I20  JOEL 

emended  form.  The  editor  who  inserted  the  day  of  Yahweh  passages  and 
interpreted  'jicsn  of  human  invaders  was  probably  the  one  who  changed 
the  reading  here  also,  interpreting  our  clause  of  the  overweening  haugh- 
tiness with  which  Yahweh's  agents  overstepped  the  limits  of  their  au- 
thority.— 21.  Siev.  reads  hni  for  >N-\n-SN. — 22.  i->3  ncj  alsoEz.  I3'36^ 
NB'j  with  nc  understood,  Hg.  2".  The  parall.  expressions  '"^d  ncy  and 
i-\s  jnj  were  used  at  all  times.  dS^h  their  strength  =  their  fruit,  Marti: 
soT'iel  sie  tragen  konnen. — 23.  Siev.  inserts  dhni  at  the  beginning. — The 
transl.  of  npnxS  n-\\r2r\  =  the  teacher  of  righteousness,  JT  S  TJ,  is  excluded 
by  the  context,  and  with  it  all  the  various  interpretations  of  this  teacher 
as  the  Messiah,  or  the  prophets,  or  Joel,  or  any  other  person,  e.  g.,  Heze- 
kiah.  If  the  Messiah  had  been  meant  this  would  hardly  have  been  said 
so  incidentally,  minn  must  be  =  nniin.  In  the  second  line  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  nn.^D  should  be  nni^  as  34  mss.  read,  the  D  is  due  to  dittog.  The 
form  ry-v-a  occurs  again,  Ps.  84',  but  if  the  former  rain  is  actually  meant 
here  we  should  read  also  in  the  first  instance  ^-^^^rt.  ®'s  translation 
ppdfmra,  also  &'s,  however,  suggest  that  they  read  probably  ^;";?!!i,  2  S. 
I3»  Ps.  69«  (Vol.),  or  jupn,  2  Ch.  ii'^  (Me.).  Hilgenfeld  thought  of 
in"iD  abundance,  but  the  other  suggestions  are  better.  Since  r\y  oc- 
curs again  in  the  foil,  line  we  do  not  expect  it  here  and  the  reading  of 
C6  is  almost  certainly  orig. — The  meaning  of  npnxS  is  also  debated. 
Those  who  translate  mien  by  teacher  take  it  as  the  teacher  in  righteous- 
ness, or,  in  order  to  make  the  people  righteous.  Those  who  translate 
mien  by  early  rain,  or  who  read  food,  take  npixS  either  as  moderately 
AV.,  in  just  measure  RV.,  et  al.,  in  normal  measure  GASm.,/(7r  prosper- 
ity BDB.;  ox  for  righteousness  or  justification,  Ew.,  We.,  Dav.,  Now., 
Marti.  n|-ns  is  used  only  in  a  moral  or  religious  sense.  Dr.  somewhat 
differently,  "as  His  righteousness  prompts  Him  to  give  it."  Gr.  Typ-\:i:2. 
— In  regard  to  the  second  n-\ir:  it  may  be  noted  that  the  Talmud  in  quot- 
ing our  passage  reads  cip'^Di  mr,  Taanith  5b,  6b,  Shekalim  6^,  Sifre, 
ad  Dt.  II".    Van  H.  points  it  ni-\^,  Vondee  qui  arrose. 

25.  Or.  adds  PNian  before  D-'jtt'n.  The  expression  eat  years  is  strange. 
Moreover,  this  is  the  only  passage  which  regards  the  visitation  as  ex- 
tending over  several  years.  Probably  we  should  emend  and  read  D^jiru*"! 
the  fat,  rich  fruits  or  products,  cf.  Gn.  2728.  This  would  be  beautifully 
continued  in  v.  ^e. — Siev.  om.  Buni  S^Dnni  ph^7\  as  an  interpolation  from 
i4_ — ^^^'^;:',  one  cod.  tp:. — ^njn  ^S^n  appears  to  be  an  insertion  by  the 
editor,  cf.  2". — 26.  S^n,  ancient  word,  cf.  0'''7iSn,  Ju.  9". — Me.,  We.,  Gr., 
et  al.,  om.  v.  ««•>. — 27.  Several  Gk.  mss.  and  (S^'''-  om.  the  whole  verse. 
(6'"  om.  v.  "^ — Gr.  adds  after  iv  either  •>nSa  or  TiSit,  with  (ft  &,  but 
cf.  Is.  45".     Me.  adds  iij.'  after  yyy2\  with  <&. 


3*'^    (eNGL.    2^*'")  121 

Chs.  3,  4  (Engl.  2^*-'^  3)  deal  with  an  entirely  different  sub- 
ject, the  day  of  Yahweh,  and  make  the  impression  of  having 
been  originally  altogether  unrelated  with  chs.  i,  2.  They  are 
now  connected  with  them  by  a  series  of  interpolations.  It  is 
likely,  but  not  certain,  that  the  nucleus  of  chs.  3,  4  comes  from 
Joel  and  that  the  editor  who  inserted  the  interpolations  concern- 
ing the  day  of  Yahweh  in  chs.  i,  2  made  a  number  of  additions 
in  chs.  3,  4  also.     See  p.  51  jf. 

THE   SIGNS   OF  THE   DAY   OF   YAHWEH,   3*-^ 
(Engl.  2^^. 

Under  the  terrible  impression  of  the  approach  of  the  day  of 
judgment  a  great  excitement  will  take  fwld  of  all  the  people,  old 
and  young,  male  and  female,  high  and  low,  and  it  will  manifest 
itself  in  all  kinds  of  ecstatic  experiences,  vv.  ^-  ^  Accompanying 
this  excitement  among  men  will  he  great  disturbances  in  the  sky 
and  on  earth,  where  extraordinary  portents  of  the  day  will 
appear,  vv.  '•  ■**. 

The  editor  added  the  explanatory  clause,  v.  ^^,  before  the  day 
of  Yahweh  comes,  the  great  and  terrible  one,  and  then  emphasised, 
on  the  authority  of  former  prophecies,  that  every  true  worship- 
per of  Yahweh  would  be  delivered  on  this  awful  day,  v.  ^. 

'•  (28)  [And  U  shall  come  to  pass  afterward  that] 
I  will  pour  out  My  Spirit  upon  ail  flesh, 

and  your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  be  entranced, 
Your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams, 
and  your  young  men  shall  see  visions, 
'•  (29)  And  even  upon  your  male  and  female  slaves 
will  I  pour  out  My  Spirit  [in  those  days]. 

».  (30)  And  I  will  show  portents  in  heaven  and  on  earth, 
blood  and  fire  and  columns  of  smoke. 

••  «')  The  sun  shall  be  turned  into  darkness, 
and  the  moon  into  blood! 
[Before  the  day  of  Yah-weh  comes, 
tJie  great  and  the  terrible.] 


122  JOEL 

i.  (32)  [And  it  shall  be  tliai  every  one  who  calls 
on  the  name  of  Yahweh  shall  be  saved. 
For  "in  Mount  Zion  and  in  Jerusalem  sliall  be  those  that  escape" 

as  Yahweh  has  said. 
And  (indeed),  among  the  fugitives  (sliall  be  every  one)  whom  Yahweh 
caMs.] 

Three  strs.,  (i)  without  secondary  material,  consists  of  two  hexameters  +  a 
pentameter,  (2)  of  two  tetrameters  +  a  pentameter  +  an  editorial  pentameter, 
(3)  secondary,  of  two  hexameters  +  a  trimeter. 

1.  The  editor  connected  ch.  i  and  ch.  3  by  the  phrase  And  it 
shall  come  to  pass  afterward,  he  does  not  tell  whether  in  the  near 
or  distant  future,  /  will  pour  out  My  Spirit  upon  all  flesh.  The 
term  pour  out  My  Spirit  appears  to  mark  the  abundance  of  the 
gift;  it  is  used  several  times,  Is.  32^^  Ez.  39^^,  as  if  the  Spirit  were 
a  kind  of  fluid.  Compare  the  instructive  passage  in  4  Ezr.  14^  ^• 
where  Ezra  drinks  the  cup  of  inspiration  "which  was  filled  as  with 
water  whose  colour  was  like  fire,"  and  is  gifted  as  a  result  of  this 
draught  with  insight,  wisdom  and  memory.  The  effect  of  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Spirit  which  is  described  directly  makes  it  clear  that 
it  is  not  a  moral  transformation  of  the  people,  not  the  renewal  of 
their  inner  life,  nor  a  deeper  and  more  intimate  knowledge  of  God 
such  as  heretofore  had  been  enjoyed  only  by  the  prophets  and  which 
would  now  be  the  property  of  all,  but  the  experience  on  the  part  of 
all,  old  and  young,  male  and  female,  high  and  low,  of  those  ecstatic 
spiritual  states  which  had  always  been  regarded  as  caused  by  a,  or 
the,  Spirit  of  God.  Your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy, 
or  speak  with  tongues;  prophesy  does  not  represent  exactly  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Heb.  here,  they  will  be  in  an  ecstatic  state  and  act  as 
persons  who  are  possessed  by  the  Spirit,  and  your  old  men  shall 
dream  dreams  and  your  young  men  shall  see  visions.  Dreams  and 
visions  are  frequently  referred  to  as  means  of  divine  revelation, 
e.  g.,  Nu.  12".  The  assignment  of  the  various  forms  to  the  various 
ages  is  rhetorical,  and  not  due  to  the  special  appropriateness  of 
dreams  for  old  men  and  of  visions  for  young  men.  If  we  were  to 
explain  the  words  with  prosaic  literalness  we  should  have  to  in- 
quire why  the  old  women  are  left  out,  and  why  the  young  men  are 


3*"^  (engl.  2^^"^^)  123 

mentioned  twice,  for  they  are  also  included  among  the  sons  whose 
age  is  not  specified  here.  The  Heb.  term  for  young  men,  used  here, 
refers  to  those  who  are  old  enough  to  go  to  war,  Je.  1 1^^  18^'.  The 
content  of  the  prophesyings  and  dreams  and  visions  can  only  be 
the  coming  of  the  day  of  Yahweh.  It  is  the  tremendous  excite- 
ment which  takes  hold  of  people  under  the  stress  of  the  terrible 
fear  of  the  approach  of  a  great  catastrophe  that  makes  them  ec- 
static. Here  it  is  the  most  awful  of  days  that  approaches  and 
everybody  is  seized  by  the  presentiment  which  is  usually  experi- 
enced only  by  persons  of  a  special  nervous  organisation.  Yahweh 
will  pour  His  Spirit  upon  all  flesh.  All  flesh  may  mean  all  man- 
kind, and  we  should  interpret  it  thus,  if  the  following  context  did 
not  restrict  it  to  the  Jews,  cf.  also  Is.  66"^.  All  flesh  comes  to  mean 
simply  everybody,  as  the  French  tout  le  monde.  "But  within  Joel's 
Israel  the  operation  of  the  Spirit  was  to  be  at  once  thorough  and 
imiversal "  (GASm.). — 2.  Even  the  slaves  will  not  be  excepted,  and 
here  again  female  as  well  as  male  are  included.  The  author  is  very 
specific,  he  means  everybody.  That  the  noble  and  free  are  in- 
cluded goes  without  saying,  but  that  the  women  and  the  slaves, 
even  female  slaves,  vsdll  also  be  possessed  by  the  Spirit  is  significant. 
It  marks  the  universal  character  of  the  excitement.  Though  such 
possession  by  the  Spirit  is  regarded  as  a  high  honour  nothing  is 
said  or  implied  here  of  the  moral  power  of  the  Spirit  of  God  which 
transforms  men  and  lives  in  them  as  an  abiding  presence.  We 
must  not,  under  the  influence  of  Nu.  11^^  Je.  24^  31^  ^-  32^^  Ez. 
36^®  ^-  39^  Is.  54^^,  read  into  this  passage  that  the  Spirit  will  impart 
to  all  a  full  and  complete  knowledge  of  God  so  that  they  mil  all  be  as 
inspired  with  moral  and  religious  truth  as  the  prophets  had  been. 
In  that  side  of  the  Spirit's  work  our  writer  is  not  interested  here,  to 
him  these  spiritual  manifestations  of  ecstatic  character  are  a  sign 
of  the  approaching  day  of  Yahweh. 

Z.  And  I  will  show  (lit.  give)  portents  in  heaven  and  on  earth, 
extraordinary  phenomena  which  by  their  strange  and  striking 
character  will  make  a  profound  impression.  Blood  and  fire  and  col- 
umns of  smoke  refer  most  naturally  to  the  portents  on  earth,  since 
V.  '^  speaks  of  those  in  heaven.     There  will  be  terrible  wars  with 


124  JOEL 

their  bloody  massacres  and  the  burning  of  cities,  cf.  Ez.  38"  Mk. 
13'  ^-  Mt.  24".* — 4.  As  portents  in  heaven  the  sun  will  turn  itself 
into  darkness,  mid  the  moon  into  blood,  cf.  2^"  4^^  Rev.  20".  In  an- 
tiquity eclipses  of  the  sun  and  blood- red  appearances  of  the  moon, 
due  to  atmospheric  conditions,  always  caused  much  fear,  Ez.  32^  ^^ 
Rev.  6^^.  They  were  inexplicable  and  therefore  awe-inspiring, 
foreboding  something  unusual,  Am.  8®,  as  indeed  every  extraor- 
dinary phenomenon  in  the  sky  or  on  earth  did.f  Here  they 
are  impressive  portents  of  the  coming  judgment-day.  Is.  13"  34* 
Mt.  24''. 

The  clause  before  the  great  and  terrible  day  of  Yahweh  comes  is 
the  same  as  in  Mai.  3^  (Engl.  4'^).  It  is  added  here  by  the  editor, 
for  Yahweh's  speech  ends  with  v.  *^.  The  awe  and  terror  which 
from  Amos  on  had  been  associated  with  the  day  is  reflected  here. 
The  judgment  according  to  prophetic  teaching  should  begin  with 
the  Jews  for  whom  it  will  be  great  and  terrible  also.  But  our 
author  does  not  mention  the  punishment  or  purgation  of  Israel. 
His  interest  is  rather  in  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews,  which  is  con- 
trasted in  ch.  4  (Engl.  3)  with  the  destruction  of  the  heathen. — 
6.  Nevertheless  Israel's  purgation  is  implied,  for  he  continues  and 
it  shall  come  to  pass  that  every  one  who  calls  on  the  name  of  Yahweh 
shall  be  delivered,  that  is  not  every  Jew  simply  because  he  is  a  Jew, 
but  every  God-fearing  Jew  who  trusts  in  Yahweh  and  calls  on 
Him  for  help.  Note  the  complement  in  v.  ^  whom  Yahweh  calls 
and  thereby  recognises  as  His  true  worshipper.  The  others  shall, 
of  course, — this  is  implied, — not  escape.  This  promise  of  the  de- 
liverance of  a  remnant  had  often  been  made  before,  and  it  is  on 
the  authority  of  an  older  oracle  that  the  editor  makes  it  here, 
fortifying  his  words  not  by  a  reference  to  his  own  inspiration  but 
by  a  literal  quotation  from  an  older  prophet,  Ob.  ",  for  "in 
Mount  Zion  and  in  Jerusalem  there  shall  be  those  that  escape" 

♦  Dr.  thinks  that  the  columns  of  smoke  more  probably  allude  to  "  columns  of  sand  and  dust  raised 
high  in  the  air  by  local  whirlwinds  accompanjing  a  sirocco,  which  sometimes  'march  with  great 
rapidity  over  the  open  plain,  and  closely  resemble  pillars  of  smoke'  (Thomson,  The  Land  ami  tlu 
Book,  Southern  Pal.,  p.  142)."     Others  think  of  volcanic  outbreaks. 

t  Cred.  cites  Ovid,  Met.,  XV,  782  ff.;  Cicero,  De  not.  dear.,  2,  3  fj.;  De  leg.,  2,  13;  3,  12,  19,  etc., 
and  esp.  De  dhnnalume:  Vergil,  Eel.,  i,  16  f}.;  Georg.,  i,  464  if.;  Lucan.,  Phars.,  i,  524  fi.: 
Livy,  22,  i;  Josephus,  BJ.,  i,  7,  12;  and  other  parallels  from  oriental  and  gcrmanic  sources. 


3*'^  (engl.  2^^"^^)  125 

(lit.  an  escape),  as  Yahweh  has  said,  sc.  in  Ob.  ^^.  And  these 
fortunate  ones  he  defines  once  more,  and  ( =  German  mid  zwar) 
among  the  fugitives,  who  shall  escape  the  judgment,  shall  be  every 
one  whom  Yahweh  calls  and  thus  proclaims  as  belonging  to  the 
saved  ones.  Is.  4^  defines  them  slightly  differently  as  every  one 
that  is  written  for  life  in  Jerusalem.  The  sentence  and  among 
the  fugitives  (shall  be  every  one)  whom  Yahweh  calls  is  parallel 
to  every  one  who  calls  on  the  name  of  Yahweh  shall  be  delivered. 
It  does  not  mean  that  others  in  addition  to  those  already  men- 
tioned shall  be  saved,  namely  the  Jews  in  the  Dispersion  who 
will  be  called  to  Jerusalem,  for  it  is  not  said  that  those  first  men- 
tioned are  already  in  Jerusalem.  That  the  loyal  Jews  of  the 
Dispersion  are  included  among  the  true  Yahweh  worshippers  is 
obvious.  And  though  it  is  not  directly  stated  it  may  be  gathered 
from  the  editor's  words  combined  with  those  of  the  quotation 
that  they  will  all  be  summoned  to  Zion.  The  passage  speaks 
only  of  Jews,  not  of  men  in  general,  but  its  phrases  all  flesh,  v.  ^ 
ei'ery  one  who  calls  on  the  name  of  Yahweh,  whom  Yahweh  calls, 
v.  ^,  have  a  universal  ring  and  could  later  on,  when  the  context  was 
disregarded,  be  interpreted  without  much  difficulty  in  a  univer- 
salistic  manner,  cf  Rom.  10^^.  But  our  authors  would  have  been 
much  astonished  over  such  an  interpretation,  cf.  the  astonishment 
in  Acts  10'*^ 

This  chapter,  with  the  exception  of  v.  ^^,  was  quoted  by  Peter 
in  his  speech  on  Pentecost,  Acts  2^^""\  in  which  the  outpouring  of 
the  Spirit  on  that  day  was  interpreted  as  the  fulfilment  of  this 
prophecy.  Joel  has,  as  a  result  of  this,  been  called  the  Prophet  of 
Pentecost.  But  he  did  not  predict  the  event  of  Pentecost  nor  "the 
new  order  of  things  of  which  Pentecost  was  the  first  example" 
(Dav.) .  He  did  not  predict  the  enjoyment  of  the  fuller  illumina- 
tion on  the  part  of  all,  which  had  been  the  prerogative  of  the  proph- 
ets and  the  hope  of  Nu.  11^''  and  Je.  31^  ^-  and  which  later  became 
the  ideal  of  the  Christian  church.  The  reason  why  his  words  have 
ever  again  seemed  to  students  to  contain  just  this  lies  partly  in  the 
general  terms  which  he  used  and  partly  in  that  he  did  not  state  the 
content  of  those  ecstatic  and  prophetic  experiences.  In  the  context 
they  are  connected  with  the  approach  of  the  terrible  judgment-day. 


126  JOEL 

But  usually  their  context  has  been  defined  in  the  light  of  Nu.  ii^" 
Je.  31-*^  ^-  Acts  2'^ ^-  rather  than  of  the  context*  It  is  instructive 
to  note  that  the  author  of  the  Acts  disregarded  the  other  elements 
of  the  prediction,  being  solely  intent  on  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit 
of  which  Jo.  3  had  spoken. 

1.  ipn-nN  C5  o.irb  rod  irveijfw.Toi,  also  v.  ',  not  all  but  part  of  the 
spirit. — On  n3J,  cf.  Bewer,  AJSL.,  1902,  p.  120. — Che.,  CB.,  II,  p.  130, 
reads  SN-\B'''-n''3-':'D-S;;  for  ni-a-Sr-S;". — 2.  a'^ayn  (g  roi/s  SovXovs  nov,  so 
also  TJ,  but  wrongly,  for  this  would  refer  to  the  Jews  in  their  relation  to 
Yahweh,  not  to  slaves  in  their  relation  to  their  masters.  But  a  further 
step  is  indicated  by  dj\ — 4.  isn-'  Ni.,  reflexive  here,  more  poetic  than 
the  pass,  would  be,  cf.  12DN,  2'".  Now.i^  is  inclined  to  regard  N"ii:n'i  Snjn 
as  secondary,  but  probably  the  whole  clause  is  an  editorial  addition. — 
5.  Nnp^  ns'N  Gr.  N7.ri''.  n^s.  anna'ai  ^"^^y  ^g^i  ei}a77eXtf6/xei'ot  oOs  Kipios 
vpo<TKiK\rp-ai,  Aq.  O  Kal  iv  rotj  KarcikeKntxiJiivoLS  ovs  Kvpioi  KaX^ffei.  (6 
=  a"'it;'2ni.  Aq.  Q  =  M.  Gr.  a^'i^nh,  Is.  665,  giev.  onnu'S.  Gram- 
matically an-\u'3i  is  taken  by  some  as  parall.  to  jvx  nna,  and  rr^^hs  n^nn 
is  supplied  in  thought,  on  Mount  Zion  .  .  .  shall  be  those  who  escape 
.  .  .  and  among  the  fugitives  whom  Yahweh  calls.  But  this  constr. 
overlooks  that  annti'ji  is  no  longer  part  of  the  quotation. 

The  author  of  Acts  quoted  from  (S  not  from  the  Heb.,  as  awb  rod  weu- 
fiarSs  1J.0V,  vv.  "•  ",  Kal  oi  irpea^vrepoi,  v.  ■',  SovKovs  /wO,  v.  "*,  ^irKpavij,  v. '", 
clearly  show.  'Ev  rats  iffx<i-TaLS  rjnipais,  v.  ",  for  p-era  ravra,  v. ',  and  the 
additions  Kal  irpo<f>r}Teij(rov(nv,  v.  ■',  fivw,  <T7]fj.eia,  Kdrw,  v.  ",  appear  to 
be  due  to  free  quotation,  as  does  also  the  transposition  of  the  sentences 
concerning  the  old  men  and  the  young  men. 


ANNOUNCEMENT  AND  REASON  OF  THE  JUDGMENT 
ON  ALL  THE  NATIONS,  4'"'  (Engl.  3'-^). 

At  the  lime  of  the  restoration  of  Judah  Yahweh  will  gather  all 
nations  in  the  valley  of  Jehoslmphat  to  judge  them  for  the  wrongs 
done  by  them  to  His  people. 

'  ■  [For  belwld  in  llwse  days  and  at  that  time, 

when  I  restore  the  fortune  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,] 

*  See  on  j'-*  Gicsebrecht,  Die  Berujsbegabung  der  Allteslamentlichm  Prnf-lic/cn,  i8q7,  p.  152  /. 
and  csp.  \'olz,  Der  Ccist  Gotlcs  und  die  verwandten  Enchcinunscn  im  Allen  Testament  und  im 
anschliesscnden  Jiukntum,  1910,  pp.  gi  fj. 


4^-  ^  (engl.  3*-  ^)  127 

'•  Then  I  will  gather  all  nations, 

and  bring  them  down  to  Jehoshaphat's  valley. 
And  I  will  enter  into  judgment  with  them  there, 

[Because  of  My  people  and  My  heritage  Israel, 
Whom  they  have  scattered  among  the  nations, 

and  they  divided  My  land. 
And  cast  lots  over  My  people, 

and  gave  a  boy  for  {the  use  of)  a  harlot. 
And  sold  a  girl  for  wine  and  drank  it.] 

Two  introductory,  editorial  pentameters  are  followed  by  an  original  hexameter 
+  a  trimeter.  The  remainder  consists  of  a  trimeter  +  a  pentameter  +  a  hex- 
ameter +  a  tetrameter. 


1.  This  is  the  editor's  connecting  link.  To  him  the  judgment 
of  the  nations  is  the  complement  of  the  deliverance  of  Judah.  As 
so  often  Yahweh,  who  speaks  Himself,  calls  attention  to  the  im- 
portance of  his  announcement  by  behold!  In  those  days,  the  same 
phrase  occurs  in  3^,  and  in  that  time,  cp.  for  the  combination  of  these 
phrases,  Je.  33'^  50^' "",  when  I  restore  the  fortune  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem.  This  defines  the  time  more  closely  but  not  in  the  same 
manner  as  ch.  3.  There  the  escape  of  the  true  Israelites  is  de- 
scribed, here  the  restoration  of  the  fortune  of  Judah.  The  term 
involves  a  decisive  change  for  the  better.  The  turn  of  Judah's 
fortune  had  not  come.  This  does  not  mean  that  this  writer  lived 
in  the  Babylonian  exile,  for  even  after  the  exile  the  conditions  were 
such  that  the  Jews  could  not  believe  that  Yahweh  had  come  back 
to  them,  cf.  Haggai  and  Zechariah.  It  is  noteworthy  that  only 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  are  mentioned,  N.  Israel  had  perished  long 
ago.  V.  *  would  be  unnecessary,  if  v.  ^  still  followed  directly  upon 
the  words  of  Yahweh  in  3*'^. — 2.  /  will  gather  all  nations,  not  only 
the  one  or  the  other  but  all,  all  heathendom,  cf.  Ez.  38/.  Zp.  3^,  and 
will  bring  them  down  into  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  The  term  Je- 
hoshaphat  means  Yahweh  judges  or  has  judged,  and  is  used  here 
symbolically  of  the  place  of  which  Yahweh  says,  and  I  will  contend 
there  in  judgment  with  them.  Yahweh 's  judgment  valley  is  called 
the  valley  of  decision  in  v.  ",  because  His  decision  on  the  nations 
will  be  executed  there.  These  are  legal  terms,  cf.  Je.  2^  25'*  Ez. 
38^^,  the  case  is  carried  through  to  a  final  judgment.    Yahweh  dis- 


128  JOEL 

putes,  argues  and  decides  His  case  against  the  nations.  Our 
writer  evidently  thought  of  the  valley  as  situated  near  Jerusalem, 
cj.  v.*^  Ever  since  Ezekiel  had  predicted  the  attack  upon  Jerusa- 
lem by  united  heathendom  and  its  judgment  before  the  Holy  City, 
the  Jews  believed  this,  Ez.  38/.  Zc.  q*^^-  12*-®  Dn.  ii'^  This 
makes  it  certain  that  our  author  did  not  have  in  mind  the  valley  of 
Berakhah  which  was  connected  with  King  Jehoshaphat's  victory 
over  the  Moabites,  Ammonites  and  Meunites,  2  Ch.  20^°"^^.  Not 
only  its  name  but  also  the  distance  is  against  it.  That  there  was 
a  valley  near  Jerusalem  named  after  King  Jehoshaphat  in  ancient 
times  is  unknown  and  improbable.  The  Kidron  valley  which 
bears  the  name  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  now  and  did  so  in  the  time  of 
Eusebius  received  it  on  the  basis  of  our  passage  rather  than  on  any 
other  ground.  Whether,  however,  our  author  identified  the  Kid- 
ron valley  with  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  we  do  not  know.  The  old 
identification  with  Gehinnom*  has  much  to  commend  itself  in  view 
of  Je.  7^"^-  31^".  Both  belong  together  as  scenes  of  judgment. 
But  unfortunately  the  location  of  the  ravine  of  Hinnom  is  much 
debated,  and  the  Heb.  term  for  valley,  'emek,  used  here,  denotes 
a  wide  depression  between  mountains,  not  a  narrow  gorge  or 
ravine  as  the  term  gai'  in  connection  with  Hinnom  does.  For  the 
gathering  of  all  the  nations  a  wide,  capacious  valley  was  needed. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  author  of  Zc.  14  regarded  the  Kidron 
valley  and  the  adjoining  widening  mountain  basin  in  the  S.  of  the 
city  where  the  three  valleys  met  as  the  scene  of  the  judgment. 
That  he  depends  on  earlier  tradition  is  apparent,  and  that  this  was 
our  passage  is  virtually  certain  though  he  does  not  mention  the 
name,  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  This  is  not  strange,  since  that  name 
is  merely  a  rhetorical  device. — The  reason  for  the  judgment  is  not 
the  moral  iniquity  of  the  nations,  general  or  specific,  or  idolatry, 
but  their  attitude  toward  Israel,  on  account  of  My  people  and  My 
heritage,  cf.  2'^,  Israel  whom  they  dispersed  among  the  nations. 
Israel  is  here  the  name  of  the  people  of  Yahweh  as  such,  and  does 
not  mean  N.  Israel  but  Judah,  cf.  v.  ^  The  words  presuppose  an 
important  dispersion  and  get  their  true  significance  only  by  refer- 

*  Eusebius,  Onomasticon,  ed.  Lagardc,  p.  300,  i^apayf  'Evvon  .  .  .  irapaKtLTai  Si  Tjj  'Upov- 
(raA>);u  AeytToi  Si  «ts  «ti  vvv  </>dpayf  'luxraifxxT . 


4''^  (engl.  3'-'')  129 

ence  to  the  Babylonian  exile  and  the  dispersion  that  followed  it,  cf. 
Ez.  11*^  12'^  20'"-  *'  22"  28-'  36'^  Whether  also  the  north  Israelitish 
dispersion  is  included,  we  cannot  tell,  but  it  is  likely.  The  capture 
of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C.  is  implied  in  the  following.  And  they  di- 
vided my  land  among  new  occupants,  as  victors  do  with  conquered 
territory.  This  may  include  a  reference  to  the  occupation  of  parts 
of  the  country  by  the  neighbouring  nations,  Ammon,  Edom,  Phi- 
listia  after  586  B.C.  as  well  as  to  the  settling  of  colonists  in  N.  Israel 
after  722  b.c.  The  invasion  of  the  Philistines  and  Arabs  under 
Jehoram,  2  Ch.  21^^  ^^  with  which  some  have  identified  these 
sentences,  is  excluded  by  the  strong  terms  which  demand  the  refer- 
ence to  586  B.C. — 3.  More  details  are  given  of  the  behaviour  of  the 
enemies  toward  Yahweh's  people  at  this  time.  And  they  cast  lots 
over  my  people,  cf.  Ob.  "  Na.  3^'',  dividing  the  captives  of  war  by 
lot  among  themselves  in  accordance  with  ancient  custom  in  war- 
fare. And  they  had  so  many  of  them  and  esteemed  them  so  lit- 
tle that  they  gave  a  boy  as  price /or  the  use  of  a  harlot.  Though  the 
text  may  also  be  translated  they  gave  a  boy  for,  in  exchange  for,  a 
harlot,  the  following  shows  that  they  did  not  intend  to  keep  but  only 
to  use  them  for  the  momentary  gratification  of  their  sensual  passion. 
And  they  sold  a  girl  for  wine  and  drank  it  at  once  in  their  reckless 
revellings.  What  a  contemptuous  treatment  of  Yahweh's  own 
people!  These  lines  give  us  a  vivid  touch  of  those  awful  scenes 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  the  usual  picture  of  the  be- 
haviour of  victorious  soldiers  with  their  revelry  and  debauch  after 
the  conquest.  Merchants  and  slave-traders  followed  the  army  or 
were  sometimes  even  asked  to  come  and  buy  the  captives,  as  in 
I  Mac.  3^^  And  the  prices  paid  were  high  or  low  in  proportion 
to  the  number.  Nicanor  offered  ninety  captives  for  one  tal- 
ent, 2  Mac.  8",  Josephus,  Ant.,  XII,  7,  3.  At  Hebron  four  Jews 
were  sold  for  a  modius  of  barley  in  the  Jewish  war  under  Ha- 
drian, Glyc,  Ann.,  Ill,  448. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  writer 
gives  as  the  reason  for  the  judgment  on  all  the  nations  only 
their  treatment  of  Israel.  Now  not  all  nations  had  acted  in  the 
described  manner  toward  Israel.  Assyria  had  done  so  in  722  b.c. 
Babylonia  in  586  B.C.,  but  not  the  other  nations.  There  is  no 
hint  that  Assyria  and  Babylonia  are  thought  of  here  as  repre- 


130  JOEL 

sentatives  of  heathendom.    Most  probably  vv.  ^^- '  come  from  the 
editor. 

1.  (S  adds  iyd  after  njn.  Gr.  suggests  'ins  for  "wn,  scTcral  codd. 
om. — Kt.  3ir.s,  Q.  2^vn.  The  phrase  r\-'2V  pn  3iB'a''2'n)  means  either 
to  bring  back  the  captives  or  to  make  a  restoration,  to  restore  the  fortune 
of.  noc  is  derived  either  from  riatr  or  from  3ic',  The  strongest  ar- 
gument for  the  latter  is  the  use  of  the  phrase  in  connections  where  the 
captivity  is  not  alluded  to.  But  while  not  impossible,  it  is  not  so  likely 
that  niac  came  from  3iif .  The  phrase  becomes  frequent  from  the  time 
of  Jeremiah  on.  And  it  would  seem  that  it  had  first  to  do  with  captivity 
1/  nji',  and  then  became  a  general  phrase  in  proph.  usage  for  restoring 
the  fortunes  of  somebody. — 2.  Siev.  om.  a>nT\ini.  pcj;,  in  contrast  to 
a  narrow  gorge  or  ravine  "J,  denotes  a  wider,  more  spacious  deepening 
between  mountains.  G  transl.  taiJCin^  pep  htt,  eh  rrjv  x^P^-"  '''V^  Kplaeui. 
Che.,  CB.,  emends  tascini  pcj?  to  res  npjjp  the  Zarephathite  Maacath 
(in  contrast  to  a  northern  Maacath).  Note  the  word  play  in  \-il:bc'ji  on 
DDB'in\  (&  points  iitd  Pu.,  die(nrdpri<rav. — 3.  Sn  for  Sj:,  Ob.  ". — n' 
Gr.  n^,  cf  on  Ob.  ". — For  njiij  Me.,  Gr.,  et  al.,  read  prna  or  njnca,  M 
is  preferable. 


SPECIAL  ORACLE  AGAINST  THE  PHCENICIANS  AND 
PHILISTINES,  4'"'  (Engl.  3*-'). 

These  verses  are  not  merely  a  digression  but  a  later  insertion 
by  a  writer  who  probably  interpreted  vv.  ^-  ^  as  referring  to  the 
Persians  under  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  c.  352  B.C.  He  added  them 
here  because  the  behaviour  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  at 
that  time  called  for  special  condemnation.  They  were  the  slave- 
traders  and  merchants  to  whom  the  Persian  soldiers  had  sold  their 
captives  and  their  booty. 

*  ■  Moreover,  what  did  you  want  of  me.  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
and  all  the  districts  of  Philistia  ? 
Were  you  trying  to  repay  Me  for  something  I  Iiad  done, 
or  were  you  intending  to  do  something  to  Me  (which  will  call  forth 
requital  on  My  part)  ? 

Swiftly,  speedily  will  I  return  your  deed  on  your  own  head, 
'■  (On  you)  who  Jiave  taken  My  silver  and  My  gold, 

and  have  brought  my  costly  jewels  into  your  palaces, 
*•  And  have  sold  the  Judeans  and  the  J erusalemites  to  the  Greeks, 

In  order  to  remove  them  (as)  far  (as  possible)  from  their  home. 


4'-'   (ENGL.   3'-«)  131 

'•  Behold,  I  am  about  to  stir  them  upfront  the  place 
whither  you  have  sold  them. 
And  I  will  return  your  deed  upon  your  head, 

8-  and  I  will  sell  your  sons  and  your  daughters 
Into  the  hand  of  the  Judeans, 

and  they  slmll  sell  them  to  the  Sabeans  for  a  distant  people. 
For  Yahweh  has  spoken  (it). 

Three  strs.,  (i)  consists  of  two  heptameters,  (2)  of  a  tetrameter  +  two  heptam- 
eters  +  a  tetrameter,  (3)  of  three  heptameters.  For  Yahweh  has  spoken  does 
not  belong  to  the  strophic  scheme.  While  certain  lines  in  this  whole  section  are 
rhythmic,  the  paragraph  as  a  whole  is  prosaic  and  as  such  sharply  differentiated 
from  its  context. 

^.  And  moreover,  in  addition  to  the  others,  what  do  you  want 
of  me?  Yahweh  identifies  Himself  with  His  people  so  that  what- 
ever is  done  to  Israel  is  done  to  Him,  and  whatever  Israel  has  done 
is  regarded  as  having  been  done  by  Him.  Thus  the  question  really 
means,  was  what  you  did  to  Israel  an  act  of  revenge  for  some  wrong 
that  Israel  had  done,  or  was  it  a  wanton,  gratuitous  movement  on 
your  part  unprovoked  by  Israel?  It  is  a  rhetorical  question,  for 
at  once  He  adds,  speedily,  swiftly  I  will  return  your  deed  upon  your 
own  head,  cf.  Ob.  ^^  Ps.  7".  They  had  already  done  their  deed, 
which  is  specified. — 5.  You  have  taken  my  silver  and  my  gold  and 
my  finest  valuables,  lit.,  desirable  things,  i.  e.,  jewels,  ornaments, 
etc.  By  a  community  of  interests  the  treasures  of  Israel  belonged 
to  Yahweh,  who  is  here  as  in  v.  ^  identified  with  Israel.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  the  plundering  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  that  our  au- 
thor refers  to, — he  would  have  been  more  explicit  in  that  case, — 
but  the  taking  of  the  treasures  of  Israel  which  they  brought 
home  in  order  to  enrich  their  palaces.  The  Heb.  term  for  pal- 
aces may  also  mean  temples,  and  a  reference  to  gifts  to  the  sanc- 
tuaries need  not  be  excluded.  The  use  of  the  phrase  ye  have  taken 
instead  of  a  stronger  one  may  be  intentional.  It  supports  the  view 
that  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines  were  not  the  conquerors  but 
the  merchants  who  had  come  to  profit  by  exchanging  wares,  sell- 
ing wine,  furnishing  harlots,  etc.,  for  the  spoil  and  the  captives. 
The  second  charge  is  closely  connected  with  the  first. — 6.  And  the 
Judeans  and  the  J erusalemites  ye  have  sold  to  the  Greeks  as  slaves. 
The  Phoenicians  and  the  Philistines  were  famous  slave-traders 


132  JOEL 

in  antiquity.*  The  Greeks  are  mentioned  here  not  as  the  great 
world  power  but  as  traders;  as  such  they  had  long  been  in  inter- 
course with  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines.  Sold  to  the  Greeks, 
the  Jews  were  taken  far  from  their  home  and  thus  practically  for 
ever  prevented  from  returning  to  their  native  land.  This  made 
their  fate  all  the  harder.  The  text  represents  this  as  purposed  by 
their  owners,  in  order  thai  ye  might  remove  them  far  from  their 
home,  lit.,  border,  but  this  was  certainly  only  incidental  to  them, 
their  main  motive  was  commercial.  The  Heb.  often  expresses  the 
result  by  a  purpose  clause,  as  if  it  had  been  designed,  cf.  e.  g.,  Je. 
27^". — 7.  Now  Yahweh  announces  the  mode  of  their  punishment. 
Behold  I  am  about  to  stir  them  up,  i.  e.,  the  Jews  who  had  been  sold 
into  slavery.  He  rouses  them  into  activity  so  that  they  may  make 
an  efifort  to  leave  their  slavery  and  return  home.  How  this  will  be 
done,  whether  they  will  revolt  against  their  masters,  and  what  will 
happen  to  their  masters  we  are  not  told.  Historical  agencies  and 
probabilities  our  author  does  not  consider.  Yahweh  will  put  this 
impulse  into  them  to  leave  the  places  of  their  servitude,  and  He 
will,  of  course,  enable  them  to  accomplish  it.  Then  Yahweh  will 
avenge  their  wrongs  upon  the  Phoenicians  and  Philistines. — 8. 
And  their  fate  will  be  the  same  as  Israel's  had  been.  They  had 
sold  the  Jews  into  slavery  to  the  Greeks  in  the  NW.,  now  the  Jews 
will  sell  them  into  slavery  to  the  Sabeans  in  the  distant  SE.  A 
strict  administration  of  the  lex  talionis!  Yahweh  in  whose  hand 
are  the  destinies  of  all  the  nations  will  deliver  their  sons  and  the 
daughters  into  the  power  of  the  Jews,  lit.,  sell  them  into  the  hand 
of  the  Jews,  by  a  victory  or  in  some  other  way.  The  Jews  will  sell 
them  into  slavery  to  the  Sabeans  in  S.  Arabia,  with  whom  they  had 
been  in  commercial  relations,  cf.  Je.  6^".  And  the  Sabeans  will 
sell  them  to  a  still  more  distant  nation.  In  former  days  the  Edom- 
ites  had  acted  as  the  middlemen,  Am.  i"-  ^,  now  the  Sabeans  will 
do  so.  On  the  Sabeans,  a  wealthy  and  important  commercial 
people  in  SW.  Arabia,  their  own  inscriptions  furnish  us  with  in- 

*  CI.  Am.  i6-  9  Ez.  27"  I  Mac.  3^'  2  Mac.  8",  also  Homer,  Od.,  142883.  154050.^  Herodotus,  I,  i, 
II,  54-  The  Greeks  were  known  among  the  Hebrews  by  tlie  name  Y^uanTm,  lonians,  'loFoi'«? 
in  Homer.  l)ecause  "  the  lonians  (whose  colonies  extended  over  a  large  part  of  the  W.  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  many  of  the  .^.gean  islands)  were  most  active  commercially  in  ancient  times,  and  hence 
were  best  known  to  other  nations"  (Dr.). 


4^-«   (ENGL.   3"^)  133 

formation.  The  interpolator  concludes  with  the  solemn  formula 
for  Yahweh  has  spoken  {it),  which  marks  the  foregoing  announce- 
ment as  the  purpose  of  Yahweh  Himself  and  not  merely  the  wish 
of  the  writer. 

4.  1?  DDN  nn  lit.  what  are  ye  to  me?  which  frequently  means  what  have 
ye  to  do  with  me?  AV.,  RV.,  but  here  as  the  foil,  indicates,  what  do  you 
want  of  me?  or  what  will  ye  do  to  me?  mSiSj  the  districts,  lit.  circles, 
German  Bezirke.  05  FaXtXaio,  also  Jos.  132 1  Mac.  5'*  Aq.  dives,  2  6pia. — 
'2N1 — Sicjn  a  disjunctive  question;  H,  Rosenm.,  Ew.,  van  H.  take  'oni 
as  a  conditional  sentence.  This  is  not  impossible,  but  less  natural  and 
graphic. — Sy  '7DJ  means  to  do  something  to  somebody  which  calls  forth 
a  similar  act  on  his  part.  It  depends  on  the  context  whether  it  is  a  good 
or  bad  deed,  here  as  in  2  Ch.  2o'i  it  is  used  in  a  bad  sense,  in  ^J'  13' 
in  a  good  sense.  The  same  holds  good  of  Siaj.  03C'v\-i3,  (g  pi. — 5. 
"iiTN  is  taken  by  ^  U  as  a  conjunctive  particle. — 2j'>';:D\nS,  some  mss. 
point  zi2\t^^,  3  mss.  read  '2  for  'S.  Sd^h  from  e-kallu  may  mean  either 
temple  or  palace,  the  Gk.  mss.  vary,  most  have  vaois,  others  otKovs,  (g^ 
6r}(ra6povs.  21  ^  retain  '^D^-l,  H  deluhra. — 6.  s^:vri  ija  is  peculiar,  we 
expect  either  jj;  ^j::  or  simply  O'jrn,  but  there  are  parall.  in  late  lit- 
erature for  the  use  of  the  pi.  of  the  gentilic  word  with  >:2  instead  of  the 
sg.,  cf.  Holz.  The  Y'wanim  were  formerly  often  identified  with  a  people 
in  Arabia,  so  e.  g.,  among  modern  com.  by  Cred.  cp^mn  (g  i^diarjTe  = 
nnnn  (?),  cf.  2^"  i^uxru  \-imn.  The  subj.  of  the  inf.  are  the  Phoenicians 
and  Philistines. — 7.  DT'>'a,  one  cod.  dt'J?!:.  The  constr.  is  pregnant  / 
atn  about  to  arouse  them  (prtc.  of  imminent  future)  into  action  so  that  they 
may  leave  the  place  where  they  are  and  return  home. — 8.  T'J  -^oo  lit.  to 
sell  into  the  hand  of,  means  usually  to  deliver  into  the  power  of,  and  must 
mean  this  here  also,  though  13?:  (but  without  1^3!)  in  this  section  means 
to  sell-  2  codd.  read  innji,  which  is  a  correct  interpretation,  but  not  the 
orig.  text. — a\s3B''?  (g  els  alxfJM'><(^a'iav  =  ■<2-^'h,  so  Me.,  Oort,  et  al.  But 
M  is  preferable  because  it  is  more  striking.  Aq.  2  9  rots  "Ea^aelfi.  Ehr. 
suggests  anou'S  to  thetn  with  whom  they  were  in  captivity.  We  may  com- 
pare Is.  14=,  but  the  thought  is  not  quite  the  same.  The  change  of  the 
prepositions  S  and  Ss  in  mj  Sx  dssj'^'S  is  noteworthy.  Probably  Scholz, 
Marti,  Du.  are  right  in  translating  to  the  Sabeans  for  a  distant  nation. 
This  makes  the  Sabeans  the  middlemen  in  this  slave  traffic.  It  gives 
point  to  the  words  and  explains  also  the  omission  of  the  art.  in  pirn  mj. 


134  JOEL 

PREPARATIONS  OF  THE  NATIONS  FOR  THE  FINAL 
CONFLICT  OR  JUDGMENT,  4^-^=^  (Engl,  a^-^^*) 


In  w?- '  Yahweh  had  announced  His  intention  of  gathering  and 
judging  all  the  nations  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  In  w.  ®"" 
they  are  all  summoned  to  arm  themselves  for  a  great  battle  and  to 
march  to  the  valley  where  it  will  be  fought.  The  battle  is  a  figure 
of  Yahweh's  judgment. 

'•  Proclaim  this  among  the  nations: 

Consecrate  war, 

arouse  the  mighty  men! 
Let  all  the  warriors 

approach  and  come  on! 

'"•  Beat  your  ploughshares  into  swords, 
and  your  pruning-hooks  into  lances! 
Let  the  weakling  say,  I  am  strong! 
«>•  let  the  coward  become  a  hero! 

"•  For  the  nations  shall  be  roused  and  march 
to  Jehoshaphat's  valley. 
For  there  will  I  sit  in  judgment 

on  all  the  nations  from  every  quarter. 

Three  strs.  with  a  prefatory  trimeter,  (i)  consists  of  two  tetrameters  (staccato 
style),  (2)  of  a  pentameter  +  a  hexameter,  (3)  of  a  pentameter  +  a  hexameter. 

9.  Yahweh  Himself  speaks,  see  v.  '^.  Whom  He  addresses  is 
not  stated  and  His  command,  Proclaim  this  (the  following)  among 
the  nations!  may  be  rhetorical  for  let  the  following  be  proclaimed  I 
by  heralds,  of  course,  cf.  Ob.  S  or  it  may  be  addressed  to  the  agents 
of  His  judgment  to  whom  He  gives  orders  in  v.  ".  Sanctify,  or 
consecrate,  war!  is  a  characteristic  term  for  getting  ready  for  war  by 
sacrifices  and  cultic  observances,  cf.  i  S.  7"-  ^  Je.  6^  51".  The 
soldiers  are  sometimes  called  the  consecrated  ones.  Is.  13^.  Stir  up, 
arouse,  the  mighty  men!  "from  the  inactivity  of  peace"  (Dr.). 
This  as  well  as  the  foil,  is  still  part  of  the  summons  which  the  her- 
alds address  to  the  nations,  not  to  Israel,  as  many  from  early  times 
on  have  believed.     Let  all  the  warriors  approach,  let  them  come  onl 


4"-'"   (ENGL.   S''-'')  135 

The  style  of  this  entire  section  is  graphic.  The  brief,  strong  words 
of  command,  much  briefer  in  Heb.  than  in  Engl.,  are  vivid  and 
their  rhythmic  staccato  movement  is  most  effective. — 10.  The  crit- 
ical character  of  the  war  is  emphasised,  it  is  to  be  a  war  of  terrible 
consequences.  Therefore  every  possible  armour  is  to  be  used,  Beat 
your  ploughshares  into  swords,  attd  your  pruning-hooks  into  lances/ 
turn  all  your  instruments  of  peace  into  weapons  of  war,  for  you  will 
need  all  the  weapons  you  can  procure.*  All  available  men  will  be 
needed  for  this  crisis,  Let  the  weakling  say  I  am  strong! — lib.  Let 
the  coward  become  a  hero!  The  last  part  has  been  restored  with 
the  help  of  (g.  It  stands  now  in  v.  "'^  and  iK  is  usually  trans- 
lated {Hither)  cause  Thy  mighty  ones  to  comedown,  O  Yahweh!  {cf. 
AV.,  RV.),  a  text  which  is  altogether  out  of  place  here. — 11a.  is 
a  doublet  of  v.  *^^  and  not  a  part  of  the  original  text  {v.  i.). — 12. 
For  (v.  i.)  the  nations  shall  be  roused  and  march  to  the  valley  oj 
Jehoshaphat,  for  there  will  I  sit  down  to  judge  all  the  nations  from 
everywhere.  The  figure  of  the  battle  is  dropped  and  a  legal  term 
is  used,  the  battle  gives  way  to  the  judgment  scene.  Yahweh  will 
sit  on  His  throne,  not  full  of  anger  and  passion,  as  in  Is.  3*^,  but 
full  of  solemn  majesty  to  give  His  judicial  decision  on  the  great 
judgment-day.  The  word  usually  translated  round  about  means 
here  from  all  around,  from  every  side,  from  everywhere,  as  in  £z. 
jg33. 37  2322  ^^21  ^^17^  fQj.  ^jjg  judgment  is  not  lunited  to  the  sur- 
roimding  nations  but  is  universal,  cf.  vv.^-  ^-  ^^*. 

There  is  a  lacuna  after  v.  ^"  which  acts  like  a  pause  during  which 
the  nations  have  gathered  themselves  in  the  valley  of  judgment, 
for  suddenly  Yahweh 's  command  rings  out,  addressed  most  prob- 
ably to  his  angelic  host  and  not  to  the  Jews. 

*  Cf.  Vergil,  Georg.,  I,  507  /.,  squalent  abduclis  ana  colonis.  El  curiae  rigidum  lakes  confianlur 
in  ensem.  Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  699  /.,  sarcula  cessabunt,  versique  in  ptla  hgones,  Factaque  de  rastri 
pondere  cassis  erat.  For  ihe  reverse  of  this  in  the  golden  era  of  peace,  c).  Is.  2^  (Mi.  4^),  also 
Martial,  Epigr.,  14,  34,  Fatx  ex  ense:  Pax  me  certa  dutcis  placidos  conflaiil  in  usus,  .Agricolae 
nunc  sum,  mitilts  ante  jui. 


136  JOEL 


THE  SIGNAL   FOR  THE  ATTACK,  4'='   (Engl.  3"). 

Apply  the  pruning-knivcs! 

for  the  vintage  is  ripe. 
Go  in!  tread! 

for  the  wine-press  is  full. 
Empty  the  vats! 

for  their  overflow  is  great. 

Three  tetrameters  (staccato  style). 

13.  Apply  the  pruning-knives,  for  the  vintage  is  ripe!  Go  in 
(into  the  wine-press),  tread  (the  grapes), /or  the  wine-press  is  full! 
Empty  the  vats,  for  their  ovcrfloiv  is  great!  The  executors  of  Yah- 
weh's  judgment  are  represented  as  vintagers  who  are  to  begin  and 
complete  the  terrible  harvest  at  once.  The  grapes  are  ripe,  the 
wine-press  is  full,  the  vats  overflow.  No  time  is  to  be  lost,  every- 
thing is  ready  for  the  attack  upon  the  nations  and  their  destruction. 
— Usually  the  first  sentence  is  translated,  Put  in  the  sickle,  for  the 
harvest  is  ripe!  And  this  is  entirely  possible.  We  should  then 
have  two  figures,  the  reaping  of  the  grain  harvest  for  the  mowing 
down  of  the  foes,  cf.  Is.  17^  and  the  treading  out  of  the  grapes 
for  trampling  down  the  enemies  and  wading  in  their  blood,  cf. 
Is.  63^"^.  In  Rev.  14"'"*'  both  figures  are  used.  But  since  one 
figure  is  poetically  more  effective  here,  the  single  comparison  with 
the  whole  process  of  the  vintage  appears  preferable.  On  vats  and 
wine-presses  see  2"\ — The  last  sentence  is  usually  translated  the 
vats  overflow,  for  their  wickedness  is  great.  But  a  slight  emendation 
saves  the  poetic  quality  of  the  verse  (v.  /.). 

14-16.  Now  follows  a  brief  description  of  the  battle,  character- 
ised by  a  remarkable  self-restraint.  We  hear  the  roar  and  thunder 
of  the  battle,  but  we  see  no  fighting,  as  if  a  heavy  cloud  hung  over 
the  valley  shutting  out  of  view  the  scene.  There  is  a  lack  of  de- 
tail and  of  definiteness  which  creates  a  feeling  of  vagueness,  not 
unsuited  nor  unimpressive.  We  might  interpret  this  as  due  to  the 
writer's  shy  regard  and  reverence  which  prevented  him  from  de- 
scribing minutely  the  battle  between  the  heavenly  and  the  earthly 
armies,  if  it  were  not  rather  due  to  his  lack  of  original  power. 
With  the  exception  of  v.  "'*  the  phrases  are  all  taken  from  other 


4"-"   (ENGL.   3--^)  137 

prophetic  writings.     Only  v.  "'^  is  from  Joel.,  vv.  "•'"^''  are  from 
the  editor. 


THE  BATTLE,  4"-"  (Engl.   3"-'^). 

"•  Multitudes  roar 

in  the  valley  of  decision! 
[For  near  is  the  day  of  Yahweh 
in  the  valley  of  decision. 

's-  Sun  and  vioon  liave  grown  dark, 

and  the  stars  liave  withdrawn  their  splendour. 

'^-  And  Yahweh  roars  from  Zion, 
and  thunders  from  Jerusalem, 
And  quaking  are  heaven  and  earth. — 

But  Yahweh  is  a  refuge  to  His  people, 

and  a  strongJwld  to  the  Israelites. 
"■   And  ye  sJiall  know  that  I  am  Yahweh,  your  God, 

dwelling  in  Zion,  My  holy  mountain. 
And  Jerusalem  shall  be  inviolable, 

and  barbarians  sluill  not  set  foot  in  her  any  more.] 

Three  strs.,  (i)  consists  of  a  tetrameter  +  a  pentameter,  (2)  of  two  hexameters 
+  a  trimeter,  (3)  of  a  hexameter  +  two  heptameters. 

14.  The  din  of  the  vast  crowds  is  heard,  Multitudes  roar  (0^)  in 
the  valley  of  decision!  It  is  not  merely  the  hum  of  a  great  throng, 
but  the  tremendous  roar  of  the  war  cries  and  the  noise  of  the  battle 
in  the  valley  where  the  final  decision  of  Yahweh  is  rendered  and 
which  is  therefore  called  the  valley  of  decision.  M,  reads,  Multi- 
tudes, multitudes  in  the  valley  of  decision!  an  exclamation  of  sur- 
prise and  terror  by  the  prophet  because  he  sees  multitudes  upon 
multitudes  gathered  there.  If  this  is  the  original  reading,  the 
exclamation  is  not  part  of  the  description  of  the  battle  itself  but  of 
the  preparations  for  it,  and  comes  too  late  after  the  command  of 
attack  has  been  given  in  v.  '^.  Sunilarly  the  explanation  because 
the  day  of  Yahweh  is  at  hand  in  the  valley  of  decision  comes  too 
late,  because  the  day  has  actually  begun,  v.  ^^.  We  might  emend 
by  changing  the  punctuation  because  the  battle  of  Yahweh  is  (going 
on)  in  the  valley,  but  the  clause  belongs  more  probably  to  the  ed- 
itor.— 15.  Darkness  has  settled  on  the  scene,  the  sun  and  the  moon 


138  JOEL 

have  grown  dark  and  the  stars  have  withdrawn  their  shining,  light. 
This  makes  the  battle  more  gruesome.  The  same  words  occur  in 
2^**,  where  also  the  following  sentences  are  found  more  or  less 
literally. — 16a.  Above  the  din  of  the  battle  sounds  Yahweh's 
terrible  voice,  and  Yahweh  roars  from  Zion  and  thunders  from 
Jerusalem.  This  is  verbatim  =  Am  i^.  Cp.  2"  where  Yahweh 
thunders  before  His  mighty  army.  He  Himself  does  not  appear 
or  fight  as  in  Zc.  14.  He  only  utters  His  terrible  judgment,  cf. 
Is.  17*^,  from  Zion  where  He  dwells  and  from  where  He  can  see 
the  vast  throng  in  the  valley  below.  There  is  no  real  contradic- 
tion between  this  and  v.  ^^^.  As  He  thunders  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  quake,  cf.  2^",  in  terror  of  His  awful  majesty. — 16b.  The 
protection  of  Israel.  In  this  awful  judgment  Israel  will  be  safe, 
and  Yahweh  is  a  refuge  to  His  people  and  a  stronghold  to  the 
Israelites.  Cf.  Ps.  14®  46*  47^  31^  43^.  The  outcome  of  the  con- 
flict is  so  obvious  that  the  writer  does  not  describe  it,  but  Israel's 
safety  he  must  emphasise  as  most  important,  cf.  3^  (Engl.  2''-). 

17.  Yahweh  Himself  speaks  again,  promising  abiding  safety 
to  Jerusalem.  The  transition  from  v.  ^^  to  v.  "  is  abrupt,  not  in 
thought  but  in  form,  and  the  fact  that  Yahweh  comments  on  the 
words  of  the  prophet  in  v.  ^^  is  remarkable.  But  it  is  the  editor's 
manner,  cf.  2^^.  As  a  result  of  this  defeat  of  the  nations  and  of  their 
own  deliverance  the  Jews  shall  know,  so  He  says,  that  I  am  Yahweh 
your  God,  cf.  Ez.  38^^  39®-  ''•  ^^-  ^^,  bound  to  you  by  ties  of  close  re- 
lationship and  dwelling  in  your  midst  on  My  holy  mountain  Zion, 
cf.  2^^  4^'  Is.  8*^,  protecting  you  as  now  so  for  ever  from  all  attacks 
of  the  nations.  And  Jerusalem  shall  be  a  sanctuary,  inviolable,  cf. 
Ob.  ^^  also  Na.  i^^  Is.  52'  Zc.  9^  14^'.  This  means  that  strangers, 
enemies,  barbarians,  shall  not  pass  through  her  any  more,  as  they 
had  done,  e.  g.  in  586  B.C. 

9.  On  preparations  for  war  see  Schwally,  Semitische  Kriegsalier- 
tiimer,  pp.  i,  47. — For  n'ljrn  one  cod.  reads  ii';'^. — 10.  i.-ib,  Is.  2*  Mi. 
4':  inn;. — For  a-'nci,  a  word  "with  Aramaic  affinities,  and  otherwise 
found  chiefly  either  in  North-Israelitish  writings  (Jud.  V.  8  i  K. 
XVIII.  28),  or  in  late  authors"  (Dr.),  the  parall.  in  Is.  2'  Mi.  4'  reads  the 
usual  n''n'^n.- — 1^'7^'  intensive  formation,  as  adj.  or  noun  only  here  in 
OT.,  but  usual  in  NH.     The  vb.  occurs  several  times  in  OT. — 11.  nsc* 


4'^-^«  (exgl.  3"--)  139 

I'-^/aj  riyri''_  rnjn  thither  lead  down  Thy  heroes,  O  Yahwehl  This  comes 
so  abruptly  that  it  can  only  be  explained  as  the  passionate  interruption 
of  the  author  (or  a  reader)  who  prayed  that  Yahweh  would  lead  his  an- 
gelic host  down  into  the  conflict.  But  it  is  not  only  abrupt  but  premature. 
The  attempt  to  obviate  the  abruptness  by  translating,  there  Yah-weh 
shatters,  or  dismays,  thy  heroes!  (Cred.,  Gr.,  Scholz,  deri\-ing  rn:n  from 
nrn  with  (T  &  B)  is  not  successful  because  it  still  interrupts  the  address. 
Moreover,  who  is  spoken  to  ?  The  nations  ?  Why  is  the  sg.  used  then  ? 
(Gr.  reads  pi.).  Why  n^tt*  and  not  a-.r?  Marti,  Siev.,  Du.  regard  the 
sentence  as  a  gloss.  But  this  does  not  seem  likely  esp.  in  view  of  (I 
which  reads  6  irpq.b^  e<rrw  /mxV'^s  =  "'''3J  n^n^  nn^n  or  nnjn.  For  the 
impossible  nnjn  we  should,  of  course,  read  ~nn  and  transl.,  let  the  coward 
become  a  hero  I  n^n'"  for  juss.,  Ges.  5"'.  The  strict  parall.  in  v.  ">,  let 
the  weakling  say,  I  am  a  hero  !  to  which  it  would  form  the  balancing  and 
complementing  hemistich,  argues  for  its  originalit}'.  Only  we  should 
probably  correct  one  113J  to  T3N.  The  variation  in  (&,  laxv^  in  v.  '», 
liaxfjT-fi^  or  troXe/jLicTT-qs  in  v.  ",  may  perhaps  suggest  a  difference  in  the 
Heb.,  but  it  may  also  be  due  to  the  translator's  taste. — The  sf.  in  imaj 
was  originally  ^?  and  belongs  with  the  following. — ^t'^y  is  of  unknown 
meaning.  The  Vrss.  conjectured  assemble  yourselves  I  (&  JT  ^,  so  AE., 
Ki.  But  there  is  no  et>-mological  basis  for  this.  The  idea  of  assem- 
bling themselves  is  expressed  by  iX3pji.  So  it  has  been  emended  by 
=irin  hasten,  Menahem,  Rashi,  or  by  lU'j,  come  near,  Che.,  or  by  niy, 
cf.  V.  ",  We.  But  it  should  be  noticed  that  v.  "»  has  such  a  close  parall, 
in  V.  "»  that  they  cannot  have  stood  together  originally,  and  one  of  them 
must  be  secondary.  V.  '^^  contains  the  better  text  and  solves  the  diffi- 
culties occasioned  by  12>1;;  which  is  unknown,  by  isapji  which  does  not 
fit  into  the  constr.,  and  by  n-:c'  which  is  not  explained,  for  v.  ^^  is  too  far 
removed  and  the  nations  must  be  told  where  to  go.  Besides,  if  v.  "»  is 
omitted,  v.  >">  is  in  its  right  place  as  the  complement  of  v.  "">. — d5'"  om. 
from  2UD3  to  the  end  of  the  verse,  ^'i"  om.  2^202. — 12.  C|  and  one 
Heb.  ms.  add  ^2  before  djn,  also  the  variant  in  v.  "».  This  is  a  cor- 
rect interpretation  but  need  not  be  part  of  the  orig.  text. — 13.  Sj^  Ar. 
mingalun,  either  siekle  or  pruning-knife.  i^Si'j  means  usually  the  {grain) 
harvest,  but  Is.  i8<-  =  Je.  S^"  it  is  the  vintage,  so  also  Is.  16',  whose  parall. 
Je.  48*'  however  has  tx3.  It  is  most  likely  that  we  have  here  only  one 
comparison  of  judgment,  the  vintage  (Hi.),  rather  than  two,  -with  the 
grain  harvest  and  the  \'intage.  In  view  of  Is.  16'  i8<-  '  Je.  8-"'  it  seems 
imnecessary  to  change  i^Xi""  to  ">'X3,  though  the  change  would  be  simple. 
Sj3  is  then  of  course  the  pruning-knife,  and  S'>r3  is  used  of  the  ripening 
of  the  grapes. — ^in3,  Gr.  id3,  cf.  Na.  3",  but  D13  is  never  used  of  the  tread- 
ing out  of  the  grapes  and  besides  the  foil,  word  expresses  this. — nn  is 
taken  by  B,  AV.,  RV.,  Dr.,  GASm.,  BDB.  as  imv.  of  t('  go  down ! 
but  CI  TraTeTre,  uJ  Vi7'ch,  ^  take  it  in  the  sense  of  treading.   And  this  is 


I40  JOEL 

required  by  the  context.  Whether  n-n  can  mean  to  tread  is  dub.,  and  it 
is  better  therefore  to  read  with  Gr.  i3->i,  which  is  the  usual  term  for  this, 
cf.  e.  g.  Is.  63'. — D'3P''n  iiT'cn,  the  vats  overflow,  as  in  2^*.  But  the 
overflowing  of  the  vats  is  the  signal  for  ceasing  and  not  for  beginning  to 
press  the  grapes.  Here  this  cannot  be  meant.  We  might  take  ip'i:'n 
transitively,///  the  vats  to  ovcrfloivingi  This  would  he  in  line  with  the 
preceding  imvs.,  (&  virepeKxeire.  The  vats  become  filled  as  the  result 
of  the  treading.  Then  the  metaphor  would  end,  as  indeed  it  should, 
cf.  Is.  633,  and  DPyi  nan  >3  would  give  the  reason,  but  no  longer  in  figura- 
tive language,  for  this  process.  But  in  a  poetic  passage  like  this  the 
author  would  not  pass  so  abruptly  from  the  picture  to  the  literal  pro- 
saic reason  and  it  is  therefore  likely  that  the  text  read  originally,  ipnn 
D^l■^^3J;.  nai  >o  o''3|"'''n,  empty  the  vats  I  for  their  overflowing  is  great.  This 
would  be  strictly  parall.  with  the  preceding.  Why  should  Yahweh  jus- 
tify the  attack  to  His  agents? — The  omission  of  D^ap^n  "[p^z'n  as  an  in- 
trusion from  22<  (Marti)  is  unjustifiable. — 14.  S'ii^rn  D''jicn,  (^  ^^o'  ^^- 
■^XVO'o-t',  Jer.,  sonitus  exauditi  sunt  =  D''jicn  ic^.  The  onomatopoetic 
word-play  of  the  Heb.  cannot  be  reproduced  in  English.  The  hum  and 
roar  of  a  great  crowd  is  in  it. — i'i"»nn  strict  decision,  <E  <&  Q.  It  might 
mean,  threshing  instrument,  cf.  Am.  i',  and  is  so  taken  by  many,  Cal., 
Cred.,  Me.  et  al.,  who  connect  it  with  v.  ",  but  vsTongly.  "B  concisionis. — 
V.  '<'■  is  omitted  by  a  number  of  Gk.  mss.  and  05'^''^  ,  whether  intention- 
ally or  due  to  homoioteleuton  we  cannot  tell.  Perhaps  we  should  read 
'pc>'3  nin>  3->p  o.     CS"  om.  the  second  vnnn  pnya. 


THE  WONDERFUL  FERTILITY  AND   PERMANENT 

HAPPINESS   OF  JUDAH  IN  THE   GLORIOUS 

FUTURE,  V^^'  (Engl.  i'^--'). 

This  is  a  new  section  with  a  new  introduction  and  a  new  theme. 
It  is  not  the  thought  but  the  lack  of  originality  in  the  form  and 
its  close  correspondence  to  the  editor's  work  that  leads  us  to  assign 
these  verses  also  to  the  editor.  V.  ^^  had  not  brought  us  to  a  satis- 
fying conclusion.  Israel's  fate  after  the  judgment  had  still  to  be 
described.  Joel  may  have  done  this,  but  not  in  this  manner.  If 
he  wrote  a  description  of  the  ideal  future,  as  is  not  unlikely,  it 
is  lost. 

'*•  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day  that 
The  mountains  sliall  drop  su^eet  unne, 
and  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk 


4^'-  '"    (ENGL.  S''-  '')  141 

And  all  the  water-courses  of  Judah 

shall  flow  with  water. 
And  a  spring  shall  come  forth  from  the  house  of  Yahweh 

and  water  tlte  valley  of  ShiUim. 

•••  Egypt  shall  be  a  desolation 
and  Edom  a  desolate  steppe, 
[For  the  violence  done  to  the  Judeans, 

because  they  shed  innocent  blood  in  their  land.] 
"•  But  Judah  sliall  be  forever  inhabited, 

and  Jerusalem  for  generation  upon  generation. 
«■  [And  I  will  avenge  their  blood  (which)  I  have  not  (yet)  avenged]. 
And  Yahweh  sliall  be  dwelling  in  Zion. 

Two  strs.,  (i)  consists  of  a  hexameter  +  a  pentameter  +  a  heptameter,  the 
introductory  line  does  not  belong  to  the  strophic  structure.  (2)  consists,  omitting 
secondary  matter,  of  two  hexameters  +  a  trimeter. 

18.  In  that  day,  the  ideal  time  of  blessing  which  is  to  follow  the 
judgment,  the  mountains  shall  drop  sweet  wine,  and  the  hills  shall 
flow  (lit.  go)  with  milk.  An  enthusiastic  description  of  the  marvel- 
lous fertility  of  the  land  and  the  great  abundance  of  its  produce. 
Cf.  the  earlier  expression  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.  The 
phrases  are  hyperbolic.  The  fertility  of  2^^"^  is  not  to  be  compared 
with  this  miraculous  fruitfulness  of  the  messianic  age.  The  sen- 
tence is  dependent  on  Am.  9".*  And  all  the  channels,  cf.  i^",  of 
Judah  shall  flow  (perennially)  with  water.  Ordinarily  these  tor- 
rent-channels are  filled  only  during  the  rainy  season.  And,  in  ad- 
dition to  these  streams,  a  spring  shall  come  forth  out  of  the  house  of 
Yahweh  and  shall  water  the  Wady  of  ShiUim,  or  of  the  Acacias. 
Ez.  47*'*^  had  already  predicted  that  a  stream  would  issue  from  the 
temple  toward  the  east  and  through  the  Kidron  valley,  gradually 
swelling  to  a  large  river,  into  the  Arabah  and  finally  into  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  banks  along  the  river  would  be  fertilised  and  the  water  of 
the  Dead  Sea  sweetened  by  the  miraculous  potency  of  this  life- 
giving  stream.  It  was  a  hope  that  must  have  found  welcome  in 
the  heart  of  every  Jerusalemite.  The  labour  for  the  water  supply 
of  the  city  was  one  long-drawn-out  struggle,  and  even  then  the 
water  was  not  too  plentiful.     This  will  be  different  in  the  golden 

*C/.  the  similar  descriptions  in  Ho.  j^ff.  i4«-8^  also  in  cla.ssical  authors:  Hesiod,  Works  and 
Days,  113  ff.,  Vergil,  Eclog.  IV,  21  ff.,  Georg.  I,  125,  Ovid,  Mclam.  I,  iii  /.,  Flumina  iam  laclis, 
iam  fumina  neclaris  ibant,  Flavague  dc  widi  stillcbani  ilice  mella. 


142  JOEL 

age,  when  Yahweh  will  really  dwell  in  Zion.  Then  it  will  be  im- 
possible for  the  country  toward  the  S.  and  E.  of  Jerusalem  to  be 
dry  and  barren,  and  the  Holy  City  itself  without  abundance  of 
water.  It  was  an  ancient  belief  that  wonderful  fertility  marked 
the  dwelling-place  of  a  deity.  Our  author  took  the  special  form 
of  this  thought  from  Ezekiel.  But  he  appears  to  have  modified  it 
in  one  particular,  if,  as  seems  probable,  the  Wady  of  Shittim  is  cor- 
rectly identified  with  the  Wady  es  Sanl.  Then  the  river  will  not 
flow  toward  the  E.  into  the  Dead  Sea,  as  in  Ezekiel,  but  toward  the 
W.  into  the  Mediterranean  through  the  Wady  es  Sant  which  is  the 
direct  route  from  Jerusalem  to  Gath  and  Ashkelon.  This  identi- 
fication, first  suggested  by  We.,  is  made  probable  not  only  by  the 
identity  of  the  names  but  also  by  the  fact  that  in  Zc.  14^  the  stream 
flows  both  toward  the  E.  and  the  W^.,  into  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean  respectively.  Zc.  14  who  follows  here  tradition 
may  have  combined  the  conception  of  Ezekiel  with  that  of  Jo.  4. 
We  had  reason  to  believe  that  Zc.  14  showed  the  influence  of  Jo.  4 
in  the  location  of  the  final  judgment. — The  Wady  of  Shittim  has 
often  been  connected  with  the  Meadow  of  Shittim,  Nu.  33^"  (also 
called  simply  Shittim,  Jos.  2^  3^  Mi.  6^),  which  is  situated  in  Moab 
beyond  the  Jordan  and  forms  a  part  of  the  Ghdr  or  Jordan  valley. 
But  not  only  the  designation  Wady  is  opposed  to  this  but  also 
the  consideration  that  the  stream  would  hardly  be  thought  of  as 
crossing  the  Jordan.  In  view  of  these  difUculties  the  identifica- 
tion with  the  Wady  of  the  Kidron,  through  which  Ezekiel's  river 
flowed,  seemed  to  commend  itself.  But  what  could  be  the  reason 
for  this  name  which  is  nowhere  else  given  to  the  Wady  of  the  Kid- 
ron ?  It  has  been  thought  that  the  name  signified  an  arid  \\'ady  be- 
cause acacias,  as  Jerome  had  already  noted,  grow  in  dry  soil.  But 
while  this  is  doubtless  true,  the  name  Meadow  of  A  cacias  argues 
against  it  as  the  usual  connotation.  E.  H.  Palmer,  Sinai,  p.  39, 
observed  that  the  seydl,  one  of  the  many  kinds  of  acacias,  is  "less 
dependent  on  moisture  than  the  palm,  though  certainly  its  finest 
specimens  are  found  near  springs." — 19.  In  sharp  contrast  to 
Judah's  wonderful  fertility  Egypt  and  Edom  will  be  waste.  The 
dark  fate  of  these  countries  can  only  be  mentioned  as  a  foil  to 
heighten  the  glory  of  Judah's  fate.     Eg)-pt  and  Edom  must  have 


4^«-  ''  (ENGL,  y'-  ^0  143 

been  included  among  the  nations  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  But 
almost  any  postexilic  Jew  would  find  added  joy  in  the  contempla- 
tion of  Edom's  ruin.  Egypt  may  have  been  specially  mentioned 
because  the  desolation  of  the  usually  so  well  watered  and  irrigated 
country  brought  out  the  full  wonder  of  Judah's  fertility.  But  it  is 
also  possible  that  the  clause  concerning  Egypt  is  not  original. 
The  grammatical  inelegance  of  v.  ^^^,  which  must  be  remedied  in 
any  case,  would  favour  this.  We  might  think  of  a  reader  who 
added  the  clause,  say  after  Ptolemy  Lagi  had  invaded  Palestine  in 
320  B.C. — ^A  special  reason  for  Edom's  fate  is  given.  That  it  does 
not  refer  to  the  Egyptians  also  is  indicated  by  the  phrase  on  account 
of  the  violence  done  to  the  Judeans  which  reminds  one  strongly  of 
Obadiah  (v.  ^°)  from  whom  the  editor  quoted  also  in  v.  ^'.  And 
just  as  he  commented  there  on  the  Obadian  phrase,  so  also  here 
by  adding  because  they  shed  innocent  blood  in  their  land.  This  re- 
fers to  586  B.C.,  cf.  Ob. "  Ez.  35^.  Tlieir  land  is,  of  course,  the  land 
of  the  Judeans,  others  think  it  is  Egypt  and  Edom  and  interpret 
the  clause  of  massacres  of  Jews  in  Egypt  and  Edom  of  which  we 
have  no  further  knowledge.  That  the  killing  was  not  done  in  battle 
is  clear  from  the  term  they  shed  innocent  blood,  which  implies 
murder.  Perhaps  by  murdering  them  stood  in  the  orig.  text  instead 
of  in  their  land.  With  the  last  clause  of  v.  "  the  first  of  v.  ^^  is 
closely  connected. — 21a.  And  I  will  avenge  tlieir  blood  {which)  I 
have  not  {yet)  avenged.  This  reading,  based  on  (g  ^,  is  superior  to 
JH's,  And  I  will  hold  as  innocent  (RVm.)  their  blood  ivhich  I  have 
not  held  as  innocent.  The  writer  did  not  think  that  the  Edomites 
had  been  sufficiently  punished  for  their  brutal  behaviour  toward 
Judah  and  he  expected  therefore  their  punishment  in  the  near 
future.  It  is  evident  that  a  sentence  like  this  has  no  real  place 
after  vv.  "  ^•.  It  stood  originally  directly  after  v.  ^^'^  It  is  a  part 
of  a  direct  speech  of  Yahweh  which  is  introduced  suddenly  and  un- 
expectedly in  the  editor's  manner,  cf.  2^^  4^^.  Perhaps  vv.  ^^^-  ^** 
are  still  later  additions. — 20.  But  Judah  shall  be  inhabited  forever, 
lit.  dwell,  the  Heb.  idiom  for  a  flourishing  city  or  country,  cf.  Is. 
13""  Je.  17^-  ^  Zc.  (f  12^.  And  Jerusalem  for  generations  and  gen- 
erations.— 21b.  And  Yahweh  {shall  be)  dwelling  in  Zion,  cf.  tP 
4*^.  Yahweh's  abiding  presence  is  the  basis  and  guarantee  of 
Judah's  happiness  and  permanent  security. 


144  JOEL 

16.  Di>':;i  (S  Kal  ivitrx'^x^ei-  =  '>'?.  Siev.  om.  v.  '"»  as  " anerkannt" 
not  genuine,  but  it  cannot  be  spared.  Bu.,  ZAW.,  1910,  pp.  2>1  ff-> 
maintains  that  Jo.  4"  quoted  from  Am.  i^,  not  vice  versa.  But  note  the 
quotation  from  Am.  9"  in  v.  i^. — 17.  ^«-  '<'  om.  p^sa.  (ges-  '^^-  om. 
from  pii'  to  ''^•"'i"',  Siev.  om.  this  and  DDTi'rN. — 19.  Now.'^  om.  the  second 
n>nn  in  the  interest  of  the  style.  Du.  om.  rr-nn  'cS  pnxo.  Marti,  Now.'^ 
om.  from  Iw-n  to  0i-\N3.  For  axixo  read  Dnx"^3  (?). — n^ij  so  here  and 
Jon.  I"  for  i|ij  which  several  codd.  read.  The  Masora  notes  this  orthogra- 
phy in  both  places. — Vv.  '^- «"  are  missing  in  d^^.  iss, — 21.  nS  ddt  in''|-iji 
^"i''|ij,  and  I  will  declare,  hold  as,  innocent  their  blood  {which)  I  have  not 
declared,  held  as,  innocent,  or  and  I  will  leave  unpunished  their  blood 
(which)  I  have  not  left  unpunished.  This  is  evidently  wrong.  (&^^ 
iK^t)Tri(T<j3,  (j|AQ»  iK5iK-ri<ro}=  '•nci^ji  for  the  first  ''Pipj,  and  I  will  avenge  their 
blood,  I  will  not  leave  it  unpunished,  cf.  &.  But  the  tense  of  the  second 
T^^pi  does  not  favour  this.  For  it  would  be  a  proph.  pf.,  which  is  not 
used  in  the  context.  It  is  best  to  read  with  Eich.,  We.,  Marti  •'ripi^j  also 
for  the  second  ^n^pj,  I  will  avenge  their  blood,  which  I  have  not  (yet) 
avenged.  The  sudden  change  to  the  1st  pers.  would  indicate  the  sec- 
ondary character  of  the  clause  (Marti,  Du.),  if  it  were  not  the  editor's 
manner.  It  belongs  after  v.  '"b. — Ew.,  GASm.,  Dr.  take  v.  "t  as  an  oath, 
but  this  would  be  most  unusual. 


INDEXES  TO  OBADIAH  AND  JOEL. 


I.     HEBREW  WORDS. 


njiN,  76. 

PN, 

44. 

>'sa, 

102  /. 

aij, 

76. 

Snn. 

44. 

•':iDxn,  118/. 

OMjn 

,  38. 

B'Sn, 

138. 

S'Dn 

,  76. 

m-i, 

41. 

P^% 

76. 

nra-VD,  123. 

jipS. 

p^S  43. 

Sjd, 

139- 

na-ijD,  90. 

miD 

,  120. 

nvo, 

40. 

njjD 

41,  88. 

T^hor. 

,  102. 

'jtfD, 

118. 

N3J, 

122,  126 

nm, 

139- 

ijj, 

42. 

hs:, 

102. 

N>pj, 

144. 

•\-\SD 

,  45. 

taaj?, 

102. 

tfay, 

90. 

nV;r, 

46. 

pny, 

128,  130. 

piDJ?, 

79- 

j^y, 

92. 

na''S 

3,    lOI. 

mifl 

,    90. 

p-iij, 

42. 

njnx 

119. 

1>S, 

38. 

nnND  yap,  loi 

i^xp, 

139- 

nxp, 

79- 

n-n, 

139/- 

HD^, 

38. 

nr, 

87. 

tSBtJ*, 

46. 

PPK", 

103. 

jntJ', 

79. 

rsSo 

-",  34  «• 

US 


146 


INDEX 


II.     SUBJECTS    AND    NAMES. 


Alexander  the  Great,  60. 
Alexander  Jannaeus,  9. 
Ammonites,  g,  31. 
Antiochus  the  Great,  45. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  45. 
Arabians;  see  Nabaleans. 
Aristobulus  I,  9. 
Artaxerxes  Ochus,  45,  60,  61. 

Bride,  bridegroom,  109. 

Cult;  see  Sacrifices. 

Day  of  Yahweh,  interpolations  of, 

50/.,  65,  86/.,  93/.,  95/.,  103/. 
Dispersion,  45. 

Edom,  iff.,  passim,  142/. 
Egypt,  142/. 
Ephraim,  field  of,  31. 

Fasting,  85. 

Gaza,  60. 
Gebal,  39. 
Gilead,  31,  45. 
Greeks,  54/.,  60,  131/. 

Halah,  32,  45. 

Jehoshaphat,  valley  of,  128. 
Jerusalem,    destruction   of,    in    586 

B.C.,  10,  26/.,  53,  55,  130. 
Joel,  prophet,  67/. 
Joel,    book:     composition,     49    ff.; 

date,  56^.;   interpretation,  62^.; 

text,  68;   metre,  68 j/".;   position  in 

canon,  57. 
John  Hyrcanus,  9. 

T.ibation,  81,  106. 
Locusts,  74.^.,  passim. 


Meal-offering,  81,  106. 
Mount  Esau,  Mount  Scir,  8,  21/., 
31.  32. 

Nabateans,  7,  9,  10,  II,  22,  23. 
Negeb,  29,  31. 
Northerner,  51,  iii,  iiS/. 

Obadiah,  prophet,  13  ff. 
Obadiah,  book:    composiiion,   i  ff. 

date,  6  ff.;    interpretation,  10^.; 

place  in  canon,  14  n.;    text,   15; 

metre,    15  ff.;    comparison   with 

Je.  49,  2,3  ff- 

Pentecost,  123/. 

Petra,  21,  22. 

Phoenicians,  54/.,  60/.,  130  ff. 

Philistines,  31,  54/.,  60,  130  ff. 

Rain,  116/. 
Reseph,  45. 

Sacrifices,   Joel's  attitude  to,  81 

106. 
Samaritans,  9. 
Saparda;   sec  Sepharad. 
Sarephath,  Sarepta,  31/. 
Selah,  21. 
Sepharad,  32,  45/. 
Shephelah,  31. 
Shittim,  valley  of,  141  /. 
Si  don,  60/. 
Sippar,  46. 
Slave-trade,  54/. 
Spirit,  122  /. 

Teman,  26. 
Threshing-floor,  116. 
Tyre,  60. 

Vision,  19. 

Wine-press,  116. 
Wine- vat,  116. 


-V 


